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HomeMy WebLinkAboutAPA3384I f L ~ ,i •• ... ' 1,. f ... ' t. J . ~ ~ ' )j. i ·; :.".. -~ • ' ~ G{l&_[ru~& 0 ~®&®©@ Susitna Joint Venture Document Number Please Return To DOCUMENT CONTROL ...,.MlblU!ii,§lll!illllilibfiit& ttua~ RESERVOIR CLEARING AND PREPAR~TION -ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION STRATEGIES ACRES CONSULTING SERVICES LIMITED 5259 Dorchester Road Niagara Falls, Ontario L2E 6Wl December, 1981 ·~ • '3IJ 1 A J :li • 1 I l ! ~- TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES Page SUMMARY 1 -INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------1 2 BACKGROUND AND KEY ISSUES IN RESERVOIR CLEARING ------------------------- 2.1 -Processes of Reservoir Creation -------~ 2.2 -Problem Issues ------------------------- 2 2 1 . . . -Eros~on ---------~----~---------------- 2.2.2 -Effects on Shoreline Vegetation ------- 2.2.3 Floating Debris ----------------------- 2 2 4 -mater Qual~ty ------------------------• • vv .1.. 5 5 7 7 16 20 26 3 -SURVEY OF CLEP~RING PRACTICES -----------------32 3.1 -Current Approaches ---------------------32 .3. 2 -Example Strategies and Their Effects --------------------------34 3.2.1 -Complete Clearing ---------------------34 3.2.2 -Complete Clearing and Grubbing --------38 3.2o3 -Selective Clearing ------------------38 3.2.4 -Perimeter Clearing -------------------40 3~2.5 -Slash Burning, Burying or Chipping --------------------------40 3.2.6 -Cut, Float and Burn -----------------41 3.2~7 -Prescribed Burning of Forest Cover --------------~~--------------42 3.2.8 -Modified Clearing (topping) -----------43 3.2.9 -Topsoil Stripping --------------------43 3.2.10 No Clearing --------------------------44 3.2.11 -Natural Clearing -------~-------------45 3.2 .. 12 -Underwater Postflood Clearing --------46 3.2.13 -Reservoir Sweeping -------------------46 3.3 -Survey of Practices According to Reservoir Size ----------------------46 3.4 -Jurisdictional Variations --------------48 3.4.1 Canada ----~-----~---~-----~~---~------48 3.4.2 -United States ------------------------54 3.4.3 -USSR -~---~-----------~-~--~-----------57 4 -CRITERIA USED IN ASSESSING CLEARING NEEDS --------------------------------59 4 .. 1 -Reservoir Uses --------------------------59 4.1.1 Power Generation ----------------------59 4 .. 1.2 -Recreation and Aesthetics -------------61 4.1.3 -Fisheries ----------------------------~ 65 4.1.4 -Wildlife -----------------------------67 4.1 .. 5 -Domestic Conspmption ------------------71 ... ,(-'' ,""'"-.....J~.-.,........... ... . . . (j .. '"' . ' . . -. • \ J I , I • ·J .I I .. I , I I • I J I Table of Contents -2 Page 4.le6 -Flood Control ------------------------75 4.1~7 -Irrigation --------------------------75 4.2 -Constraints ---------------------------77 4.2.1 -Logistics and Schedule ---------------77 4.2.2 -Economics --------------------------83 4. 2 ct 3. """ Relev~nt li.ct~ and Regulations --------8 8 4. 2. 4 '~· !;~d Use -----------------------------88 5 -RESERVOIR C-LEARING METHODS -------------------98 5.1 Hand Versus Machine Clearing Methods. -----------------------9 8 5s2 -Criteria for Sele~ting Clearing Method ---------------r.3--------99 6 -DERIVING A SITE SPECIFIC STRATEGY ---· .. --------102 6 .l -Model Development ------------·---------102 6.2 -Decision Framework ---------------------104 7 -CONCLUSIONS AND RECOML\1ENDATIONS --------------109 BIBLIOGF~PHY/REFERENCES APPENDIX A -CASE HISTORIES OF RESERVOIR CLEARING PRACTICES IN CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES APPENDIX B -EXAMPLE CLEARING GUIDELINES APPENDIX C -REGIONAL CONSIDERATIONS l ) .• -. ~ ', ' c , I • I .I I I , .I 1.;. I '_ ' J ~ ' ' LIST OF TABLES No . 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Title AverarJe Physical Properties of Logs of Eastern Canadian Tree Specie~ Effects of Hydrating Different Arctic and Subarctic Soils on Overlying Water Reservoir Clearing Guideline - Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro Effects of Implementing Various Reservoir Clearing Strategies Clearing Strategies in Canada According to Reservoir Size Survey of Reservoir Clearing Practices in Canada Comparison of Recreational Requirements Waterfowl Feeding and Nesting Requirements Maximum Acceptable Levels in Water Used for Domestic Consumption Maxim~~ Acceptable Levels of Pesticides in Water Used for Domestic Consumption Guidelines for ~he Irrigation of Fine-Textured Alkaline Soils Comparison of Alternative Use Reservoir Requirements Relevant Acts and Requlations I -1 II . , . I • 1··. .· ' .I I I , I I • I J -~J I 1 LIST OF FIGURES No. 1.1 2.1 2.2 4.1 5.1 6.1 C.l C.2 C.3 C.4 c.s C.6 Title Strategy Selection Process Bank Failure in Clay Beach Formation Approach to Identification of Reservoir Clearing Costs Environmental and Economic Criteria Affecting Selection of a Reservoir Clearing Method Reservoir Clearing Decision Framework Location Mc.1p Drainage Pattern Sansitivity to Acid Rain Permafrost in Hudson Bay Lowland Occurrence of Muskeg Vegetation Zones ... 1 ' I ' ( . J ' ' i II. ,~, .. ::. .. • -'t I . I . .1~·. . . I .I .. •• •• 'I • '··l · . •• SUMMARY A broad state-of-the-art review was made for reservoir clear- ing practices. Utilities across Canada and in parts of the United States were contacted for reports on the reservoir clearing strategies employed by them with histories of their effectiveness. Nearly 100 case hist6ries have been assembled from these and literature sourceso There is a general lack of information regarding the impacts of different clearing strategies • The major problem issues related to reservoir creation ise • erosion/bank stability, floating debris, role of vegetation in controlling erosion and water quality are reviewed. Currently used clearing practices are described and a compar- ison made of their.relative impacts. The sources of clearing guidelines and the processess of execution are presented as they exist in the Canadian provincial and American State policies • The criteria used in assessing preimpoundment clearing needs are discussed according to different multiple-reservoir use options, site specific restrictions and jurisdictional limitations. A framework for decision-making is put forward. The regional considerations which could affect reservoir clearing policies in the Hudson Bay Lowlands and on the Precambrian Shield are appended. Data gaps are identified and recommendations for further action, made. i} l ! I .. ! l ! . I i 1 J., •• ·it ·IU . : lf : •. Til ' I • I ) I I , I :w ~· • :u Jl !q I 1 1 -INTRODUCTION There are hundreds of hydro storage reservoirs in operation in North America. Historically, clearing of reservoirs was executed to maximize the storage volume, to salvage merchant- able timber, to minimize water quality problems and to mini- mize debris that could interfere with power generation. To ~hat end, clearing has ranged from none at all to complete removal of all vegetation and topsoil before flooding • Comparative successes have been reported across that range of actions, as have major failures. In the past, the extent of clearing and methods used, were largely determined on econo- mic grounds. Generally, merchantable timber, i.e. that with a monetary value high enough to warrant its extraction and a marKet for the removed wood, was taken out prior to flooding. Trees that had little or no economic worth or for which extraction costs were too high, were drowned. The costs of clearing were accepted as part of project costs, along with dam construction, as one of the requirements to ensure reli- able, uninterrupted and cost-effective operation of the power facility. Increasingly, hydro reservoirs are being viewed as resources in and of themselves with potential uses over and above their storage capabilities. From this viewpoint and in considera- tion of the many options available for preimpoundment preparation, the apparently conflicting views regarding the usefulness of reservoir clearing, and the need to plan for ever-broadening user demands, this report attempts to review the state-of-the-art in respect of reservoir clearing and to provide a background on which the selection of appropriate clearing strategies can be based. A process by which a reservoir clearing strategy can be derived for any given reservoir is depicted graphically in ~ II , I • II I I , I I • u u 2 Figure 1.1. The first step is to describe the physical, biological, social and economic environment in which the reservoir will be placed and to further place priorities on the strengths and sensitivities of the characteristics thus identified. Then the objectives, i.e. the uses to which the future reservoir is to be put, must be defined. The first priority for a hydroelectric storage reservoir must, of course, be the storage of water for hydropower generation, but within that objective, there are many options relating to operations. In addition to this primary purpose, the proponent of the power .project will, in conjunction with others, define at least in principle, any secondary uses for the reservoir, compatible in varying degrees with hydropower generation. In Ontario, this usually involves the Ministry of Natural Resources, from whom water rights are obtained for use of the river and with whom jurisdiction over adjacent lands often rests. Secondary uses such as recreation, fish and wildlife enhancement and flood control are commonly allied with hydro reservoir operation. In some areas of poor water distribution, although not often in Ontario, power generation and irrigation have been coupled. Less common but possible, is the utilization of a headpond as a source of public drinking water (e.g. Arnprior). Once ·the objective uses of the future water body have been agreed on and prioritized and where possible, defined in terms of limits, the known constraints to meeting those objectives are also defined. Constraints include the physical attributes of the reservoir, its location, the logistics of access and ease of manipulation, the economics of incorporating various alternatives or the financing associated with the:.n, the acts and regulations in place which limit development, compatibility with existing land use in the area and the feasiblity of scheduling activities to meet project demands. . .iii , ' I I r :"'Ill . l ~ l ' l .f I • I J cl •• I ·u :u: ,· .. • I JJ 'U--~ ' . :_'. _.II . r-- DESCRIPTION OF BASELINE CONDITIONS DEFINITION OF OBJECTIVES MODEL __., . 1"'-PROBLEMS DEFINITION OF COt-1 STRAINTS DESIGN STRATEGY THAT BEST MEETS OBJECTIVES WITHIN EXAMINE DEFINED AVAILABLE CONSTRAINTS STRATEGIES AND THEIR I EFFECTS IMPLEMENTATION PLAN ~ FIG. 1.1 ONTARIO HYDRO i I RESERVOIR CLEARING 8 PREPARATION-ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION STRATEGIES ! IPD(O ) STRATEGY SE.LECTION PROCESS 1HUR 0: r . i l ' I ! ! j ,. ' ! l ! . I l l, . I I' l i j· I ( I l]f: f ~~ ; !'P '' \ J I I ~1_, :u • ;u • :u JJ, JJ 4 The combination of objectives and constraints leads to a model (description) of the "problem", whereby those objec- tives most likely to meet with success, can be seen and further work arranged to improve their chances of success. Reservoir clearing is a management tool in this context--one of the many factors that can contribute to the meeting of the originally stated objectives. It is not an objective itself--simply a means to a conceptually defined end product. There are many ways to prepare a reservoir prior to flooding. As their impacts and costs differ, so will their relative appropriateness in meeting the objectives set out at the beginning of this process. One must examine the strategies and methods of execution available, and determine which ones best.meet the requirements of any given reservoir. This report has been set up to follow the process just described. Sections 2 and 3 describe baseline considerations and the current state-of-the-art of reservoir clearing in Canada, pa~~s of the United States and Europe. Section 4 describes the objectives (reservoir uses) and constraints which must be defined early in the process, followed by a discussion of the methods (as compared to strategies) available (Section 5). Section 6 develops a mechanism for evaluating all the options available and the tradeoffs to be made in selecting the best clearing strategy for a given reservoir;> Appended are case histories of North American reservoirs, examples of clearing guidelines and a description of the regional considerations peculiar to the Precambrian Shield and the Hudson's Bay Lowlands. l 1~ I l ! i .. ~ h I J • I , IJ u .u . . . li 5 2 ~ BACKGROUND AND ~EY ISSUES ____ I_N_. RESERVOIR CLEARING In this section, the processes that take place during reser- voir creation and the generally observed impacts are briefly reviewed. This is followed by a specific discussion of some of the major problem issues. 2.1 -Processes of Reservoir Creation ~~~~----------------------------- Very briefly, the following processes occur during reservoir creation. (a} Inul1dation --- -water rises wtth dam closure; reservoir filling process generally completed in 1 to 2 years -previously dt"'y soils are hydrated; physical absorption of water changes cohesion of soil particles and, therefore, angle of repose, leading to slumping -soluble materials in soils go into solution altering chemistry of o~erlying water; depending on soil types, the levels of nutrients, metals, color and turbidity rise, pH may go up or down (usually down) -flooded particulate organic material (soils and vegetation} is biodegraded by bacteria and fungi, gradually being made available to higher trophic forms; if conditions at soil/water interface remain aerobic, BOD and C02 production will be high but H2S and methane will not be produced; if anaerobic conditions develop H2S and methane will replace ... II I •• • ~IJ ·IJ i ~ •••. • ',g ·• u . JJ u 1 6 C02 as respiratory end products; particulate mate-rial is grazed on directly by aquatic invertebrates and verteb.::.ates dissolved inorganic nutrients are used by primary producers thus being conve~ted to organic form and made available to higher life forms; primary production can be limited by availability of light in highly turbid reservoirs although this situation is usually temporary -species composition of fish, bottom fauna, plankton and macrophytes changes rapidly during the first few yearsr standing stocks are potentially high -some vegetation uproots and floats during early years of reservoir life; this process can continue for very long periods of time; further debris accumulates due to shoreline erosion in weak areas inundation causes raising of water table all around the reservoir, the distance away from the shore being dependent on slope, soil porosity, ~ainfall (inflow) and soil depth; this affects soil moisture regime and, therefore, vegetation -opening of a forest can cause mortality of exposed trees through sun scald and windthrow in addition to the obvious impacts of "drowning" -trees that extend above top water level may eventually break off at the waterline through ice action, wave action or degradation; underwate~ stems tend to remain intact and sound for decades. It··.· 8' 1 IJ •JJ IJ 7 (b) Stabilization over time, usually within 5 years (except in arctic situations), water chemistry of reservoir stabilizes to reflect inflowing water and in many cases, except for bottom layer, is not significantly different from adjacent natural lakes stabilization of the reservoir shoreline is dependent on the soil types along the margin, the amount and frequency of water level fluctuation (drawdown), the size and orientation of the reservoir (wave climate) and the slopes and cover of the backshore; continuing erosion problems can occur in some areas while stable shorelines can be developed in a few years in others the stabilized reservoir does not function exactly as a natural lake because of high volume replacement and water level fluctuations, including the attendant disruption of the littoral zone. 2.2 -Problem Issues 2.2.1 -Erosion The single most often identified problem in the crea- tion of reservoirs is that of continuing shoreline erosion. This leads not only to a visually unpleasant water body, but also prevents stabilization of the nearshore zone and, therefore, biological productivity. It forecloses many backshore uses, contributes to turbidity of the lake water, causes trees and other vegetation in the erosion areas to be undermined and to H ' . -~·······----··"""'"-~----·--'"'""":: .. -·-·-""'"~--"-·•••-................. ]''· •= .. " ·c .. • ~ (.!'' :~ '~.. ' ~ ' ';• \ I IL ; ' w 'I:.,, ~ 8 fall into the water (thereby contributing to floating debris), and if extensive, can shorten the effective lifespan of the water body as a storage reservoirQ The processes contributing to shoreline erosion are varied and complex. It is not possible within the limits of this study to deal with all of them in detail. The major sources of erosion in reservoirs are -wave action -water level fluctuation (amount, frequency and rate) -surface runoff. The susceptibility of shoreline materials to these erosive forces is a function of -soil composition and/or bedrock characteristics -soil depth shore slope shore exposure -cover of backshore -underwater protection -elevation of water table. (a) Wave Action -Of the erosive forces acting on r~servoir shorelines, wave action is undoubtedly the worst, and is usually magnified by the effects of fluctuating water levels. Waves are generated by the frictional water forces of wind over water and are therefore a function of wind (speed, dura- tion and fetch) and the depth of the water. The maximum wave breaking onshore can be calculated, as can the erosive energy of any particular wave. The actual rate of erosion of a given material is, JT .!. II ll 9 however, a function of more than just the wave and to predict rates, some observational data are usually required. It is possible, knowing the composition of the exposed material, however, to calculate how far back a shore would have to erode before stability is reached. The effects of wave action will depend on the physical character of the reservoir shoreline. Materials such as silt and fine sand, which are noncohesive, tend to erode rapidly when exposed to wave action. Cohesive materials, such as clay, tend to stand up longer but when they fail, tend to do so in local falls which can then lead to gross instabilities. Figure 2.1 shows the mechanism of bank failure as cause by wave action on clay. Waterlogged clays subjected to tremors, such as those produced by waves, are highly unstable and show massive slumping. The fine clay particles will usually be carried away or remain in suspension, limiting beach formation to those areas where! cross-,slope velocities are extremely slow, permitting sedimentation. In coarser materials such as silt, sand and gravel, beach formation will eventually result. Figure 2.2 shows a typical beach profile. The sandy material is gradually bruught down by the waves until a very gradual slope is attained underwater. When this profile becomes shallow enough, waves break offshore, thereby protecting the bank .. Glacial till (a mixture of all particle sizes) tends to be self-armouring, with the finer .· 1 1 • i j { I I l ! . l l r f. l ( l I I ' i ,•: 1 i:_:. I • I t I ... '-.-?-c~ i l:·.·.· ·.I . ':.."' _,· .. ~ -. i 1 > .. I }-,. i . ; 1'~¥·-.-; ~ ~~-y=" _ _,._..2'. - NATURAL SLOPE FORMATION Of' SCARP I n • =~~ ~w~·-4~,~ ?@_ .. ....., UNDERCUTTING DUE TO CLAY FALL TOE EROSION TYPE SWMPING Ill IV REF. ACRES t 1979 d ........ ~;. .. ~.-·".,.F.:'o'*-.~ ,.I;, ~~-f-''r~ .. -:.::.···~-p ,1 I I I J .· ~ t-~-tt'l·~' ~ -~ ,-' i-AILURE ASSOCIATED WITH SLOPE !NSTA51UTY v ~ ~-'"'"::"'"f'<t<~t~t ' ~ FIG. 2.1 ,- ONTARIO HYDRO RESERVOIR CLEARING 6 PREPARATION -ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION STRATEGIES \ "llf \ BANK F,AILURE lN CLAY ftU ~ll ·-...~----z;-:--~"~___,_ __ ---:-... ~-···-....,..,~~~---·~, .... ~ ... ---····'~>·---~~-~~~-.... -·-:-'"--~-~ ...... --.--:;;--~-~7.~:.~]Cj .-· .. ·.~~".'\1·· .. '"' ~.J'_'!i. .··~· .. ,.,.,"' •• ~. ·~.,·-* ~·:·:··· ,·*. -·~·.:·~ ~.q. ~·;.~ .. -~,:· .... ~ .... ~ •• ·••••• ...... * ... b. ... ,:, •• ~··.~·."' •• ;·.~: II ( EX1ST1NG PROF1LE RWL Xz , If ' ' ' ,, ~; . ~-· UEFlNITlON OF TERMS RWL.-RESERVOIR WATER LEVEL OL -OFFSHORE LIMIT OF SEDIMENT MOVEMENT db -DEPTH AT WHICH BREAKING OCCURS -.. 1.3 Hb Hb -BREAKING. WAVE HEIGHT SP1 -POINT AT WHICH WAVE SREAKS Xt -DISTANCE BETWEEN BPt AND SCARP REF. ACRES, 1979 FIG.2.2 RESERVOIR CLEARING a PREPARATlON-ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION STRATEGIES IPOm " ONTARIO HYDRO • BEACH FORMATlON IIUO[I} .. ··--··------------~--------------------------..... '···"'.' ' t ·~ ·j 12 material being drawn out through the coarse leaving an outer protective coarse particle skin, thereby protecting the bank. Compounding the formation of stable shoreline against wave erosion is the opening of scarps through the toppling of trees along the shore. If wave action pulls the soil away from tree roots, the plant falls over, disturbing yet more soil. The scar thus generated allows wave penetration and further erosive action. In natural lakes, stable shorelines vegetated virtually to the water, are the norm. This is because the erosive processes have largely ceased with shore armoring having occurred either through gradual sloping, or an accrual of "hard" material. In reservoirs, fluctuating water levels greatly inhibit these natural stabilization processes, as described in the next section. Further complications to the initial wave action are added by seiching. This can occur in long reservoirs oriented along the axis of high winds of long duration. The winds cau3e the water to pile up at one end of the reservoir~ sloshing back when the wind drops~ Seiching also occurs as a result of major landslides or seismic activity. The erosive action of s«=iching is equivalent to very rapid water level fluctuations and can be very destructive on that basis. (b) Water Level Fluctuations -Both Jirectly and by combining with other ~.~rosive forces, water level fluctuation is a major contributor to erosion and bank instability in reservoirs. I l ; l l f i ~ I !' l 1 f I l \ ! ' r 13 Most materials have an intrinsic angle of internal friction (angle of repose). In general, coarser grained materials will maintain steeper slopes than fine grained. The exception is a cohesive component that is in part, chemical, which allows vertical natural slopes to occur. The angle is also affected by the degree of saturation and pore water pressure. As a consequence, stable natural slopes, where inundated, can slump to very gradual slopes underwater because of loss of negative pore pressure or destruction of cementation bonds. With drawdown, shore materials are sequentially exposed to wetting and drying. This subjects them to changes in pore water pressure. Free-draining materials such as sand, are best able to cope with these changes if undisturbed. But in poorly drained soils, 1n situations of large and rapid drawdown, pore pressure is often the prirna~y source of bank failure. In hydro storage, fluctuating water levels are common. This exposes shores to wave action and ice scour at different levels so that the stabili- zation achieved during a given period of stable water level is negated by erosive action at another. The larger and faster the change, the greater the susceptibility of shorelines to erosion and bank failure. (c) Surface Runoff -Surface runoff is a secondary erosion source in most reservoirs but when combined with other forces, can be significant. .. ' •• t ' . I . . •. ' '! I : .~ I. ~ .~ '~~ . ·•.· • I} ~-~ 14 In areas where surface runoff is high due to high intensity rainfall or poor drainage, water flows over the surface of the soil. The erosion of surface materials is a function of the aggregation of the soil materials, particle size (transport- ability), volumes and velocities of the runoff water. As this water reaches the edge of a reser- voir gullying occurs. If the gullying occurs during reservoir low water periods, the scars thus produced are then subject to wave action and the effects of rehydration when the water level 1s raised. Stable vegetation in the backshore is a positive feature, reducing surface runoff by allowing water to percolate through the soil rather than running over the top. Seasonal changes in groundwater levels can however, bring about slope instability and failure, which then exposes unprotected soils to the processes described earlier. (d) The Role of Vegetation in Controlling Erosion - The presence of vegetation cover on stable slopes is effective in reducing erosion from surface runoff. Its effectiveness in controlling erosion and slope failure from drawdown or wave action is less positive. In studies of Great Lakes Shore- lines, Dai and Hill (1976}, found that a number of favorable factors had to be present before the shoreline could be stabilized -vegetation alone was not sufficient. Geen (1974) discusses a comparative study on 2 reservoirs in western Canada. He shows that complete removal of all terrestrial vegetation prior to flooding can lead to considerable erosion IJ n.; ... ~~ 15 ~n the exposed sites and silting in deeper areas of the lake. If clearing is confined to the removal of larger trees, the smaller remaining vegetation provided a measure of soil stability and minimized erosion. In some cases, shoreline trees may be valuable in preventing erosion even when dead and fallen as they tend to decay slowly, in situ, rather than floating away. However, with steeper slopes, tree falls may produce scars and more erosion thereby increasing the floating debrisa In many Russian and European reservoirs (Gill 1977), trees have been planted to prevent erosion and for silt control. Willow, poplar and alder species are the trees mainly used. (Willow has the ability to quickly produce new roots.) The trees have to be shallow rooted to withstand flooding conditions. This could possibly be disadvantageous in terms of their stabilizing ability. Where an area is flooded it can be expected that the marginal vegetation may die and new species will replace it which are tolerant to the new environment. Old species may survive but are often unable to regenerate. Many annual plants, with abundant seed supplies, are capable of rapid invasion of reservoir margins. However, annuals do little to aid bank stability; their life cycle being too short and their root system too shallow. Herbaceous perennials use vegetative reproduction to spread into the drawdown zone. Some are capable of withstanding wat~r level fluctuations :r ,. l;'f '' :; .J [ t4,' . 'II/ ' i . ,,i ~ • t ,_. ~ .. ,,,( It J :1 ~' J .1~. ~~ u 16 and can provide some initial stabilization of the margin. Woody plants are extremely vulnerable to displacement during the seedling stage and take considerable time to become established. However, those that do survive offer the greatest protection to waves and flooding. 2.2.2-Effects on Shoreli_e Vegetation When an area is flooded, pronounced environmental changes occur in the adjacent land. The water table and regime are completely altered and the vegetation cover must attempt to adjust to these changes. The greatest environmental effects are produced by -water. manipulation practices -wave action -soil structure and nutrients -other management factors • Water fluctuation and wave action have been described in Section 2.2.1 but their effect on marginal vegeta- tion is discussed below • (a) Water Manipulation -Th~~ most pronounced problem occurs in the drawdown zone. In low water periods, the reservoir can be extremely unattrac·- tive with large exposed areas of bare soil. Water manipulation in reservoirs implies more rapid and extreme fluctuations in water level than occur in natural lakes with the result that fewer plants and animals are found along the margins. By their nature, aquatic species cannot stand dryness and terrestrial species are unable to withstand extended periods of floodingj When water logging ' . ·.l~""' -~·~ I ~ ,. ,, .... , "' .. c "'' ,~·1' ' .. ·~ .. __ II.' .j .:.! II 11 (b) 17 occurs, the soil atmosphere is replaced by water, gaseous diffusion rates lower and the available oxygen is rapidly used. Nutrients become defi- cient and phytotoxic compounds may accumulate. The plant response to these changes depends on the species, its age and the time and duration of flooding. No species can survive flooding in the growing season for any length of time (up to 1 month· possibly) if it was not previously adapted to a flooding regime. All mature trees in the reservoir, whether totally flooded or subjected to high-low fluctuations adjacent to the margin, will probably die~ The shock of flooding, sun scald and wind exposure is sufficient to kill these mature trees. The vegetation which is already growing in low lying, wet areas on sites subjected to naturally fluctuating regimes (caused for instance, by spring flooding) are those species which are most likely to survive on the reservoir margins. Deep rooted trees like pine are those least likely to survive in the drawdown zone1 shallow rooted species such as Larch, Black Spruce and Willow being more tolerant of fluctuations in water regimes. Wave Action -Wave action can be the most impor- tant factor in preventing marginal colonization. Waves not only physically damage the plants themselves but also erode the soil in which they are rooted. There is little information per- taining to the adaptation of plants to wave action although indications are (Dai and Hill, 1977) that few if any species can withstand direct wave impact of any magnitude. i r l I' .J' I. . ,~I ~I!. . ' ·-' 18 Plants used to stabilize banks (e.g. Willow) have the ability to rapidly produce new roots. Some species may be able to increase the number of cells in their stems and so increase stem strength. (c) Soil Type and Nutrient Status -Soil type and nutrient status of the margins affects coloniza- tion rates and susceptibility to damage. As previously discussed, silts and fine clays are easily eroded and in these cases it may be neces- sary to engineer the banks to stabilize the slopes. They may have to be revegetated with grasses and legumes followed by tree species. Wave action may first remove the finer particles and, depending on the nature of the parent mate- rial, this may leave gravel and stones behind as occurs in some till deposits. These stones may be too large to be removed by wave action. They would not injure adjacent plants and could provide protection to the rooting zone beneath. The nutrient status of the drawdown zone is not well documented. It would appear that certain margin soils are deficient in both micro and macro nutrients, particularly nitrogen. This is not an important factor in the initial colonization of plants but it is significant in their later growth and survival. An excessive availability of some micro nutrients may exist~ both iron and manganese may be present in a highly soluble form which can be taken up by plants in toxic amounts. (d) Management Techniques -Management techniques used to be such that all vegetation was removed to some ]. ·~ ' ' .. '""'·''' '"' j • l; ,,, i . ' I' .• J l II l :(' ' 'J; I. .... J·. ,I j . :-;,., 19 standard distance back from the newly created reservoir. The removal of the organic matter was thought to improve the water quality and to reduce the amount of debris entering the reservoir. The quantity of organic matter released by marginal vegetation is often slight in comparison with that being brought into the reservoir by feeder streams and submerged vegetation is beneficial in the development of benthic invertebrates. There would appear to be little reason to remove shrubs, herbaceous plants and young trees from the areas to be flooded if well anchored. They will eventu- ally die and decay but in the interim they can reduce the erosion of the margins and generally improve the ecology of the reservoir. Geen (1974) thought it advantageous to leave vegetation. on reservoir slopes based on a comparative study inC! i.cating that a completely cleared reservoir was subject to more shoreline erosion than one which was left uncleared. Other management practices may involve compaction of the soil by heavy machinery during reservoir construction. This makes revegetation much more difficult. Positioning of land-drain outfalls may increase soil moisture and nutrient status. Current management techniques are aimed at alleviating some of the problems discussed here. Recently there has been a move to encourage plant growth on reservoir margins by design (artificial planting) or by management. Shallow water impoundments initially left uncleared to attract wildfowl have been found to be beneficial to hardwoods growing around them (Gill 1977). A ' ' \ ~J'· '. I J.· .. ' ., . i ' . ' . ' ·I·,, : I - l I ,. I ~I I li'; t i .,~ . . ~ ,_ ,1 t4ti . I,_ f J. ~- ' 20 shallow impoundment in which water levels are all-owed to stay high either in the winter or spring can improve the soil moisture for the rest of the growing season. Management practices should be such that the vegetation is not flooded during the height of the growing season. In many Russian and European reservoirs trees have been planted to prevent erosion and to provide silt control. Trees are frequently planted before the reservoir is flooded, giving time for stabiliza- tion prior to impoundment. In these cases, mulching is often required to encourage shallow root development, an advantage when flooding occurse Shorelines have also been planted with herbaceous plants to provide fish food and for waterfowl. 2.2.3-Floating Debris A commonly reported problem and one to which a signifi- cant economic burden can be attached, is that·of floating debris. Standing vegetation that is cut prior to impoundment and not removed at that time will largely float when flooded. The same is true of only partially burned wood. Although it is usual practice to remove felled timber unless float removal is planned, there ~ave been instances where trees were cut and simply left on the reservoir floor, resulting in large quantities of floating debris that was carried to shore or blown against the dam .. In the planning of timber harvesting and removal strategies for reservoir sites, the flotation behavior ' + I .I , I I J I I,: ~,!' ,, 1 .. # ' ~''j' -~. ' ·.,,j ; ...... ~~-)· 21 depends on the specific gravity and moisture content of green \!lood, and the rate of moisture absorption by the log. Table 2.1 lists average specific gravity and moisture content values for several eastern Canadian tree species which could be part of the forest cover in northern reservoir sites. Specific gravity values (Column "A") range from a low of 0.30 for Eastern White Cedar to 0.60 for Hard Maple. Freshly cut wood, which is also called "green", contains significant amounts of moisture. The quantity of water depends on: the species of wood, season of harvest, age and size of the stem, or more precisely, the ratio of sapwood to heartwood. The amount of moisture in wood is ordinarily expressed as a percentage of the weight of the wood when oven-dry. The moisture content is stated as _ Weight of water in wood MC percent -OD weight of \vood x 100 It is apparent from Table 2.1 that in most species areen sapwood contains more moisture than heartwood, although Some of the denser hardwoods show little moisture variation between sap an... .1eartwood. In most species, wood from the lower part of the stem has less moisture than the top of the tree which contains more sapwood. Similarly, young trees with small diameters have a high moisture content. The seasonal variation of moisture in standing trees does not follow a rigid and predictable pattern for all species, although the moisture content of sapwood appears to be the highest during the spring and summer, and lowest in the fall ... () • 1 .. , .... ·.1' ,." ........ , .......... -,~~~~----_·....:.J-··_-----. --, __ ---·-r " ' .. l l l ' \' i I l~~J I I I l 1 ! I ;;·-;:..1 1 i ! ~ l l -< ~ } ! LJ l ' i l I . ' i (; ; ,_L r._ ,, ,-. II -'* , .. .,._ " "' A -·""'"' ..... ;.:,;.~ ~ 'L-~. . iiliiillll :...-. ,,_ ............ ';' > .......... ~ [ ...... ";~. -.. t_J ~-·--...... 1 \;· ... "' " '· .. ...... ., ~ TABLE 2.1 ' Average physical properties of logs of Eastern Canadian tree species. Columns (A), (B), (C) and (D) refer to properties of freshly-felled logs. Properties Possible Moisture Content (percent)** At Maximum Wood Specific Combined Flotation Moisture Specj_~s Gravity* Sapwood Heartwood SW-HW Point Content (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) Softwoods White Spruce 0.35 128 34 62 186 220 Black Spruce 0.41 120 35 60 144 179 Balsam Fir 0.34 --117 194 229 Jack Pine 0.42 105 36 53 138 173 Red Pine 0.39 134 34 57 156 191 Eastern Larch 0.48 115 46 64 108 143 Eastern White 0.30 --55 233 268 Cedar Eastern Hemlock 0.40 119 97 104 150 185 Eastern White 0.36 140 60 68 178 213 Pine Red Spruce 0.38 130 34 68 163 198 " __ .,....._,,..., ..... __...-.,--·~ {~ ..... "' L-. ~ N N ~ ? J ' \ \ I P .:,. • • • ( ~ l f I ' '. ,..Jt, ,. j, \_ ~-,; .. ?• '1~ JQ. • "\ C • 00 S --.. ."" \t . I J \ t ' «, ... & -• '' ~ . 1} """-~ ' ~· .. ... • .t;.D #' \~ «' "" ~ • • : _.: ~ ~ -""' I • ~ t " '· ~ I t ._L - -:-~· -:; ! ,, -"'' '-~ .. r· 1 l 1 '> ' f i l ' u ·. l . ' -. ·, . L-' :-..... -~ -··-. -~ • "~-----,~ ----""" ..... .1! ~ ..... ,., ·-..... • k r--~ . ........ ·?. ' ·~ Table 2.1 Average physical properties of logs of Eastern Canadian tree species. Columns (A), (B), (C) and (D) refer to properties of freshly-felled logs. Properties Possible Moisture Content (percent)**. At Maximum Wood Specific Combined Flotation Moisture Spec:!es Gravity* Sapwood Heartwood SW-HW Point Content (A) (B) (C) (D) {E) (F) Hardwoods White Birch 0.51 72 89 81 96 13]. Black Ash 0.47 74 46 65 113 147 Trembling Aspen 0.37 113 95 102 170 205 Largetooth Aspen 0.39 110 90 97 156 191 Balsam Poplar 0437 140 105 115 170 205 White Elm 0.52 92 95 93 92 127 Sugar Maple 0.60 72 62 67 67 102 Silver Maple 0.46 97 58 75 117 152 Red Maple 0.52 97 58 73 92 127 Yellow Birch 0.56 72 74 73 79 114 White Ash 0.51 44 46 45 75 110 * Green-volume basis **Oven-dry weight basis oc·M..-....._.. l' ---....... k~~; N w . '"1" . !' ' ' ,' ! ~ ' '" r , f,~ i -~.,._. a ' t ' ' 'I' i \ -I ' l ~ ! I I ' . J t ~1:1 :1 f . :_1 ' ~ ·j ... ! :L ~--~. ,_, 24 and winter. The combined moisture content of sapwood and heartwood is given in Column;:nu. This may be looked on as a "tree average" moisture content since it takes into account the relative ratios of sapwood and heartwood for a given speciesQ Column "E" lists the average flotation point moisture contents for the different species. These are calcu- lated values taking into accuunt the average specific gravity of a species, and the moisture content at which the density of wood \lould be equal to the density of water. It is apparent from the table that the softwood species with relatively low specific gravities can absorb considerable amounts of moisture before they sink. Further, that the average log moisture content of all softwood species is significantly below the flotation point MC. (Compare columns "D" and "E".) Consequently softwoods can be successfully floated after the flooding of a reservoir. Table 2.1 also illustrates that many hardwood species, especially those with high specific grsvities, have average log moisture contents which puts them close to the flotation point MC. For example, White Elm, Sugar Maple and Yello\i Birch, have average moisture contents at which some freshly-felled logs would fail to float. Thus, the valuable timber must be removed from reser- voir sites prior to flooding. Another aspect of the log flotation/sinking process is that of time. The question is how long can green logs be expected to float. This is a function of the relative permeability of a species, of log size and of the initial green moisture ~cntent. Of the softwood species listed in Table 2.1, all but Eastern H~mlock, '"":<" --~~----·----·------·--··3-·---·--·--... ·~ . .. . " " . ~\ ' l r l i' l I I i t '1. " .. l \ ' ~, I ,J I .. , I •. :,_ I ,_ .,_ I fJ I I • 25 Balsam Fir and Eastern Larch can be expected to float for at least 1 t.o 3 years. The lower density hardwoods (e.g. Aspen, Silver Maple) and the above mentioned softwoods may float for one season. Flotation is also a function of log length, shorter logs sinking sooner than tree length logs. It \iould appear that some softwoods will never become genuine ~~sinkers", however long they are submerged (see Column "F", Table 2.1) • 'l'h us, it has been found that sunken logs, even in old reservoirs, continue to float to the surface.. This behavior is not understood (G. Balentinecz, pers. comm. 1981). Several explanations can however be postulated. ~a) These persistent floaters are low density flotah~e softwood logs that were initially anchored by denser, water-saturated logs, to the reservoir bottom. If the anchoring becomes disturbed, the buoyant logs return to the surface. (b) Some near-neutrally buoya~t trees behave as "bobbers", becoming positively buoyant during periods of density destratification when the whole water column becomes 4°C (temperature of maximum water density). When the surface water warms or cools (becomes less dense), these same logs sink, only to rise again when 4°C temperatures are attained. (c) The floating vvood was in fact dead at the time it was inundated. Dead wood tends to float for a longer time than green wood, attributable to the inefficiency of passive - . f-1' ~ .. I .I lr. J ;I ~~,1 26 saturation as compar:-ed with active uptake of water by living tissues~ Some dead wood can never absorb enough water to become negatively buoyant. Because of its significance to the selection of reser- voir clearing strategies, this question warrants further investigation. Another source of debris is that from tree kills along the shoreline. Raised water tables, sun scorching and windthrow can result in trees dying and eventually falling into the water. Such kills occur within a few years of impoundment and if dead trees are removed before they fall over, floating debris can be reduced. Standing emergent trees will eventually break off at the water line through the forces exerted by ice or by degradation effected by insects, birds, fungi and bacteri~. Some of this material will float, some will sink, depending on the species and the length of time it has been exposed. This process is restricted to th shallow~r portions of the reservoir and is largely confined to shoreline areas where the debris will accumulate. ~~ Shoreline erosion ana bank failure, as described in Section 2.2.1, can be a long term and major source of floating debris. 2.2.4 -Water Quality There are several factors which affect water quality in reservoirs. These are summarized below. _,, --··········-·-····~--·-·_:]·--·-----,-·------·--. ' ' _,. • ~ ~ .,;;•' · •." ': r ~~, ~.,.: -~ ·--.· •. · ' ' ~ . ~ ' -. ...".. . . t i l I ., ,_' l l !' i 1 i f ~ ~ l \ t l [ I rl' '-'· ~ I .. I .1., l ,.· ' ' l . fl l, -I ,I .:·:1 ~I f.f I ., .. tl ., ~J .I . ~1 27 (a) Hydration -Physical disturbances in inundated soils causes increased turbidity. (b) Chemical processes result in increased condu~­ tivity, color, ~hanges in pH and potentially elevated metals (in acidic conditions) and increased inorganic nutrients. Biotic degradation of organic materials leads to oxygen reduction; inc·reases in phytoplankton with uptake of inorganic nutrients can reduce 'vater clarity. Erosion -Suspended particles increase turbidity and provide continuing input as described for hydration. (c) Stratification-Thermal/chemical layering. (d) Inflow/Outflow -flushing rate and mixing· -inflow water quality -depth of power intakes and therefore relation to thermocline. (e) Drawdown -Effects on erosion and biotic components as well as mixing. In reviewing reservoir case histories, it is apparent that in northern climes, most water quality changes are related to the initial release of nutrients from flooded materials and to the effects of sediment suspension. Factors affecting this are as follows. (a) Soils -Table 2.2 summarizes the results of experimentation done i~ the United States :,' ·-··' >y :t~:r;~~' r!:·r, ~j.f/:~?~~~{i·:~~~·~~:.~~·;~ · :~.~, ':~~~" -~·•, , l l . f • ; '. ' 1 1 ! j I , l l \ I •• II • I I 11 I .11 :li .. !. ·IJ t'·l' .. ? . : I ;IJ .. ! ' j ' .2...~ r-----------------------------------------~------------------------------------------~ T.ULE ;,; ~=or tmliAT:JIG :arnutiT UI:TIC 1o1m SUMJICT:ZC 5011..1 OIC ~!IliC WAtta leap:mae :a.po~~.a.:a.on ldFOft•• ~au dec.r1 tua lO .,.C'Cent. val.aUle sol.i\11 Jlal>ully-•c: dr-~ic rtH .1n C"'1or, •lkAliJucy. UftiUfV liqJUA 'nlC ..S 1EC Or~J&Qu: 4WU'lt'.&a below $pn.c:tt .. a.rch foreat <46,.., fercatlt. Orq&UC W.nt &nauo.ruc .!b.qS' .ut •, EC, t.ANUAI Uqnin 'l'OC. IGI,a •nd eo lor ""4,5 -5 1'-..U'Crli pU..u 4Lrl:! roo~• 1ft .an Ol'q&J'U.C MU:U' 78.7 pei'C'eftt. :~rq&auc IA!Iully ..,..n>b•c &l!itl color, tc, UN\~/ 11q:ru.n. ':oc ;:11 <lrol'fC oo 4.5 Iocca ... ~ O,..aftJ.c Mc.er&al d.Art nd brawn Sl.l pei'CL"\t. Ol4tJllC a.pu!ly ...... <'OblC )(Aqft to --•r•c• n.,.. 1n color. EC. ~nJ.n/ ~1qn1n. "'ie pH to .&.$ for l w...-a :J.u'k .br'cr..m orq.n1c f'OC.t ..:lttir 40,: peraenc orqan1c ·~ t.:. : 1ft ! WHCc ::t,, ::H4• ':.IIMltV !1-.,'tu,n •rd .a~t. roM ~o .tuqn hwb ~~.Wr roM to 1.} ::..u. ::ttown Ol'~,a.n4C root =-.attar i),.) f"rc:•nt. :~rqamc w.ap,d :1eoayqen.uon we :\O'C o:.o ' t&.l.l 5 -~· :tod•r•t• a.ncr1aae1 &.n .:olor. -:x. EC~ ?te •od UAIUIVU<;ftln :u.c;n .t.ncn4\Ht in di.. -""· t~nctra aos.l "' th t~1aca. root ew.nar ll.~ pcre-a.nt-oraa,ru.c: • \1\Aetoel.C i.ft : vwaa ~.:;. rEiiiLtt.:l low 0::.1or, tr:. :.a.Mln/ !.:.;run •nowd. tl;)dar&t• tu• A.lk.. toe ;raatJ.y ~r~...a ~,. ~"" roM f~r s ..... u.•n ~ropF*S to :.Ow leYals !..:..!.J.!l· llalf; tlt'CW1I Sl.lt. Wl.t.n ql'e'( ueaa 60 ptReftt o:r~c ... 60 pu'CW~t. 11.fd, .co ~rcar:t. hn•• DO r-.&.n.S n.lqn tc £twS *': rotle -;:ii •.nt t;: .a .. s .a:e. u.ay.t volc&Aic •R.. 1.\.qbt rod b......, ..,.\y •c.•rW v&.t;..'\ rvotl 6-t percent tinea Ji percant s.ane.\. 1_.l ~t:eftt orq.ana.c :-.ocxt w.ac.er q1.1&1.1 C:f 'J"ole&n&c un -:l p•rc•n~ orq.ana.e, 19 par:ar.t. !.:.nea. 61 percent s&ncS. COoo wa·ur qu.a,h ~ Orqan:.c roo~ auer Jl.! ..,...,.,, ... ~..auta .. u.u s-u ...rt..:e "'" 1au ..... " -<\' ucl 9n? ult: :...&~t.o...,.tu.c, u pe.rc .. t. .....ad. 42 percent !iAn ~ll lni t1&1 .riM in !'0] -<AMiD/ Uc;n1n ~t'cp.Ai.C .,g;J.l 19 • .2 perc:eftt or-.aau.c, dS.i pe~ !'1naa '-end ll.O. :lr-uc i.N:nMM 1n mlo.t ~ u.n~u.nl Ucnu.n pd 4.$ ..-! au.yoll ll'OWn OI"9AfU.: SOl.l l9.t percent. orq.uu.c:a, :5 pen:n~ u.nd; r••t U.Mtl ;I( "'M • ,S &nil £e v&a cnly c:anautu•t. tc shew a ti.H .un 51 perc-e-nt. ta.n••· i9 p~nt wnct. l.l perce:tt ol'q&nlc C:0. ... UI~ c;ualJ.•y vaJ.c&AlC uh 10 ptlr"Cent. hn ... 10 p.n:ent sand. .Z ·pcr:ent oraana.~ ~ weer qu.~lu.y Brown sJ.lt, raaa ~.6 par~:ec Ol"'(&ftic, :9 pe,r~:ent. "!inets, 51 f•rcenc s&n4 • !4 pt~rcent .;ravel ;olor • ':tC and t&rlnlto./ l1c;ru.n rote ll.Lqftt!y ptt .tOM to 6 ~· llMc:l.C _...,.. lUte f5 percell" f1M• *'l ro• for Z w..wa •t>ua"""""' $&1111 &1111 q...,.l 26,1 parent .t.allli, 8.3 pu<:M. tl.nu !*:IU)Or~ Orqanic .a11 JZ.4 pu~t. Ot'tf&lll.Cr n.7 .. ..-. fi~a i~lu r.a layer M~DYa out.~ ....,_ae C"DI.or • -:oc: ....a UqaUI/ """""' -·"' fauly h>.ql! t.wela :lUJtb.-- 24.1 ;wer~t o~a:Uc,:. 10 pv-:en~ finN, lO pet"Cet. laa& •.Jery tfOOd. w.aur qu.aia.ty. ;)nly tun::u:-c:~• u. CDM~l'C\aei\U. ' '. ll -:20 '""· ,.....,lC!Uiic ooU dck-nU/ :.Lay 4.'7 pucallt Ol"faa..&.ea• ,. pel'COII~ (lnea 'l'OI:: ud 1103 ..... '-:20 Ul. Plaot:ic qrey -li.l~ 97 ~· flnu IUU.l.\r .., l.ooH.r lore pll.dzopplll oo 4.S ..-! k::llyod <ben :.UA UA qravel ?el'Nlruac .l...,i ~R"ant cr~1c .. 41 .,.rct'ftt !'t.na.. o&t puc:eno; satd. I percent qrnel "'re color, tc, o\1ku ":""C: •nd c.anru.n/ h1j11ll\ •n.an loyu ....... \It ,,If : ~1 JJ ·I .I IJ 29 concerning the effects of flooding differP.nt arctic and subarctic soils on overlying water quality (Univers~ty of Alaska 1975). The experi- mental procedures were such that they approximated the effects of a 7-month inundation period. The quantity of organic materials in the soils W@S reflected in reduced oxygen~ increased color, total organic Garbon (TOC) arrunonia and tannin/ lignin levels in test samples. Only the upper soil horizons appeared to be a problem, resulting in reduced wate:r; quality. In InOSt cases (except for pH), level~ stabilized before the 11 7-mo·nth" test pe.riod. (b) Vegetati~ -As part of the Wreck Cove Environmental Assessment (Beak Consultants), experimental hydration of peat soi!s was performed. As in the Alaskan experiments, pH dropped to about 4.5 during decomposition (from C02 production), the overlying water became ~ . highly colored and displayed a peaty odor. P0 4 and total N rose initially but reduced with aeration. TOC reached a threshold limit (11 ppm) over which it did not increase the time. No toxicities to fish or amphipods were found in accompanying bioassay tests. There are a few in situ studies of the effects of uncleared vegetation on water quality although in Louisiana ;eservoirs the presence of standing timber did not affect water quality in uncleared areas as compared to cleared areas, to any measur- able degree. In a study of an uncleared forested Russian reservoir, Miterev and Belova reported that water quality, including dissolved oxygen ;1. ,If i '.II 1£ I 'I I I ,I (; I! ···)·· ' :! ; ,. J 11 30 was virtually normal throughout the water column within 3 years following inundation. They reported H2S production in the first year only. The reservoir case histories examined do not indicate major water quality variation from natural lakes in proximity. Exceptions to this relate to use of impounded wate~ fo~ drinking purposes (and to a lesser extent for aesthetic reasons), where taste, odor and color become significant factors~ Allen (1960} reports a comparison of cleared versus uncleared reservoirs in which the form·er developed no taste and o(lor problems w~eJ:qas the latt~r did. Most of th~ taste problem~ a~e attributed to alga.e which flourish in response to nutrient availabi- lity. Other taste problems (medicinal) have occurred as a result of rain and subs~quent runoff carrying phenolic substances into a reservoir from slash burning along·shore (Allen 1960). Drinking water quality criteria indicates that color should <15 TCU. This is an aesthetic requirement and many storage reservoirs built in woody areas with little clearing can exceed this level. (Drinking wate~ criteria are discussed further in Section 4.1.5.) None of the case histories or the literature surveyed during this study reported any fish kills or other indications of toxicities in newly formed reservoirs. In acidic reservoirs, however, in areas with high natural mercury levels, dissolved mercury is likely to be elevated and could result 1 0 ' · .. w··. ·····.,.-·-- '!''' , I, ' ' 1 ~ "~ :· ' • "' ' .. l·''il'\ .. . r a tl I, . , J ,. . I t 11: . ' ..... , i I~ • '. i ... : •• '1 • J ·' : ,j 31 in resident fish becoming 1:-estricted for human consumption. Erosion -Erosion around a reservoir shoreline or preimpoundment disturbance of reservoir soils will contribute to high turbidity levels and therefore impaired water quality. This is particularly true in very fine-sized mat~1:ial such as clays which are easily suspended and which will be prevented from settling by small current or wave ~ction. The processes contributing to erosion have been described in Section 2.2.1 • I ~-~··· .. ' ' J,. \'t ,:t I I .I I ' . ·I 1., .: . 'I. -~ I ••• r: l . jl;l [ 32 3 -SURVEY 0~ l.';t,EARING PRACTICC:S ------~------~-,~~ -. This secticn provid,es a review of clearing practices cuer,ntly in use, prese~ts a review of example clearing strategies and their respec~ive affects, and concludes with a discussion of the jurisdictional variations in the developme~t of clearing guidelines across Canada and in parts o~ the Uni~e~ States. 3.1 -Current Approache~ Discussion with government agencies and utilities across Canada confirms that there are no comprehensive clearing guidelines for reservoirs. Criteria and guidelines for clearing are usually developed on a site-specific basis and often form part of the environmental assessment process. The single exception is the approach to reservoir clearing generated by Newfoundland and Labrador Hyd·co" Their fairly standard set of guidelines is provided in Table 3.1 (Kiell, 1981). It is only within the last 10 years that environmental as well as recreational and cultural consid~rations have been influential in the selection of a clearing strategy. Prior to this time, the economics of merchantable timber recovery and reservoir operating requirements for power generation were the key criteria for establishing the clearing strategy. - l r , " I I '.1 I i .1··· . ~' .. -_. .•. , ;t II 33 ·I'ABLE 3.1 RESERVOIR CLEARING GUIDELINE - NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR HYDRO (a) Examine and evaluate available published and unpublished information pertaining to the reservoir area. (b) Establish criteria for predicting environmental impacts of flooding on biotic and abiotic components of the flood zone {e.g~ forestry, terrain sensitivity, aquatic biota, terrestrial biota, cultural and recreational). (c) Identify and map the following, based on the above criteria. Areas in which clearing is not recommended because of possible negative impacts caused by this action. Areas in which clearing is not recommended because of the minimal impact of flooding without clearing. Areas in which clearing is not recommended because of possible positive environment&1 benefit of not doing so. -Areas in which complete clearing is ~ecommended but could not be done economically (assume disposal of cuttings necessary) • Areas in which clearing is recommended and in which clearing would be completed economically by salvaging merchantable timber. (d) Compute area to be flooded, describe the type and compute the quantity of merchantable timber that will be flooded, cut and disposed of, or cut an·d salvaged, and compute the amount of nonmerchantable timber that will be cut and destroyed for each of the cases listed above. (e) Specify preparation techniques for each different area and define cost and method of wood disposal, quantify necessary manpower and equipment for the job. (f) Recommend reservoir preparation strategy based on environmental, engineering and cost data. I 1 ) l f :.' l ~ ' r .. i .:11 II ., ·' 1: ,. .I I. . -1 1.· ·. ,.1. I ' ~ I I I I t:l :I .,, 3.2 -Example Strategies and Their Effects 34 The reserv0ir clearing strategies outlined below have been compiled from literature and knowledge of case histories. The sequence in which these techniques are listed is not intended to indicate a preference for one over another. In practice, _a combination of strategies is often utilized and is dependent on specific ~ite conditions and reservoir requirements. The effects of implementing the various clearing strategies are summarized in Table 3.2. It is recognized that the extent of these effects is dependent on site-specific conditions such as surface area and depth of the reservoir, drawdown, flushing rate, nutrient status of the soils, soil type, slope and other parameters. 3.2.1 -Complete Clearing Where reservoir sites are recommended for complete clearing, all standing trees are cut, leaving low stumps in the ground. Common practice is to cut to a specified contour such as the regulated high water level or 0.5-1 m above it. However, this concept does not take into consideration that fact that some soils and slopes are more subject to erosion than others. Therefore; where a range of landforms are encountered, different guidelines should be established. A review of 17 reservoirs in Canada where complete clearing was undertaken revealed the following environmental conditions. Generally good aesthetics and recreational opportunities (boating, fishing, camping, cottages, etc). ' I :I " Ll ~ f J f ~ ... ~ ~ -· -!!if,.,.,' .. .. ...... ~ ~ ~ .... -~ TADL£ J.2 Ul1l"l'll Ill-' II'I'JJMIUI'ING VJ\II([ll:l •!:;!!~!H.HZ:!U.!!-l ~:•w!!:mi • t~!~~ U"'{IICtU elWdl'l') Ull!f•lclt• clt•.rrln.J .ud •mH.»••l :;.~lt..""i.l\1\." c.•Jt.\oU iii'J t\:trinL·t~r c·tuu ir111! ltJtcr ~~!1.!.!.!-l'. -tlut dent hulln<J •k1xnlcnt t>rinnrily ut soil }1!.'1cltit•J -lli<Jhly UI'!J'lllic llr.iiH, lllu•t<l ,..., urx.,rslnty likely lu dlt..Uat.J!-\o(llcf" mlor 1 tk'l~l c.lW <Jiuuuhol <"'Y'JCCI (I)(;) nc.u· botlt.._ lncro••!lCtlllnhitlity frt1111 hydr<~Uon wxl Gi~lnlllr~<> ''nmlm. -St..lbility all.U~~r .. d ln ~~llllxlnult!ly 2 yc.•ru -!lutrlcnt ln.><lir•J tq"-"l'bll <•1 tk.'<jH.'C of JJ<Iil ll'k'hlr~l -Uluct..ruc.JI OX)"JCil olcn•u•l Unll '"'l~'<.'tcd to '"' l<Xoi t•llcss hitJhly ot<J<mic .wits -lliqh turbidity IL"Wls -lit.d•lllty .Jtt..oinr..'ll Ill ·~~·rnxlnutely l Y'-"''11 -!i."\! thfiiL'flt aa fur ~,.,xrt•lctL~ elt.Mr inc1• iW•Vl.~ -t:u .. -...t~•-Jncn ... \1.~· in It 'U '-'l<flLOCUd on ln:q:ur.uy hasin -:;tdl>illty ln <>n>~ul<illl•lt•ly l Ill ':> yc.ltn -~h\ (TII'I'I .. ,ts ttu n~••h•h• ~Jt\.ulnct• .llsJ\.\.• -1\"'tt••·ary r Hit.• iu trtl clld tun U:lftJr if t U't~ in l$)ttuu ot n~·t~JU ns.uin st..u"Un.f -!il.thit tty trl •lri.1JtUXi1tUh•Jy 1 tu S yr\Ju;, Jlh' O<•tlily 1\rdulUIOIJY ill to ~- -'lbrp.>r"'1' -t'<ICil it<1lcs tli&ttlth111<.'C cltruv.>tion o( if <lcbds sitcn t.um...l -'1\.'!Jtur.lry -"••hi clc!ltruy tllsturb.lllOO JIOlcntl.al ror if tllbrls OIICaViltiut bmul unlt.'W! (!)II,.'CI.Jt.c<J prior to clc.lrir>J -'Jb•••lidl'j' olistull.o."l j I t~!iu is hutttL.,.J -IHIJo ttooi ty tu l•••• t'l<.\lr .m:lk<Jlr•JI~tl sih .. ou -'J\.'fltaJr~ly ""'l·~jtildll'lf di!ituilutK~ t!Xt:~wtt:.iuu ..... dt.-llf ir. or l••dm.~lcr Loon-.1 ~ill'h -ll•tnl•'t'S c~w.t­ Lilln t•>lL1lil.:~l rot uUatt .u1.~1s ~ l:rosloot SdlllnCI!t:allm• -!jn1c iil¥ln:Uoo cttJSiUl due to CXJ r,)SUrt: lo W.tVC at.."liat WJC~ttL'tJ llf -ilb~icnu.: or lnlm-watur pmt<.'C'tirxt -Plc,>itl.ill<J ll.,brls minlmlzal -IJ,ulk. slill>itl:t.tllut within .. r~. ... )t.'ilr& in nost roils -Dlsnrptlcn uf !lUi! L'OVCr likely to Crr..\1h.' cxtcrwlw t!tu~dnn altH""J slruwlinr..• -1:..~rr.."' of lllsll,>l!Ul <JcopcnJcnt on !l<li I l)llt>•ll.t Slc>t..:! -l:xt:n"c StJJiinl"l•<tli'>ll <'l<J>I.'ClL'<I in SbJI t tern• -lb.hJ.."'l! '-' nxt if irl by ),,.,vlt•J W..1lcr- tuh\r.u1l !lfll""it.o!J I<•·•J· will"w '""' ct>t ltJIW••ll -ll._'tfuu: t'tu~:dun hy fV)l <"'h..\'lt hllj Hh'C11 slt~•·s -Unck..•rW..llt•r tnolf..•'<;Lion tO lrr"lk W.IWII -~X' 4.;c..:urn,•nls lur "tU!I~It.!Ll• t•lt.~ldiKJ,. 4lluvt• '..,." ~ ... t'.illlll!dCS itnd Wilt.lti fc lt.Witat l'otcnlldl !!l!~ -UJvJ pot"'•tlal !or fiuhccy if O"Y'J<lll Jcvuls ilbovc 5 J>pn -G.XJ<l P>l.t!ntinl for dudw, H slw.!llcrs provided -Cocac profcr l.lf.CJl ll<lbitat -~ w.1tcr drinking Bl('l'l)' for tk.'cr, II'OC'J8Q M<l olhcr lrullti\'IIS -J.akcshoro llolbi tat Cor fur boarora ·• Hay oo unllcsJ ralllc inllially toe fisJJCrl<:s doo to turbiulty -ll:ldr.cl.im In lll]Wtic IIL'qlltatim the to rr..'tlua.'tl li ghl JX!nctratlcll'l -t.ak•O!horu h;lllit:.t for fur lx!.1toru :tmllctl 1.>y <ul!lt.a!>lu shorollno ootU sl .. hlllty ~<ttaincd -nw,.J hall! tat for tl<id'.>~, riJ{ltora and shorn birds -nuJ I'Otcnllal for aau.Jtlc nuat11U Is ;md fi sJ ll!rli!S J f O"Y'JCCI h~vu 1 s abJVI'.! 5 pfxu -O:ul "h'ru llolblt:.ot fuo fur l.co~rcrs -Open vatar ddnkin9 supply for •-&1• -O:ul h.'llll tat for rlshcrlc"!l <lllll <JCCOO -Uul !:1.,1'<: I~<Lital f(JI' (ur la.__"ilrors -4lCII w.:.wr drlnldr>J :;lt~Jly for nun•1•·tls !!••!! l!l...::ruallon ~ -t:xtxillcnt potential far IDltlng, fishing, swlmnlng Mil canpoit.es -l'o!lsiblu s.>fcly l:.uanl £ran f1011Ung BtlllPS ard tk.•hds duril'l') rorly years -cntt..aglJ19 possibilities after shore! JllQ slllllil!ZCII -l:.CC\lllcnl i:Utcntial for lnltin<J ltll<l """lJSilt.'fl -JOJOC'td h.ua.nl to lnlting wil!1 no fJo.1ti119 sllM!p!l -l':.<>r rlsh.in<J lllkl swlnmlng potential irtltlally ootil s<.'<lhrcntallon problem int>mvcs -Caxl polt!ntial for lnlt!ng, Clsh.ing lllkl c.111J>Si tea In sulcc:tctl aruas -l'>!lllihtc safety h.1z.uu Croon (Jootin<J ~rls .. .::; :;;:; &, __ ...;.. !~ ronthotlcs Clt!ildll<J dl1ll lillntL'Il.lllOI! ~ -!:xruliL'Illl mlnlllUll -lllu/l clearill<J wsts probrll>Ulty of fluatil'l') R>l}' t.1 offset 1.>y &1lc stliJllG In oold rlocp of ncwc:h.mt:.'lblc Unh!r lakes -Som! CXllltinuin>; shoro- Uoo crQ!lioo in S<:llll are.."'W, pro.,A..-ct..ioo possibl-: in llDSt Cil9CS -Initially E!><Ct!llcnt except roc turbidity -l'rob.lblc shorollnu detcl'iordtiut if cleared to CXllltour -H1n~ to nvderate nu1ntlll1olfl00 roqui rod ror debris, .recreational actillitlcs -Very hi<jh clo.trlll<J coot!l noy bu orrsct 1.>y ~~<~lc of ncrd~~~ntablu tlnOOr -Kllntcrunw tuJuiro<l roc n!croational acti11ltles -K:Jy roqu.l ro \'C<jetatlon planting alUillJ shoculino to n...xluoa crooion -Coal !'OI:Pntia 1 but ~t on = clmrotl -JU<jt clearing costs may oo offset l.>y nate of ncrchiltltablc tintx>r -Moderate aaintenanee required to clear debria end for .r•creational acHvitieo -Cull! JX>lcnllal ror ln:JllniJ, -Sec comrcnls for rlsldn<J and c.111J"'ites •<Xlllplctc clcarill<J" -lli<Jt clearlll<J costs may be orcsot by sale of lll!rc:hantallle Uniler -loosilllu Sdfoty hazanl rran f!oatin<J ~rls -I'Osnlble Sna<J'.Iin<J of Cilll<hl<J 11 nos -Stllll.! ln1tln<J llilz.1nl Ulh!SG t.ow<>J ~if towed -tl:J<loratc to high nointenancu lUj\Uro<l to clear debris and for recreational a<:tiviUes ,__., ___ .....,:-:--··· ...... --:-w··-~._~-.,~_., _____ .... :·--·--··'"--··-..-.. ....... ---............ ~---:-----· ........ ·~-:~~~~r.mlli!limilillii:!!iiHIIilinlilllilill•a••••-••~~~~-----·--------------------------- ·f" ~·-~·...J ett ~ \...\ .;"1>- """"" .. .. , l .. 1' :~..-· ~.;p. -~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ TAllut l.2. J.t.h"'--l ... ••I IJ1t.th:J'Il.:UlHtLJ y,.u lUU$_ lt..'":!,l,!l\'l..fia l*lc..d ifllj !ite".Jlt.."',Jil:!£ -2 !_!!.t.:a~ .!ildSit h.uutJ-.J• b.uyli"J or chl~~"'"J u.t. fi<AJI. """' b.un t'l''!.l,•ratut tlunUUIJ ur tt.~tl-st -t.l:l\lL!r hAll t U.:'ll. -t,; h\tJ Uito• ll••••u•JI W..tcr Y!Uiity -!:A.~ O.l11ll!'ltts Jor •curtdctu clc.;r II"!* .:lln\.u -Mudauu !llf.lrr.Jt.·t t*~'t,:pt for tur:tthli ty ..., .. ,au:,.., I of uOj.Jitics '"' b>ltnm to JjU:f'UlS\,~ Wh>L -11tnwu• i•t...ct !Iilli<> (ilo.lll<Ji.' lntn>l -'t,~t•Jt. .. uy • as.· 10 ••• , ...... IJ(IUJ t'UhU 11-UU ltl't~ :..t .. u•hti'J •n hAtu't •~I 1\"!.it..'t~•;aa .!' ~~ • ~ --.. -llir (.IU.Ilily J\n;l)o.IW I U'JY SHu Cfhx·u:_. -'1\>lt<>r.uy -F.x.:ll itiltt:!>i Jistwb:l:IW t!l<I.:OlvatlCJtl if frtllll dcbrlll ls b.unln<J Lunut or in c:hltl& -lllilyln<J of slash ruui.J ~or <lcsl.roy !liJlCfltf.JJ lUI !lite lnvcsu- IJlltioo -'IU!torary -l"t'I'!.M!>.l """-""l!l dlSl1.111»11CQ to si~C.!I <~IOO<J rivers -'1\:!at.ur.uy uujor •listUIUVlU! -•acl.hto~tcs cxru11.1tion 11 allu.uJ folluwh~; Clc.t.r..,.,.tt M<l pdor to bumuJo.• -llUOIII•J O( on,rllltl! layc1S llt.t!ly to Jistwll site -'ll!ut•••·"Y -t«> "'t.urt11111ty •llstwhl'lU.• lu &n\U>liy..tc tf •l:bt is l••lcntial sites Wn•:al~l sih• tmslorl/ St:.Uinct\t.dtlat• -llwylll<J ot sJ.:tsh should b.! ,r_,.y frun shoreUoo urt>l to nsluoo ercllilon pltenUo~l -IJUryif"J of llidlllt wiUiin rost!rvoir site 11Ul cr<.'illC ilcdliOOntatillll in n .. .oscrvoir -.Sou Ulntll.!lltS Jtu .. cu'l"lcte ch~t irMJ .. •Woi/C' ..., !,.cc UClliL"Hls: 1\.tJ *cnltllt.•tc ch\.tt'!r~t· ..w...c -I*Ul\!'Jlti...tl t:f"'ti1Lfl ut sl¥11'<'1 tnu "''lh <lyin<J tnJ<.'Il f<~ll il><J into (C$1.1 J"\Ini r -tiJ.r.!JIUil ~UIIL'fll41l1J'I &!' <111' 'B ... ~ ~ L _ _..! ~-z t'il>h.!ril!s ww.l WUd1Hu U.Jbi tat ll::>tootlal ln 1\:!sorvolr -~ICJ<Ild not. l:ll.hiu..Jll!ly affect habitat. for f.lshunoo and wiltllifu it bu.1111 well oonunlloo • I IU.Il JIKj lint.!l· ol 1-'•ll!tllt.Jl. h.udnl to iJl)U.ltiC 1JUU1Dal S -11tmnun .111p>ct. on Usblrlcs -lJOV•c:wed shore huLitat !or fur l.L'ilrors -1.\-""l drinking watur ll.lbltiit for IJ1.lll1WIB -<u.x.t lloll:ut.st for f1slltlrics an.! gcuoo -1\>tcnUal for lh.cks H slltll tcrs prollidod -1.\-'llll ddnklJlg Wdter SltJI>ly for ......,..111 ~ lnpJ'(.)IIC(! shoru l•witat for fur l.Jw.n:!rs -'1\;lllJ.>l".lJY ha.%nnl dur:ing burn, wntrol l!....::ntial Jt..~rcation ~ -Hay .iJl\'ude lxlating lll1<l Ciohlng if wrte.J ulaah CIICIItUIIIJy Ilrut.q -t:l<celll.!flt ~A>lcnti.Jl for Luatl["J, fishing, swillminy, ~!l&itcs -Poosible initial saf<.oty hazanl fcan floating wbds -'VJ<a:ll""t potuntial for ..oatiii'J, fishing, swimnin<J and C~K~pSitcs -Minillun saf~o;ty h.lzanl -l.>«:clle~t. potencial for -I'Dt8ltial lw:arcl to h!lho.:ry if oxygoo I<.'Ve)S Looting .:W.IIIC 5 f\10 -lntliV~I shore habitat rm fur Lcarers -'~""' drinking WiJter '"«'lY for milnauls -Stili finhiiVJ cnly, due to srugging of lines -l'otcntial for Cdlt!l&i tcs l\u£thltics -Guoo.l potential U dcbr:ia bumud -t:lcpoct se»ll ·floating dcbds fraa burying cr chlpa -tl<;.;l I-Ol"'otial t!XCL'J'l in b>y" lotltlre log bJooG aru I.DiltaiiW _prior to n'rli:>V'dl -J::xcellcnt, "lUvugh possibility of 9C>IC ~looting dcbr:is -Elcotlllont (X>tcntial Initially -E~<pX:t floating debris CIICiltUIIlly bo\: JMY t.ai;c ll>liiY yoarn in cold, deep laiu!:K ·-~~ --r·~--· .. -· ~·~~-·~-·,,~ --...-~ ......... -~----..--...----,.---......... -----:-~,~......,--_ --:· .,..-_~_C:t,,~_... '"-~ ~--.-XL#iaf_~-- ~ ,, L-~ ....... ~ ........ ~ ...__..,. ,J Cloa.riiKJ lll1<l •wntenanro !llst.s** -Low to nll<k!ratu cluaring OOGt;s -H.inim•• aaintcmnoo for chip~~ pcnctratlf"J int:alce screen or ·looting dcbr is -lligh clwrii~J ousts ""'' LL! or foot ~ sale of ~rchant<lble tlnber -Jotlderatc aua.lntcniWIIU! for floating debris lll1<l recreatloo -Hodatata to hl<j11, clctuillng 011 "*"'tb>r i1rCil is cl.oor-cut: prior to burliing -Hin!.aun ...Untenancc for rucroatloo and dcbr:is -Low to aoderat:e -lblarate ...Unter~ •rEquirud to cluar debris p.rl.odically .1... ~~-'!~' ,. ~ -~ ~ " " l •l I I ~ 1 i L·. 1 ! I I . ~ ~ tl -'<::· w-,y . ' .~ .... ~ ii."'.l • • -: 11 ,.iJ ,,' . -~:~?·:t;.;;:c · -~::~:-~'Z"~.t'~:r-·'1~7~-;:;?'~ _ :~0:~:;~;~., ~.:~ . .::-~;r-;._-::.'!, ~ ;;;; ;.. t.t;_..L~~.~:~:_ ;l~ <: ' ·:..~:i<l '·'(:,;· ,J;;~:,_· J-Q:.~";,.: -~-"".:~.::~;:~f..;~ "~'• L ~ .. ~: .. ,~ ¥•.#;':"""'· '--~~":->."""·t. ~:.~ · .-..;,~t;,~:.?'r~:,,_:~t'. ;r~: '~ •• '/-'" ""~ • -~rt--~ ~-:~~-.--~::l;f:Y· ,t:_._~-; -~~~ IJT:i<t"'"!';· ~a::r~ .·~·.:.'"if : .... :. :-·:-; • -<'~'-!'... ~; ,_. ~ ... :~ ! •. ..:iii .t . ~ TIUII.e J.2 ii. ·a '"· \ .. ~··, . ~ .... J,t tu·t:. -u~ 1Jtttltttt.1ll U•J V,:ujous h .... .A.'J\'UU \•Jc.'ltifltJ !it.r..Jh.!'JiCS- ~tr.!~"..X 'tt1o,. 1 :~tdn•h•J 'L•lUr.•l c)wdr~.l t~J t"h~u U~J W.'llt.!l' S!ill!.!!t -Mlninu11 l~q>OCt IJul t•>"!Sibl~ '""' nuldcnl tultrii.Jutlm f""'' otlti>IC..'<I tp.>)O<Jio: h_'\tlHI'CS -!il.'tt tum1•nl!i O.'~JllnlitllJ •u••11h:lt.:" ._ .. J~uintJ'" ~~ -tin.!lilt!t incrt.'\ISI! Jn llv -lurk o>!<~r.otlon of W.Jt••• -Sbhility in !l lo 10 }'<.>IrS -!il.'-~ CU111l!UlS fOr' "u••t,lt-t~ ~lc.aritltJ .. ill.tJ\IU (tjlt..'lllt•' ltx.~r(.•.ts.t .. hi ll~l t•>qn'h•l •~I l-t11 • .tlt,H)* l•1!".(~) -W.ah•t t:UhU SL.&ftk.!ll..-UM) d ... uk -Ill< lilt,."' (Jj ,ko_. t<J i.s¥-•rnJ~'t t«O .uttt iuhil•itJ,•t ut' IAJi(U!iynU•"!lt'i lt,· ••J1Ltlu: l*l'"u'tu ,.,. !JL,tl1ltily lt!.ldll~t ht ..:(i•ttndi1Ut(.~ly ~ lo 10 yc: .. tHi- * · W.tl\•i' 'J(::..i.•l {hL'I"tliUl!: .~"""l tu t.· t:UIIln•tl ...... _ .. ,,,~ .-~~.~ .. l.lualilt -'I \.:sit urary dislurt.ancc If <~>I.Jris bnnL~I -,._~ JnfJo~.:-t -th jrl}>l<.."l ••n~as •k"!tc-rit ... ,t ... uH tl'ldt ;'A. tu ,htht<, t~h .. u uasJ hl tdh"fll'H .... _ .. ~ ~" ~~ .....-.,.----. .. -,..--...--. -~.___,__,,. . .,_~. ,_ ---..~.-~"--·--· ~ 1\rdiJOOIO<.Jll Site ~ ~• -l.rtJBion/ ~~l.J.t~ .- -:;iw lniiCSU--H Li.lduitm.., lJ'llion :rust Btdl'l"'"'• c(()<lial pn.'CO.kl strlwlnq mln1JI\Izcd -Ill q'l••rtunlty l<> l~:.'lti•;o.~tu JXIL<'IltJ,tJ Slt~'!l unl<.,;s J>{'o.Jdflc pt'UijhMII 0f)l;\•r- li\kcn -lt.J i1!"''t"'uly w hM!Sllt~1tc t•>lcnl1.tl si lcs 1111£"..15 Stx"•lfi<~ prt•JI"tlfn urd.!r ... lt,ikl!U -~ stu&~llru I."JTJSion wt th tru.-. Jo:;.s -swbh slm'l! line• cllenlolo.llly -thxl!N..Jll."r pnltt"C.~t iun lu roJtu! w.>w j n;liX.'t -lk-1"-••l.,nt oo !).li I tYJl(>, slo{lt!, "'''""' ... w...--t. hwl, nlzt• ur rt'l9'r-vrur -tll.MIS."-.tt~ lrt~•.U hro\k w-.tYP:J H.,fnc.:UltJ W.l\\• t~n.>s:i(•U • --fJ ... •• ---risli<!rlcs Wlll Wlldlifc lf,>hit~t IUtcntlal. !!!1'!:-~n!ili ---- -t·•lt;hurlt-<& l~ililt t.t'JI'C -t..~tw .. al pnxluc::tlon p:xn IU~~rian !J.'L>tal JUII,' (0' (U>i b."<1Ccrt -'"'. <'n' 1•_.td l~•hitat :\·· •• little tJWSf t'Ct f<Jr' w..-......~ tQ cst.1l· •,.lsh • "tl..lt~tuiJ• h'll.>lt.:Jt -1\Jlcut tal (or llshlll<J II Ol<}'<Jl!ll lo~ls ~1W 5 _H.'IU -£1~•rcu,..., ht':.ltiJt ro .. 'll' l.caw " f.xo.•l1e.•l ror u co nc!:tirl<) >l.'lt<'l' fu•d -I'UlL'flli.>l for fishery lr Ol!}'\JCI'I (QIItl)S oiliJvc !> r:pn -l!>«'l!!ll..,.,l t~CSlintJ sl tcs llocrcatim i"U'11ti.>l. -t:.CWUcnt j.l>t.cnt~al for l.ruUrl<), ""'l;mtdn<J ar!.\1 CiVIf'Gitcs -.Mln.lnr . .., .:t.>fcty luzard -too.-JX>tt:!l:' J.~.l •lue to b:aiUI>'J hazartls, Sllil!J<Jiug of fli:hi.JKJ I;.,.,., .. ~cslr­ ablc Joc..tUal for Ci.llltmit~ -l>oor •x:<.:css -lror r.otcnllal the lo hooHn<J h.1z.1nls, ...,.._..,.irablc loct~tiul for t:.:Olt>SitL'S ror ral;tms. hcra19, -1\<..u:ss likely w oo W'~Lctk"'l auor mlcss specifically pruvltlc<l -SulJ&a.!t'JL'Il _n~tt.."'rJal pruvhk:s stiJstmta fur .rul'wurhs t.UIII•w t k'S -!lti ll Ush{tiCJ "In sttnt,.6" hlstboticu -l.lnro!<.t.ural ·''1-l'''"ri!IICE' .:llb e>qlOflC<I rock -llad{sl"'ro \ln:.t.l!'l~ r'tlqulrcd to pruvidu OOStl1Ctic.t111' !·ICMant vista -roor wi U1 st.uklil'l<J tt"(!(.,'S tJbM._ ~t.Cl Jcvul and flmtin<J debris -I 'WI' wl U• st.nling tn..'CS dblr .. ;., "illtl! level ariLI Clootll'l<J debris -"Clultt:r-ct~ .. slv.nelina .,~ ·fl --Clellriii<J ar•l M.1lnt0flilll00 ~-- .,_.,.., "~· . --. --, . ~ -lllcjl lo vccy hi!}h dcpcn<ling oo ~ltc =•· troy I.e ofCoot by sal<! of l!l)J'ChiurWI.Jle tinter) -HinioaJII ....Unt..Jn<n::e for J"L'Crcatlorl.ll activities -Hinl•al clening cooh for d-altea, for•baya and canala -lloderate tc vary hlqh uintenanca required on periodic baaiD to clear debr ill -Hlni•al clear h19 coats for Lt•ai tau, ~or~b•ys and can~l• -Moderctte to 'hlqh moslntcnllu~ ... required or, ·periodic baols to clur debris ,..,,. .... "-9 JIQ!li!Bl tN -.....! . 1 .. , .. •·( I ' •.•. : '' I I . . I : •. ;1 • .. .,.. It··· 38 -Water quality is similar to inflow 10 to 50 years after flooding (exception maybe Wreck Cove, Nova Scotia where revegetation of exposed soils is considered a key factor in changes in water 1uality after 2-1/2 years of monitoring). Waterfowl capability is generally poor due to lack of habitat. Floating stump removal is usually required on a continuing basis after flooding. -Erosion along shoreline also tends to uproot tree stumps. 3.2.2 -Complete Clearing and Grubbing This clearing strategy involves the cutting of all standing trees at the reservoir site and removal of all stumps (grubbing). The term grubbing is sometimes u~Pj to include the removal of all attendant vegetation. Two reservoirs were identified in Canada where complete clearing and grubbing was carried out prior to flooding (Guelph Reservoir, Ontario; Bighorn Reservoir, Alberta). Indications are that water quality is simi- lar to inflow characteristics at both these reservoirs 5 years and 10 years after flooding, respectively~ 3.2.3 -Selective Clearing Individual trees or groups of trees remain standing while others are cut. Selective clearing may be based on timber merchantability and species requirements, desirability of developing types of wildlife and ' . . , ·I'~. . " ; ) .li • t f • i). !I.· j • !.I: ' . f . ' • ~~·· . • • i • ' 11JI: f,i., .I '. ,, ' 39 fisheries habitat, aesthetic requirements, or economics. There are two possible strategies for selective clearing of a reservoir siteo -Selectively clear trees from the area. -Designate selected areas for clearing Lased on requireme£~ts for wildlife/fisheries habitat, migration routes, recreation, etc. As selective clearing of reservoirs is a relatively recent practice, there is little documentation of environmental effects. During the formation of Mica . Dam in British Columbia, Kinbasket Lake was selectively cleared in 1972. fl.t.. low water level tree stumps and other debris are exposed along the shoreline. Extensive debris accumulation is expected to continue for 6 to 10 years and clearing will be carried out until 1985. Selective clearing is also planned for the Cat Arm Reservoir in Newfoundland. It is believed that this strategy will reduce negative ecological effects and improve shoreline succession, aesthetics and recrea- tional opportunities (Hunter and Associates, 1980). Minimal selective clearing (approximately 1 percent of total reservoir surface area) has been carried out for the La Grande complex east of James Bay. Clearing involves access ramps at fishing sites and areas suit- able for spawning at mouths of tributaries (as well as clearing required for civil structures) • Environmental effects for the James Bay reservoirs are outlined in the ~no clearing" section since these reservoirs were virtually uncleared ... 1 ~.· ' ' j I I ' .• I I ~· ll 40 3.2.4 -Perimeter Clearing This term refers to an area cleared around the peri- meter of a reservoir. It usually applies to a certain distance above regulated high water level and below regulated low water level of a reservoir. The clearing limits are usually based on specific contour levels as stated in Section 2.2.1 but as stated previously, this is unrealistic since it does not take into account variations in soil types and slopes. On occasion, perimeter clearing is considered synonymous with selective clearing (Nelson et al, 1978). Environmental effects were reported for five Canadian reservoirs where perimeter clearing was selected -Recovery of floating debris required for first few years following flooding. -Minimal change in water quality. -Initial trophic surge followed by stability. -Temporary disturbance to fish from increased sedimentation. -Potential recreational hazard from floating debris. 3e2.5 -Slash Burning, Burying or Chipping The term "slash" includes branches and tops of trees but does not include merchantable ti~;-;L-er. In some cases, slash is piled and burned, the debris and ashes buried above top water level. ',· n If , I •• 1 { ..~~.~ ' l ' ;; ' J i l ,'. . ~ ; IJ . . IJ ·I! ' ' J " I 41 Alternatively, chippers can reduce brush and small timber to a mulch covering the forest floor or the chips can be used in paper, pressboard or as fuel. This clearing strategy is most often used in combina- tion with complete clearing, selective clearing or perimeter clearing options. If burn is above reservoir level, brush should not be dragged as this moves fine grained material and opens future erosion channels. 3.2.6 -Cut, Float and Burn The cut, float and burn method is utilized where removal of timber from an area with limited accessibi- lity requires alternative action. This involves cutting the trees prior to filling of the reservoir and allowing the rising waters of the reservoir to float wood out of the area. Alternatively, trees are cut along river banks and allowed to float to a burning site. It has been suggested that clearing costs can be substantially reduced using the cut and float method since 10 to 30 percent of the slashed material sinks before reaching the burning sites (Proctor & Redfern, 1980). There is a danger that some of this material will resurface later, however, as described in Section 2. 2.3. While log booms can be used to control the direction and flow of this material, it can be a hazardous and environmentally disruptive operation, depending on the size of the area to be inundated and river character- istics. Only some tree species are amenable to flota- tion removal. Use in predominantly hardwood areas is r1ot practical. {j l ' I ! l l I l i l l 1 l ' t, • l)t I ·' ll[ [ 42 Boats are used to tow the floating material to preselected burning sites where it is piled by cranes and burned. As cranes are piling the debris, they can also retrieve merchantable logs (Lower Churchill Development Corporation Limited, 1980)~ Trees can be cut during ice covered periods if reservoir filling starts during construction phase. Logs are then floated out in the spring for retrieval or burning. 3.2.7 -Prescribed Burning of Forest Cover This technique involves burning of the entire forest cover including removal of litter and other organic matter. An area is burnt with or without prior cutting of the timber, as determined by economics. Fire can consume organic matter. from the litter, humus and fermentation layers, and its effects may penetrate the mineral layer; this penetration is dependent on fire intensity, amount of organic matter in the soil, and the type of vegetation, as ivell as the moisture content of the vegetation (Meth et al, 1978). It has been shown that 79 to 81 percent of the organic matter from the litter and humus layers can be consumed by burning (Smith, 1970). It was estimated that suitable site and operational conditions allowed the burning of 200 to 259 ha/d at the Green River reservoir site in New Brunwick (Meth et al, 1978). There have been instances v1here control of the burn has been difficult (due to weather conditions) and fires ! } I f i ). \ l l ; 1 I f I 't ,I I I. I: ,JI' I~. 43 have consumed forest outside of the prescribed burn limits .. 3.2.8 ~ Modified Clearing (topping) Prior to flooding, standin'3 trees on the floor of the reservoir site and adjacent slope are cut to a desir- able height below the regulated low water level rather than leaving low stumps. Alternatively, only those trees on the reservoir floor which will be evident above the regulated low water level or which may clog control gates are cut. These are then removed or wired down to prevent operatitOnal and recreational hazards from floating logs. This latter strategy was comr.:.Jn. practice by the Tennessee Valley Authority prior to improved mechanization for cutting and removing timber from reservoir sttes (Davis, 1946}. A variation of this technique is to mount hydraulic tree shears on a bocit or barge after partial filling of the r(~servoir and to top those trees which are expected t·o appea:r; above regulated lovl water level (¥~.aster and Mikuchi, 1978). Topping of trees can also be carried out afte·r freeze-up from the ice surface. Depending on the size of the reservoir, this clearing strategy may involve considerable maintenance costs following flooding for removal of floating debris. 3.2.9 -Topsoil Stripping Among the earliest clearing practices employed in North Americet was stripping, i.e., the removal of all vegeta- tion and topsoil from the bottom and sides of the reservoir site prior to its filling (Stearns, 1890). ~I I \f' ·--~ , .. I 'I I I ,I I 44 TO evaluate the effectiveness of soil stripping prior to reservoir clearing, a methodology has been developed by Campbell et al (1975). -Identify different soil types within the area to be flooded. -For each soil type sample, analyze topsoil (0 to 10 em) and subsurface layer ( 20 to 30 em) 'v'hich would be uncovered by stripping operations. -Immerse different soil types, both topsoil (~nstripped) and subsurface (stripped) samples, in river water and monitor overlying water. The simulation of eventual flooding should be carried out under controlled conditions (temperature, light, oxygenation) and in large plastic tanks installed at the reservoir site where they are subjected to normal summer climatic fluctuations. Christie reservoir, a small impoundment in Ontario with a surface area ·of 60 ha, has a recreational surface that was encavated to bedrock. The Hamilton Region Conservation Authority reports good water quality and no problems with algae blooms. The reservoir capacity was increased and there is no continuing maintenance required. Some islands have been created for wood ducks. 3.2.10 -No Clearing Another early practice was to inundate a reservoir site with no clearing of the land prior to filling of the reservoir. This was a common method used when power I l j, l f i· I· l l I I L i f j1i II: 1.· f' l r i I f f l I I I l' f' :I ·I • ~ I • l' :I . • I ,I I •I I ·u :I • ;B 1 ,D 45 chain saws and heavy mechanical equipment were not available and where it was not economically feasible to clear by ax and hand saw. The "no clearing" term implies that the main reservoir area is left untouched except for required clearing of forebays, canals and damsites. Based on a review of 12 case histories in Canada where reservoirs were not cleared, the following ·environmental effects were identified. -Insignificant to extreme variations in physical/ chemical conditions followed by stabilization within 2 to 5 years {La Grande Complex, James Bay). Initial trophic surge then stabilization within 2 to 5 years (La Grande Complex, James Bay). -Higher maintenance costs associated with clearing floating debris (compared with other clearing strategies). Recreational activities lireited and hazardous ih reservoirs not cleared. Poor aesthetics expected for decades as a result of drowned forest. 3.2.11-Natural Clearin~ The James Bay Energy Corporation has been exp€·r.imenting with the clearing of reservoirs by natural agt 1ts such as wind and ice. When flooded trees become t~ozen into ice and the water level is lowered, the force exerted is sufficient to break the trunks of trees of consider- able size. The trees are then removed from the water after the ice has thawed (Bollulo, 1978). No informa- tion on the success of this approach is presently ,I available. ' l 1 l 1 1- ! l l l I I { l t ! ' r ' \ ' i I f, f) l~l jJ If\. pt m ~1 .. • g ll I 46 3.2.12 -Underwater Postflood Clearing In some cases, particularly where partial clearing or no clearing options are selected or when time constraints so dictate, it may become desirable or necessary after flooding a reservoir to carry out an underwater clearing program. This can be accomplished by mounting hydraulic tree shears on a boat or barge {as mentioned previously) and performing the operation during periods of regulated low water levels. The timber thus removed is sound and when dried, can be used. 3.2.13 -Reservoir Sweeping It is common practice to "sweep" a reservoir of all floating wood after flooding has taken place. This is usually done for safety and aesthetic reasons, as well as to avoid pile-up of debris at control gates once the reservoir becomes operational. Periodic sweeps and removals are carried out when the District Forester or owner of the reservo1r considers floating debri$ to p~esent a hazard. The debris can be contained by a boom and mov~d into a bay for subsequent qisposal. 3~3 -Survey of Practices According to Reservoir Size Table 3.3 provides a summary of the clearing strategies identified for a number of reservoirs in Canada where surface area was known. It is readily apparent that the dominant practice for small reservoirs is to completely clear existing trees unless inaccessibility, tree density, timber markets, slope stability or ecological factors are overriding concerns. - ,. ' - \- 'i:I:: 4&J~ iib~~; TABLE 3.3 CLEARING STRATEGIES IN CANADA ACCORDING TO RESERVOIR SIZE* Number of Surface Area Reservoirs of Reservoir Surveyed (ha) <1 000 20 1 000 to 10 000 24 >10 DOO to 50 000 11 >50 000 13 Total 68 ~L~~ .... i ',, -~ *Primarily hydro reservoirs. J -.~ .4 ort:t ~ .,"!!'; ~!'~. ~ ' •:;..]! Cleari~g Strategy .-r;:~ . No Complete Slearinig Clearing 2 .1:3 (10%) (65%) 3 15 (13%J (62%) 5 3 (46%) (27%) 4 1 (31%) (8%) 14 32 (21%) (47%) -~---·------------_,.-... ,-.. *.-'"'~-"''-----... -·~-----~----,---___. ......... ~---·~-""""'---.......-~-"'-~--~ ·---~._,..,...._ .... __ -~-~--~--- 11!!1! &?A ~1!::! "'!'"· -.. • ,.,.,.. ~~ t-1~ -· ......-:... -~~~~.a. ~· .__ __ _ -!!-.. ~ ~ ~ Clearing Perimeter Selective and Topsoil Clearing Clearing Grubbing St:_ripping 1 2 1 1 (5%) (10%) (5%) (5%) 3 2 1 (13%) (8%) (4%) 1 2 (9%) (18%) tl:lo 1 7 -....) (8%) (53%) 6 13 2 1 (9%) (19%) (3%) 1(%) 11 I/ .I I ti , ' I . , 1!1 IJI 111 aw D ' ' 48 For reservoirs with a surface area of 1,000 to 10 000 ha, a large majority are still completely cleared, although there is a tendency toward increasing use of perimeter clearing. As would be expected, t.he no clearing strategy becomes more important with increasing size (>10 000 to 50 000 ha) and few reservoirs greater than this size ha?2 their entire peri- meters cleared.* Reservoirs >50 000 ha are either not cleared in Canada or key areas are identified for selective clearing, e.g. for improved access to enhance spawning areas, for removal of merchantable timber, etc~ 3.4 -Jurisdictional variations A brief review of current policy and clearing practices in Canadian and us jurisdictions follows. For examples of site-specific ~learing practices, see Appendixes A and B. 3.4.1 -Canada ___ ,_ Responsibility for developing clearing guidelines varies between provinces. In Ontario and Briti§h Columbia, for example, the provincial forest ministries prepare site-specific reservoir clearing guidelines but in other provinces it is usual practice for utilities to hire consultants for this purpose. In all provinces,. except British Columbia, the responsibility for clearing lies with the reservoir operator. For a review of jurisdictional variations in Canada, see Table 3.4. *Also, more costly techniques such as grubbing and topsoil stripping are presumably no longer economically feasible for reservoirs >lD 000 ha in surface area. - I I l ! f I l l ll ll I I l' r l ! I '·' ~ I l I l ( I l t "I I _f ~· ·~· ·~ I ~ .. ! L·"l I ' . l ; ! " i p ·~ ~~~ TABLE 3.4 ~;;;-i ~,:.,;,:~ L~,~~ ;ct .. , .. ..., '""' ~~4 SURVEY OF RESERVOIR CLEARING PRACTICES IN CANADA Province or Territory Alberta ... British Columbia Responsibility for Clearing and Costs Reservo:fr Operator Government X Costs only Clearing only *EA-En~ironmental Assessment. 'WL,....,J ~.l"""'t'~~"'eli Government Approvals Required ~ .W""..-""'"1'·~- Department of Environment, Alberta Forest Service B.C. Forest Service "~·--...,...:.-------·~..._.., ..... ............., _____ ,.......,~--,~-.. --..,.-~.----..-,~~·--~-,_..___, .. __ ~·-"-..__ ___ ~~~~-----· t!f,...-·)'> ,.~ lj If ·ir<~ lt l!!!!!!!!'l ~,; .. ,.:;:;-:;-!\"~ !t¥2£1! 31,.= .J!I!! k .. , __ .., .!~-.. .§3 ..... 14-.·;.::::--.:.;:.:~-~ Clearing_ Practice EA* usually required; common result is that merchantable timber removed prior to complete clearing to high water level. Stumps left are required to be < 30 em high and debris is piled and burned according to specifications (Alberta Forest Service, 1981) • Tendency to move away from "no clearing .. option due to high cost of cleaning up old reservoirs. Clearing guidelines established on site-specific basis,, Common practice is to clear and burn everything between high water and far enough below low water to permit boating. Exception is inaccessible areas where cut and float practice is used. Merchantable timber salvaged where possible. B.C. Hydro has spent millions of dollars on debris clearing ($30 million to 1981 on one reservoir). Practice is to beach debris during drawdown and pile and burn using crawler tractors. This is the most efficient method. 11 Boil and burn" method is used where there is little drawdowns or unsuitable beaches are available. This is done using booms and large cranes with specially designed debris grapples. ~ 1.0 ~ .. '· -··, -=-!!~·~" ~i r""~· ~ , ~(~ <! ~ : ~-y~~ i •i;· "' l ~~;:\: { . l ~·''' { . • i ~·c' ! :_f'.cc j ~·.:').,! ~" \" t: "1 •'··.' .. · i i . ! ' . .· i -~: ' '\) [ .. ' ; . ~ l 1f.::~~~ !ltL 14 p.-.~~~a Table 3.4 : ..... ~=~~1: ~!¥~:1~~ &~ Survey of Reservoir Clenring Practices in Canada -2 ~w~~~ Rnsponsibility for Clearing and Costs Province or Territory Nova Scotia NortlnJest Territories/ Yukon Reservoir Operator Government X X Ontario X Prince Edward X Island ;l!~ .. ,; t~ ~~-==~ ~:a Government Approvals Required '2--\,:::p~r;~~~ Department of Environment, Department of Lands and Forests Territory and Federal Government Agencies Ministry of Environment/ Natural Resources Department of Community Affairs (responsible for water courses and environment) , ~---· _,~---~----•• ---~/_/_/ --.-_:,--~~~---:, ........ ~ ..................... """ ,._ ~ .... ..., • .._.__ "'";~ ................ ---.. --..,..... _ .. _ .... !It ~ t;.,,..l<~'?'l''";";.,:'j A •. S!!! -"'-':.:.· ::·;.,, ..... ~ ~ <:<''' ·~:-\} ~.,..':oft"~ ~--:. -,:~;;~ l.-~·::"_.1 .. ,' » Clearing Practice Guidelines developed on site-specific basis by reservoir operator. North of 60-deg latitude reservoirs generally not cleared prior to flooding. Recent regulations of Northern Inland Waters Act (1972) require perimeter cle'aring to mitigate unsightly aspects of flooded shorelines in visually sensitive areas (Northern Canada Power Commission, 1981). General guidelines recommend complete clearing but in practice more comprehensive guidelines are developed on site-specific basis. For MNR reservoirs, Class EA states that timber below flood contour may be cut and removed or left standing for fish and wildlife habitat (also see Section 3.4.1). Guidelines deveJ)ped on site-specific basis by J.:eservoir operator. ... ..-.; a.· ~ tJ1 0 •'i , I I 1 ~~ ... _, I ' · ... " , ·I ,':b·,..· l ~:~·.-1 .-. . t ·~;_ r~; .. , ·I ' ' . t t e~ 1l!'flWt ~if:..~ • ..., :ff·. @JiL~ -~~ ~~ Table 3.4 Survey of Reservoir Clearing Practices in Canada - 3 Province or Territory Quebec Saskatchewan ,. ~-. : "' ~-· .... ~. Responsibility for Clearing and Costs Reservoir Operator Government X ,,..., At). IL ... .,._@ ~~~;:....-...,- Government Approvals Required ·~ ~ ~~~"'W" Departments of Environment/ Lands and Forests Departments of Environment/ Tourism and Renewable Resources ~t..-!1 '~~·~~ 8:r! JII!IINJ ._,..,,J.f""~f*11' i~ ~-w:;;t;.-;;::;:p. -4!" t~~~J;i ..... Mv.,.;;~.t:;t~·"~ --k:~;t;~ . .;i }I Clearing Practice Guidelines developed on site-specific basis by reservoir operator: must be supported by environmental studies. Guidelines developed on site-specific basis by reservoir operator as part of environmental assessment process. ,0 U1 ...... 52 In Ontario, there is no standardized procedure for reservoir clearing, although the Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR) provides brief guidelines on a general basis and some specifically for MNR's reservoirs. The Design Guidelines for Forest Mana,gement, published by MNR, specify that "all re3ervoir sites should be clearcut to above the floodline and debris removed". In practice, more comprehensive reservoir clearing guidelines are prepared on a site-specific basis by the District Forester in .Consultation with the Regional Forester, local lr1NR fisheries, and wildlife personnel and reservoir operations. For MNR reservoirs, a Class Environmental Assessment for Ministry of Natural Resources• dams and dikes has been developed and is pending approval by the Ministry of the Environment. It states that areas to be flooded must be cleared of all merchantable timber and remaining vegetation appropriately disposed to avoid hazardous situations. The Environmental Quality Implementation Handbook {MNR, 1979), which was prepared as an appendix to the MNR Class Environmental Assessment for Ministry of Natural Resources' dams and dikes provides the following guidelines for clearing of reservoirs. (a) The proposed reservoir area should be accurately determined. This c~n usually be accomplished by mapping flood contours on a topographical map but may, however, require surveying of some areas. (b) Large timber below the flood contour may be cut and removed or be left standing to provide for fish and waterfowl habitat. The Fish and Wildlife 53 Supervisor and the Forest Management Supervisor should consult with the Regional Engineer in charge of the project to determine what approach is most suitable. (c) Timber which is cut should be felled so as to avoid damage to trees which will be left standing. In inaccessible areas such work may best be accomplished in winter when ice conditions ~rmit easier access. If possible, large timber which is cut should be marketed. (d) In these cut areas, stripping should not be under- taken where the subgrade is composed of inert materialsv i.e., gravels, sands and clays. Small shrubs and ground vegetation will reduce the potential for erosion and may enhance fisheries habitat. (e) The excavation of organic deposits may be neces- sary in cut areas or in bogs or swamps below the flood contour. This is to prevent nutrient load- ing of the waterbody or the input of toxic sub- stances which may be contained in these deposits. The District Biologist and Fish and Wildlife Supervisor along with the Regional Engineer in charge of the project should determine in consul- tation the necessity and feasibility of excavating su~h deposits. Such activities when undertaken should conform to the MNR Environmental Quality Implementation Handbook for Dredging. While the above guidelines appear to be somewhat contradictory, the general practice is to remove salvageable timber wherever this is practical unless environmental concerns dictate otherwise. If 1). l l .; 54 Sites are generally cleared to a level 1 to 3 m above the regulated high water level, reducing the possibi- lity of trees falling into the impoundment. Stumps are usually required to be no higher than 10 em except below the regulated low water level where they may be Uf to about 50 em, depending on MNR requirements and intended reservoir uses. Nonsalvageable timber is required to be removed from the a~ea to be flooded and is burned according to MNR specifications. Prior to burning, a permit is required from MNR and may also be required by MOE, depending on the reservoir site. (In some areas of northern Ontario, MOE has an agreement that MNR will make the final decision regarding burning permits.) MNR charges Crown dues to the reservoir operator for all trees of merchantable quality that are affected by clearing of the reservoir site. MNR usually requires reservoir operators to make reser- voir sweeps following flooding when the District Forester determines that floating debris constitutes a safety hazard. 3.4.2 -United States us Army Corps of Engineers The Corps has a general policy for the clearing of reservoirs as outlined in Regulation No. 415-2-1 (US Corps, 1978). Two general objectives are -to clear only to the extent required in order to effect an overall reduction in construction costs -to clear areas that would otherwise create hazards to the primary project purposes. .. .I . . · ~;. • l•, ~ .. , tt.• I •• ;. I· I-~' ·.--~~.' ' ' • -.-.... ' 'i -.J" 55 During the planning process, consideration must be given to maximum salvage of timber, benefits to fish and wildlife 1 and aesthetics, as well as minimizing impacts on public health, reservoir operations, navigation, and water quality. In addition, the us Corps outlines clearing limits which stipulate an upper limit of 0 to 1 m above the regulated high water level and a lower limit of 1.5 rn below the 10-yr frequency drawdown for multipurpose reservoirs. Provisions are also made in the regulations for horizontal limits on clearing. Generally complete clearing within the pool is done within 1.6 km of the main dam structure, primary public use areas and major populated areas. Clearing must also be carried out within 0. 8 km of each highway crossing of a reservoir. Additional clearing requirements which concentrate on cleanup are contained in Clearing Guide Specifica- tions for Civil Works Construction ( CE 1301). Recent work by Ploskey (1981) for the US Army presents reservoir clearing guidelines which are designed specifically for the enhancement of fisheries. Briefly, the recommendations are -clearing below regulated low \later level should be liro.tted to that required for efficient reservoir operation -clearing between lo\'l and high water levels should involve selective retentio11 of brush and timber for fisheries habitat ··~-... -... ~··-··-·-··~·~··•] ;--·--··-·-----····-·-····~-~~=.1-··--·----·······.-.... ' ' · . i I · r · . :/ . . . . . .. . . · . .·~. · ~· ;:;~~ . . . .. .... ·. 1: 1 I •• I . I. m ' ;~ > ·, .. JJ.l 56 -retention of vegetation above high water level reduces erosion and provides food for fish and invertebrates if flooded. In the case of the Libbey dam, the US Army Corps of Engineers was responsible for US clearing contracts and for floating debris after initial filling of the reservoir. Subsequent reservoir sweeps were the responsibility and expense of the us Forest Service. us Department of the Interior The Fish and Wildlife Service of the us Department of tne Interior recommends selective cl,~aring of re:ser- voir flood basins primarily for fish and wildlife habitat. They also poi~t out that by retaining some timber and brush in the upper end of a reservoir, the inflow can be screened to trap debris from the water- shed above the reservoir basin (Nelson et al, 1978). The Western Reservoir anJ Stream Habitat L~provernents Handbook prepared for the Fish and Wildlife Service (Nelson et al, 1978) concentrates primarily on improvements to a reservoir following construction rather than on c~iteria or guidelines for selective clearing prior to flooding. Practice in Alaska Until about 5 years ago, reservoir clearing in the Arctic and sub-Arctic had been based either on practices in warmer s~ates or on economic constraints (Smith and Justice, 1975). The effect of bog soils on water quality has not been clearly defined and an approach was taken by Smith and Justice ( 1975) "t;.o determine the effects of leaching on water quality I .. ~f· . ·' , I., = ', .# : ~~ ~· I ' . , ~~ :~1 'lll • 57 from soil samples collected at proposed reservoir sites. As a result, recommendations were made for the clearing of 5 reservoirs in Alaska which ranged from no stripping to stripping down to a certain depth to prevent the leaching of organic materiale Final recommendations were made following discussion of other criteria, i.e.1 economics, slope stability and erosion control. 3.4.3 -USSR In the USSR, the clearing of a reservoir must comply with sanitary regulations. In 1950, paragragh 21 of these regulations stated that future impounded areas should be completely cleared ir.tcluding removal of roots (Mit.erev and Belova, 19 ) • Hc1wever, in 1954, studies - were made of the Shirokovsky Reservoir (which vlas not cleared prior to impoundment) to determine the effects of uncleared vegetation on water quality 7 years after impoundment. The reservoir is being used for energy, navigat.ion and human consumption. It was determined that water quality was not adversely affected after 8 years of usage as a result of the flooded forest. However, it Wa$ pointed out that the reservoir was fed from a nonpolluted mountain river and depth of the reservoir ranged from 10 to 20 rn • As a result of these studies, new sanitary regulations were approved in the USSR in 1956 (Miterov and Belova), but the wording of t~ .. ::se regulations is not known • In reservoirs that were not cleared in the Karelion Region of the USSR, Baranov (1961) reported an upsurge immediately following flooding, characterized by l !,,, I l ' ! 1 I I '1··: , ·..fl I 1J I • IJ J .. -11 58 increases in plankton, concentrations of dissolved phosphorous and nitrogen. This upsurge was offset somewhat by the inflow of acid humic material from bogs and rarely lasted more than 6 years. •. 1 ~I ~ il ~~ ·~ ;11 59 4 -CRITERIA USED IN ASSESSING CLEARING NEEDS 4.1 -Reservoir Uses As described in the Introduction, the definition of reservoir objectives is one of the first tasks in devising an appro- priate clearing strategy. The most common reservoir uses are described below in terms of those desirable characteristics that can be affected by preimpoundment preparation. A summary table is provided at the end. 4.1.1 -Power Generation In terms of meeting this primary objective, the requirements for the reservoir are simply that it contain water; that the water quality be adequate so as not to cause corrosion or abrasion of the turbine blades or valving systems, and that floating debris be limited to that which can be handled by a trash rack and/or minimal sweeping program. A stable shoreline is desirable as it affects the above 3 parameters as well as storage capacity. Access to the dam and powerhouse or maintenance, operation and fire protection is required .. Reservoir clearing histories are conflicting as to the usefulness of various levels of clearing on hydro production. In some instances, uncleared reservoirs, following an initial stabilization period of only a few years during which regular sweeping was required, have performed well, with no major continuing maintenance costs, hampering of trash racks, etc, occurring. In other cases, e~g., Nova Scotia experience, uncleared I 60 reservoirs demonstrated continuing erosion and debris accumulation, while cleared reservoirs were stabla and "clean" within 2 years. In Quebec, flooded trees were still rooted to the bottom after 50 years inundation. The rate of hydration of different tree species becomes an important factor in assessing how much material will float and for how long. The location of the vegetation within the reservoir is also important as trees located in the deepest parts of the reservoir, not exposed to disturbance by waves or wind will likely remain in place whereas those in shallow depths are more likely to become dislodged and rise to the surface. Soil and root depth are an additional feature in underwater anchoring. As described in Section 2, some trees are more suscept- ible to flood damage than others. Trees l~ft along shorelines and exposed to rising water levels will therefore respond in different ways. There is a distinction to be made between flood tolerant and flood resistant species; the former recovering from short duration wetting, the latter apparently able to adapt to wet conditions. In addition to the above factors, the susceptibility of any given soil to the different erosive forces which may act on a specific piece of shoreline, further complicate the picture. It is understandable that no two reservoirs will respond in exactly the same way to inundation. For the primary objective of power generation, without executing a detailed shoreline assessrnen t fc.r soil depths and types, shoreline slopes, vegetation 'I' < ... ,. 1 ~ ! l I I I . l I . l l I j I l l I . i . I J I ' ' "~ RIJ ' . f I~ 'l t.~' r , >. ' . '''l il • 61 cover, wind and wave climate, etc, it has become the general practice in Canada to be "safe rather than sorry" and to execute complete reservoir clearing. More appropriate would seem to be a form of selective perimeter cutting. This would involve a moderate assessment of soils, slopes and vegetation that would allow identification of banks susceptible to erosion and/or failure. These areas would be subject to special treatment such as -hard protection -selective shore clearing -underwater protection (standing material) vegetation · as indicated by site conditions. In areas with deep soils, valuable timber could be selectively removed, along with deadfall. The remainder of the reservoir could be topped to 3 to 5 m below bottom operating water level {to prevent exposed trees from breaking off or from uprooting). Shoreline treatment in nonerosion areas could include clearing back to anticipated stable slope formation. This combination of strategies would minimize uncontrolled erosion contributing to debris accumula- tion and would maximize the probability of those trees left uncut, remaining below the water. 4.1.2 -Recreation and Aesthetics Water oriented recreational pursuits are varied. Some depend on shoreline as much as on the actual water body. Table 4.1 summarizes some of the differential requirements of assorted recreational uses. Many of these activities are virtually inseparable for ~· I t ! j l l I f I I I j . l r I· l ( Q "' '> ~- . I U' ~ '-_, l ' ' l ;t~ t,c,,b§ \-.. , L.-~11'! Q _A a "" L_Q; TABLE 4.1 COMPARISON OF ROCREATIOliAL REQUIREfolENTS Cottaging Winter Use SOOWIIlobiling Day Use (Public) Boating/Skiing Canoeing/ Camping Switnning Sport Fishing Hunting ~ Good road access required to bring in building materials, furniture, supplies -Three sm1~on access usudlly necessary -Winter acc~ss may be required -Access to within a few miles for day use -To tihoreline if associ- ated with cottaging -Abandoned logging roads heavily useu -Access to groomed areas -Parking req~irementa -Usually requires , launching tacit ty -Good roa6 access to water -Boat launching capa- bility -Access to reservcir at so~e point for la~nching or s!iort ·portage -Access to water by .foo .. Road access to within walking distance o.f sho~:e -Access to ~Tilte: for fishing from boat or shore -Good access to within wall:ing distanc"! -~ccess'to shoreline good for further boat travel -Loggin~ roads ideal for access to hunting areas lJII!!!!!I!IIIJ ~ lJIIIJIII!!I Shoreline Stabilitl Very stable shoreline required -Gentle slopes preferred for water access -Beach formation pre- ferred -Gradual slopes for access -Stable, gentle slopes for access to water -Beaches popular Near shoreline aest;hetically ,pleasing -Stable for launch are,)&" -Aesthetics of neat shoreline -R~l.ttivcly stable sht;to for aeath~tic~ arw· shore ~c~~dS from watt,. -Beaches desirable -Beaches preferred -Stable sl~reline aesthetically good -Important to fish production--stable shoreline and pro- ductive littoral zone preferred -Only important as relates to boat launch or wildlife L ... ··--•·<·-:;-•. water Qualitr -Good enough for drinking if filtered -High color and turbidity not appreciated for •aesthetic• re.asons primarily -Taste and odor unacceptahlB -Not important except as affects ice fishht] -Nontoxic ~ Aestheticallv pleasing -Piped water can be provi&ed for drinking -Not important outside of aesthetics -Nontoxic -Nontoxic -Other factors like turbidity and odor aesthetically unpleasant •· As required for fish production Not important except as affegts wildlife use .... ~ Dead Trees -Aesthetically unpleasant Hindrance of water Acceaa ,...,... ~ -Interfe~ence with •ssociated cottage uses -Haza&.dous to ~nowmobiles -Aesthetically unpleasant -Hindrance to water access -IJazardous for boats and skiers Interference with sport -Hinders launch and shore access Precludes beach fo .tlation-- incompatable -Makes for ideal still fishing -Increases fisheries potential Not important as interferen~e -Good froa vi«~int of encouraging waterfowl L~ ~ ~ 'I: ' I '>.:;: ; ,,., :r -~· ,. ! ~ ,, .!J 'I _;. .-.. ~--l ~, .. I . \ ·· .. . '. :.li ' j ~. I ~ 63 practical purposes as they are carried out collectively by individual user groups, e.g., cottagers usually have boats, like to swim and to go fishing and may wish to snowmobile in the winter. Specific needs and demands '~ill largely be dictated by the proximity of the user to the reservoir (local, regional or tourist). Additionally, the degree of continuing supervision or management varies both with location and recreational type, and because of jurisdictional structure, the attached responsibility rests con~only with someone other than the owner of the power generation facility. For most of the recreational pursuits mentioned in Table 4.1, generally stable well-vegetated shorelines, reasonable water quality, some natural beach, some road · access and safe boating conditions combined with good visual aesthetics would be preferred. A review of reservoir case histories indicates that these criteria are largely met by low-maintenance power storage reservoirs, reflecting their similar basic requirements for stable shore, roinimal debris and reasonable water quality. More divergence appears to arise from large water level fluctuations than from reservoir clearing strategies. As recreational usage is a secondary activity in a hydro reservoir, it is apparent that this user group has often accepted less than optimal conditions in recognition of the basic power producing objectives. The most common complaints from recreational sources in respect of reservoir preimpoundment preparation strategies relate to the following. (a) Water quality -Color, clarity, taste, odor. (b) Aesthetics -Dead standing timber, erosion and/or slope failure, ~algal blooms, shoreline debris. I l ! J ! l I I ~, .. ; !I I ~.c;t -~·1, .·" •• I J I 64 (c) Navigation hazards -Emergent or submergent trees, high density macrophyte growth, large floating debris. (d) Access -Not enough or poor g:rade, too much or too easy, water access from shoreline too steep or unsuited to boat launching, access to shore from water hindered by debris or slopes or underwater hazards. The first 3 problems have already been discussed in preceding sections. T.l1.at of access is elaborated here. An all-season road to a dam and power station is usually required by the power operator (even for remote-controlled stations), to allow regular mainien- ance and fire protection access. It is built for construction purposes in most cases anyway and once opened it is difficult to permanently close any road. If a reservoir is built in an area, hitherto inaccess- ible by conventional ground transport but under pressure to be "opened up", the road becomes an impor- tant and desirable feature. If the opposite pressure prevails as it does in wilderness and environmentally sensitive areas, the existence of a good road becomes a permanent threat$ The process of reservoir clearing requires the admit- tance of crews and equipment to the whole reservoir area. The heavier the equipment, the better the quality of road required. Haulage of timber away from the reservoir site requires very good quality access. Access simply for cutting purposes, considerably less. The strategy selected will therefore influence the number of miles and grade of road that must be built. 1 . >I·'.· . i I . .. :(·. ,. . ~' I I , ~--_,:;! '. I . . . i ; . . ' 11-·,.-;J .• ; ... ,1 ~-"· : ·I ~'~ :, ·.~ I J I. 65 If residual access to the reservoir area is to be limited to only a few designated points, clearing roads can be restricted to elevations below the top operating water level. This will contribute to turbidity in the reservoir after impoundment. Main access roads can be designed, within topographical and economic realities, to conform with postinundation F~ans for the area. But if roads are retained, they provide access to a much broader area for snowmobiles and ATV's than would be indicated by linear distance. This must be borne in mind for purposes of wildlife management or protection of sensitive areas. On the other hand, if hunter access is deemed desir- able, installation of clearing roads above the flood · line is beneficial. The edge habitat and break provided by logging roads is heavily used by wildlife. Use by hunters is common. 4.1.3 -Fisheries Fisheries development in a water body involves both the stock of fish and the availability of that stock to the fisherman.. It is \'lell documented in the literature that in th~ first few years following impoundment of a reservoir, there is a "trophic surge" incumbe:1t on nutrient availability and the low density of impounded populations. That surge is usually followed by a decline to some stable rate of production determined by the nutrient inflow from contributing streams and rivers and from allochthonous sources. The biological requirements of individual fish species vary and are available in the literature (Scott and Crossman 1975). Physical conditions in any given It . .,~, ·' f., ' 'q·· l' I I I I l 66 reservoir will determine which species assemblages are most likely to become established. Clearing strategy can be used to benefit fisheries development in reservoirs~ In a comparative study of the effects of standing timber on fish populations and fisherman success in Louisiana (Davis and Hughes 1971), 90 percent of the fishermen fished in the areas of dead trees by the third year following impoundment. Fishing success was consistently higher in the tr1~e areas than in the open water· and fishermen stayed longer in the sheltered tree zone. The presence of trees did not have a significant effect on total fish catch however. Based on their data, Davis and Hughes recommended that a small percentage of each new lake be left with standing trees as they (trees) increased fishing success by congregating both the native game fish and the fishermen. Burress {61~ also found that fishing success was high~r in the areas of flooded trees as compared to open water. The reasons for angler success in flooded tree areas relate to the food, shelter and stability of these zones. The surfaces provided by submerged vegetation are rapidly colonized by periphyton which in turn support high densities of aquatic invertebrates. Cowell and Hudson {1967) report that oligochaetes, chironomids and miscellaneous insect groups were 7 to 30 times more abundant on periphyton substrates of submerged trees and aquatic macrophytes than on bottom substrates. These food sources are utilized by many fish species (juvenile or adult) and these in turn attract predators. In addition, due to the excellent wave breaking capacities of submerged trees, . i .J l I I C' 1 I i .·.I :I ~· ;I !I ··u. ' ' ~ ! I ..! 67 macrophytes are aule to establish in the calm habitat provided along the shoreline. With such good food, cover and shade available6 very high fish densities can be est~blished and the fisherman is able to benefit from this. Flooded vegetation necessitates still-fishing techni- ques, usually from a boat and uncleared reservoirs are not suitable for any efficient net capture methods (commercial fishing). Flooded vegetation is ~sed for spawning substrate by some species (e.g. pike, perch} and many species are known to prefer sunken trees and weed areas for cover (pike, walleye, smallmouth and largemouth bass, yellow perch). The majority of warm water game fish can therefore benefit from selective reservoir clearing. In the Western Reservoir and Stream Habitat Improvements Handbook, (Nelson et al, 1978), selective reservoir clearing involving retention of some standing timber along and above shorelines is used as a fish management tool. In a review of 18 cases, 11 were successful and 6 were marginally successful. Only 1 was un~uccessful. Encouragement cf a fishery also entails the provision of access and safe lake navigation if the resource is to be available to the general public. In some areas, a fly-in fishery may be more appropriate; draft and unobstructed clearance, sufficient for float-plane landing, then become the access cr.iteria. 4.1.4 -Wildlife Even without deliberate planning and management, the shorelines of many man-made lakes, through natural processes, develop food and cover as good or better f. I j ; J l ! ; ,,, .. ' ' l I - l I ! I r l L y r. i ~ ! 1.._. .,.J ~') I ~1 I ... I J 68 than those of the river banks that have been replaced. However, the ideal wildlife lake is almost the opposite of the engineer's: shallow, with gently sloping shore, small low islands and an abundance of vegetation bo~h in the water and along the shores. Dead timber, whether standing or floating is usually a~asset rather than a liability in a wildlife impoundment (Trafethen 1973). Preimpoundment preparation strategies can be used to benefit wildlife capability. Tkte most obvious is the retention of some flooded standing vegetation in nearshore areas. As described in preceeding sections, this provides shoreline protection through dissipation of wave energy and subsequent utilization by invertebrates and fish. Above the water, the natural cavities in dead and dying trees or those opened by woodpeckers and enlarged by decay, provide homes for tree nesting ducks. Osprey prefer dead trees for roosting and nesting whenever these are available in proximity to food sources (fish). Table 4.2 lists the waterfowl and raptors found in the Shield and Lowlands areas of Ontari~ most likely to benefit from such habitat for nesting purposes. Other shore nesting ducks will use these areas for cover and feeding to some extent but generally prefer ;mergent vegetation. With food resources abundant and in close proximity, the flooded tree habitat of the nearshore (<5 m) can - support high densities of the aforemention~d tree nesting birds. This is a recognized waterfowl management tool and is described in the Western Reservoir and Stream Habitat Improvements Handbook (Nelson et al 1978). The retention of flood-adaptable vegetation to minimize erosion in gradually sloped areas will encourage 1 r. 1 ';! .I I 'll i I ! ~ .. ~---"---" -_ __;_,: __ , ____ -~___.- ,. ·~ f "" ..,. TABLE 4.2 f ~ -<f-·"' ~ _.,. .,...__ -~ '" ~ .. '" ~ ~ • ~-JY ~ ·t ;.. l!lliiJ --_:_:_,:~-~,..,.:.._,,;;·x'\ ... ~-"-, . ,, ... ... ~ ~P• • f". ~ ' # .,, I , -~~ flJ' >,, ~ t-~-·-·-~ WATERFOWL FEEDING AND NESTING REQUIREMENTS Wood Duck American Goldeneye Bufflehead Hooded Merganser American Merganser Red Breasted Merganser Osprey Black Duck Canada Goose Nesting -always nest in trees close to water -preferred tree nester -habitual tree nester -always in trees -prefers to nest in trees -ground nester under trees -dead trees preferred .... sometimes in trees · sometimes nests in trees in Hudson Bay Lowlands Keference F. N. Kortright, 1967 ,_,_, __ ::,. . --,_,_ ,..,_ ···~· ··~-'"- Feeding -plants and seeds -animal food -insects, worms, molluscs, etc -animal food -insects, worms, molluscs, etc -fish -fish -voracious fish eater -fish Distribution -lower Shield -nests on Shield -some shield areas -western part of Hudson Bay lowlands -Southern Ontario including lower Shield -Shield nester Shield and Lowland nester -Shield Hudson Bay Lowlands -vegetation,invertebrates -Shield -vegetation,invertebrates -Shield Hudson Bay Lowlands ···--·-. ·- : -'"-··· 0'\ \.0 -1 I ~. I I .I I I . ,. ~, H I 70 natural beach formation. These areas will be colonized by submerged macrophytes initially and by emergent vegetation eventually, if water level fluctuations are controlled. This habitat will encourage shore-nesting waterfowl and aquatic mammals such as muskrat. Secondarily mink will colonize ab~ndoned muskrat dens. Other wildlife considerations in relation to reservoir clearing strategies relate to access to the water for large mammals. Stable shores with minimal debris are required for large gameo Access corridors may be required in areas where migration routes (e.g. of caribou) are bisected by reservoirso These corridors should not be cleared above high water except ~~ necessary to retain slope integrity and underwater obstructions should be removed so as not to interfere with swimming abilitya In addition to the encpuragement of wildlife in reser- voirs, it may be advantageous to discourage bank- denning species such as muskrat and beaver in cases where slope failure is expected to be a major problem. The bank-denning habits of beaver and muskrat can cause bank failure in reservoirs having easily erodible bank materials. In Arnprior reservoir for example, muskr.at denning was particularly destructive in the easily disturbed marine clays of that area, intrusion on the bank allowing wave action to bring about major slope failures. Interestingly, the failure of the banks did not discourage the muskrats, which simply moved to an adjacent bank to repeat their tunneling [R. Peggs (Acres) personal observation]. The tree-felling habit of beaver can also cause erosion problems in sensitive soils. Beaver take the branches j ''" l . ! ! j. 1 l l_~·-r··- j I ! ! r l ! I i i l r f . ,I ' .. ·I ~ . ; 1 I I .I . I . . ' ·.JJ .I· ~"' -~ 1 . ' :1.· . I • I 71 from felled trees and drag them down the bank to feed in the water. In some sensitive soils, this can increase runoff erosion by providing new courses for surface drainage. Wildlife are not compatible with large drawdowns and do not respond well to some human activities. High speed motor-boating and water skiing can create so much disturbance as to render an otherwise valuable wildlife area almost useless. Many mammals and birds, especially those with nests or young, have a low toler- ance for extraneous noise and motion (Traethen 1973). If recreational development is a preferred reservoir use, wildlife encouragement may have to be limited to specific areas. These can be effectively "protected" by flooded trees which will limit boat traffic • 4.1.5 -Domestic Consumption The use of reservoir waters impounded for the primary purpose of power generation for domestic consumption on a large scale is not common in Canada. This is primarily because hydro reservoirs are not often built in proximity to population centers. More commonly, reservoirs are used as drinking water supply sources by recreational users who are individually responsible for any required treatment. Table 4.3 provides the maximum acceptable levels of water for domestic consumption as defined by Environment Canada (McNeely et al 1979). Of the many parameters listed, those most likely to approach maximum acceptable levels are alkalinity, ammonia color, nitrates, pH, turbidity and metals. This could arise during the processes of hydration as described in Section 2.2.4, over the short term, and : ·~· I I I I I lj I ,. 1:1 f4 TABLE 4. 3 MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE lEVELS IN WATER USED FOR DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION PARAMETER LEVEL REFERENCE ALKAl..INfrf TOTAL, as CaC03 GE 30 mg.L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1969 LE 500 mg,L AMMONIA as N LE 05 mg.L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA, 1969 ARSENIC, as A" LE 005 mg1L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1979 BACTERIA, FECAL COLIFORM NO No ldL DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA. 1979 E!ACTERIA, TOTAL COLIFORM LE 10 No dL DEPT OF NA1'10NAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1979 BARIUM, as Ba LE 1 0 mg:L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 BORON. as B LE 50 mg'L DEPT OF NAilONAL HEAI,.Ti-1 & WELFARE. CANADA, 1979 CADMIUM as Cd LE 0.005 mg'L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEAL'~H & WELFARE. CANADA, 1979 CALCIUM. as Ca LE 2.00 mg•L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 CESIUM-137 LE 50 Sq.L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 CHLORIDE. as Cl LE 250 mg•L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA, 1979 CHROMIUM. as Cr LE 0.05 mg•L Di:PT OF NAT161-:A!.. riEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1979 COLOUR LE 15 TCU DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 COPPER. as Cu LE 1 0 mgtL QEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 19i9 CYANIDE. as CN LE 0.2 mgtL DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CAN~OA, 1979 FLUORIDE. as F LE 1.5 mg1L DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEAI.TH & WELFARE, CANADA. 1979 HARDNESS. TOTAL. as CaC03 LE 120 mg1L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1969 IODINE-131 LE 10 BqtL DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA, 1969 IAON.asFe LE 0.3 mglL DEPT OF NATIONAL HEA!.TH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 LEAD as Pb LE 005 mg-L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA, tS79 MAGNESIUM. as Mg LE 150 mg·L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA. 19f:1 MANGANESE. as Mn LE 005 mg•L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFAAE. CANADA, 19.'9 MERCURY. as Hg LE 1 0 p.g·L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANAD .... 1979 NITRATE • NITRITE. as N LE 10 0 mg·L DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 NITRITE as N LE l 0 mg·L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA. 1979 NTA,asH3NTA LE SOD JLQ.L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. Hl79 OIL AND GREASE NO mgtL ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD. 1973, EPA A3.73.033 pH GE 65 DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA, 1979 LE 85 PHENOLIC SUBSTANCES. as PHENOL LE 0002 IT"Qil DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 PHOSPHATE. TOT INORG. asP LE 0065 mg•L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1969 PHOSPHATE. TOT-\L. asP LT 0 100 mg.L US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. 440 g. 76-023 PHOSPHORUS. as P LE 02 mgL HART,1974 AUSTR WAT RES COUNCIL. TECH PAPER 1 a-RADIATION. TOTAL LE 0 02 BQ·L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973. EPA R3 73.033 f3-RADIATION. TOTAL LE 0 19 Bq•L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD. 19i3. 'EFA R3 73.033 RADIUM-226 LE 10 8Q L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH.& WEL,'~ARE. CANADA, 1979 SELENIUM. as Se LE 001 mg.L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFi\RE. CANADA, 1979 SILVER as Ag LE 005 mg•L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARi: CANADA. 1979 SODIUM as Na I.E 270 mgtL HART.1974. AUSTR WAT RES COUNCIL. TECH PAPER 7 STRONTIUM-£10 LE 10 Bo L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1979 SULPHATE. as S04 LE 500 mg L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 SULPHIDE. as HzS LE ODS mgtL DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA 1979 SURF ACT ANTS. as MBASr LE OS mg·L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1969 TEMPERATURE LE 15 oc DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 TOTAL DISSOLVED SQLIOS LE 500 mg·L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 TRrH ~LOMETHANES LE 035 mg L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 TRITIUM LE 40 000 Bo L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA. 1979 TURBIDITY LE 5 NTU DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1979 URANIUM as U LE 20 fLQ'L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 ZINC. as Zn LE 50 mg.L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEAL.TH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1979 Ref: Environment canada 1979, Water Quality Sourcebook. 1 ~:i ,'·'"'. r l l j I t •. f l ~· ~ I I .I .I ·~ I .11 I ~ •. , r . .. .... ,_ !IJ. ' ' i ' ~ ' • I, i.l.·.· ; t :.,,' I; ' ' '..;;:,. 1 73 from erosion/bank stability problems and inflow quality in the longer term. In the United States where reservoir sources of domestic water are more frequent, the most often reported problem relates to the aesthetic parameters of color, taste and odor. These problems are most often reported in geographical areas experi~ncing much warmer climatological conditions than those prevailing in Ontario and often relate to algal production. Navertheless these 3 factors (color, tastes, odor} are technically difficult to solve and are best dealt with through avoidance rather than treatmAnt. In this context, water supply reservoirs in the United States are always completely cleared of standing vegetation and even stripped of soils to minimize water quality problems. In Ontarjo and particularly in northern areas, the very high alg~l production, dominated by blue-green algae so often witn~ssed in the southern United States is restricted to short summer "blooms", usually in August and only in water bodies generally classified as being meso to eutrophic. The majority of northern lakes are oligotrophic and even the nutrients derived from inundated soils and vegetation are rarely sufficient to induce long-term eutrophic status. Turbidity, if a result of chronic erosion problems, can remain high in impounded water, particularly if regular drawdowns are experienced and the affected soils are fine grained. For the occasional recreational user, this is a difficult problem to overcome as he rarely has filtering equipment at his disposal or the time to allow natural settling. Cottagers often have small I --1 '~ I j' ' f. i L • ! i . I 1 I .. I .I I .fj :I .. I • I 11 • ll :.I I 1 74 filtering and deionizing column water treatment packages that are inexpensive to operate ~nd efficient in removing s~spended materials from drinking water supplies. Aesthetically unappealing water due to turbidity, color, taste or odor are not usually unsafe to drink, however and the water quality parameter that can be of most concern is that of elevated metals levels. The biodegradation processes occurring on the bottom of a newly impounded reservoir produce large quantities of C02 and reduce tha oxygen content of the overlying water. Although generally cgnfined to the bottom few meters and lasting for a relatively short period of time, this situation reduces the pH and alkalinity of this water layer and increases the solubility of metals. If high concentrations of metals prevail in the hydrated soils, these can be taken up and made available to consumers. MereU4Y and other heavy metals stand out in this respect because of their toxicities even in fairly low concentrations • For reservoirs \'fhich will. be heavily used as a source of drinking water in the first 5 years of impoundment, it is generally therefore advisable to reduce as far as possible the amount of biodegradable material available and to use bank protection whenever necessary to Ultimately, the long-term water quality will be dictated by the inflowing water and reservoirs will gradually approach water quality conditions similar to adjacent natural lakes. Long-term planning for drink- ing water supply must bear this in mind. It may not be necessary to go to great clearing and stripping expense if the projected demand is far enough into the future. ,, '. -1 . ~· . ~ • .I :I tlfj I ~~ . . ' ;.1:.·. . I ~ t;: 1 75 An additional consideration is that of agricultural runoff. Reservoirs built in active agricultural areas run the great risk of pesticide and herbicide input • Table 4.4 presents Environment Canada's criteria for these parameters. Generally speaking, the combined effects of power oper~tion and agricultural input would tend to bias against utilization of such a reservoir as 4 major domestic water supply even in the longer term due to the high treatment costs likely to be incurred. 4.1.6 -Flood Control Flood control benefits are inherent in any storage impoundment scheme and are usually accepted as an "adde~ plus" from hydro power projects built above flood-prone areas. The extent of preimpoundment preparation does not directly affect this benefit except perhaps as to the displaced water volume incurred by leaving standing forest within the reservoir area. 4.1~7 =-_g-r~gation The secondary use of hydro storage reservoirs for irri- gation pu~poses is uncommon in Ontario. This is true for several r~asons~ the first being that water supply is not generally a problem in Ontario; power require- ments do not usually correspond seasonally with the needs of irrigated agriculture; concurrent use implies direct competition for live storage. The reverse situation where irrigation water supply is the primary objective, with power production a secondary benefit does have precedence. In these situations water drawn from the reservoir is passed ~ I I I . I 1 l l l ! \ j. I 76 I TABLE 4.4 MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE LEVELS OF SPECIFIC PESTICIDES IN WATER USED FOR DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION PARAMETEA LeVEL REFERENCE I ALORIN + HEOD (OIELORIN) I.E 0.1 f.' gill. OEPT, OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1979 "/-BHC. (P.INCANEl I.E 4.0 ,u.gtr. DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1979 CAMPHECHLOR (TOXAPHENE) LE 5.0 JL~t'>. DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1919 CHLORDANE. TOTAL LE 7.0 f'Q/L DEPT OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 CARBARYl. LE 70.0 p.g1L OEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 DDT, TOTAl. LE ~0.0 f.'QIL DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1979 ctAZINON I.E 14.0 j6g1L DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANAD-"~ 197S ENlRIN LE 0.2 f.'Q/1.. DEPT. OF NATIONAl, HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA. 1979 -~.-PTACHLOR +HEPTACHLOR EPOXIOE I.E 3,0 f'QIL DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFArlE. CANADA, 1979 I p,p'-METHOXYCHLOR LE 10,0 J.f.Q/L DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 PARATHION Le 35.0 p.gtL DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEAL.TH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1979 PARATHION-METHYL LE 7.0 f.'Q/L DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1979 PESTICIDES. TOTAL LE 100 J.f.g/L DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 2.4.0 LE 100 p.gtl.. DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1979 2,-4,5-TP LE 10 f.'Q/L DEPT. OF NATIONAl.. HEALTH & WE~FARE, CANADA. 1979 MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE LEVELS OF GROUPS• OF PESTICIDES lf\1 WATER USED FOR DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION PAAMIETER LEVEl. REFERENCE AI.ACHLOR LE 100. f.'t;JI!. DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. C.toNAOA, 1969 ATRAZINE LE 100. J.I.91L DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1969 AZINPHOSETHYL LE 100. f'Q/1.. DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1969 AZINPHOSMETHYL CGUTHION) LE 100. f't;JII. DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1969 IJ BARS AN u; 100. J.I.QIL DEPT. OF NATIONAL HE.A.LTH & WELFARE, CANADA, 1969 CARBOFURAN I.E 100. Jol9'L DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEAlTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1~~ CARaOPHENOTH!ON LE 100. p.gtL DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEAl.,TH & WELFARE, CANADA, 1969 CHLORI=ENVINPliOS LE 100. J.i.CJIL DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEAI..TH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1969 CHoORPYROPHOS I.E 100. J.f.t;J/L DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. t96i COUMAPHOS LE 100. f't;JIL DEPT. OF NATIONAl. HEALTH~ WELFARE, CANADA. 1969 CRUFOMATE LE 1()0, f.'Qil. DEPT. OF NATIONAL ·~EALTH & WELFAfiE. CANADA. 1969 DALAPOH LE 100. floQIL DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 01-AU..ATE u: 100. ,...Q/1.. DEPT. OF NATIONAl. HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1989 DICAMBA LE 100. f.' ;I!.. DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 OICHL.OFENTHION LE 100. f.'CJIL DEPT. OF N,,TIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 OICK.ORPROP LE 100. f.'QIL DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 OICHL.OAVOS I.E 100. f.' giL DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1969 OIME1HOATE LE 100. f.'Q/1.. OEFT. OF NATIONAl. HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 CtOUAT LE 100. f.'Q/L. OEfJT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA, 1989 DISULFOTON LE 100. f.'QIL DEPT. OF NATIONAL H!;ALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 ETHION LE 100. J.f.QIL DEPT, OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 FENCHLORPHOS (RONNEL) I.E iOO. f.'Q/L DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 r:;· FEN0PA0P (SII.VEX) I.E 100. p.g!L DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1989 F£NTHIOH I.E 100. f.'Q/L OEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 L.ET'HAM: 384 I.E 100 J.f.Q/L DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 MALATHON LE 100. f.'Q/1. OEPT. OF NATIONAL HEAi.TH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 MCPA LE 100. p.g!L CEPT. OF NATION.toL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 METHIOCAR8 LE 100, f.';IL OEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANAOA, 196i METHVLCAASOPHENOTHION LE 100. f.'Q/L OEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA. 1969 MEVlNPHOS LE 100. j'QIL DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 PARAQUAT LE tOO. f.'Q/1.. DePT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA, 1969 PHORATE LE 100. f.'QIL OEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 PHOSA&.OPE LE 100. f'QII.. DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1969 PHOSPHAMIOON LE 100. f'QIL DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1!J5g PIClORAM LE 100. p.;tl.. OEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. CANADA. 1969 PROMETON Ll 100. J.'QIL DePT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFA~E. CANADA, 1969 PROPOXUA LE 100. f.'g/L OEPT Q&: NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA, 1969 S!MAZINE LE 100. ~WL DEPT, 'jF NAnONAI.. HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA, 1969 TCA LE 100. p.g(L OEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE. C.-\NA04, 1969 TEMEPHOS LE 100. f.'QIL DePT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA. 1969 TRifLUAAUN LE 100. JA.QIL DEPT. OF NATIONAL. HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA. 1969 2.4-08 I.E 100. p.Q/L DEPT. OF NATIONAL HEALTH & WELFARE, CANADA. 1969 2.4.5·T LE 100. JJ.QII. OE:PT. OF NATIONAL HEAl.TH & WELFARE. CANADA, 1969 • ~ • CMBAWATES, HERBIClOES. OACANOPHOSPHOAUS PESTICIDES REF: Environment Canada 1979, Water Quality Sourcebook. (j :I ~ :I 'l :I • I .I ·aJ ell 1: 1J :I_~ ;I l :I i 77 through a turbine before entering the irrigation distribution system.. The power thus gained is scheduled by irrigation demands and may not have a high economic value. In any event, the only way in which reservoir clearing practices could reasonably affect utilization of impounded water for irrigation purposes is through its affects on water quality. Table 4.5 presents the Federal Guidelines for irrigation water quality. It is unlikely that failure to clear a reservoir would cause exceedance in any of these parameters with the possible exception of metals, and then only during the first few years of operation. Summary of Reservoir Uses -Table 4.6 summarizes the basic needs of the reservoir uses described in this section of the report, and what clearing strategies could apply in meeting those needs. 4.2 -Constraints 4.2.1 -Logistics and Schedule The logistics involved in a reservoir clearing strategy must be carefully planned and executed to effect economical clearing operations. Logistics can place certain constraints on the selection of a clearing strategy if it is determined that equipment or manpower is not available or cannot ~ope with site terrain characteristics or local adverse weather conditiuns. Based on a preliminary clearing strategy selected, the following logistics should be determined. I i [i ' I i } ! ! j 1 1 I I. l ' l I 1 L ' I l ;'· l 7<l I TABLE 4.5 GUIDEUNES FOR THE IRFUGA TIQi'i OF F•NE· TEXTURED ALKAUNE SOILS* I PARAMeTeR LEVEL REFERENCE mg/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 ALUMINUM, as AI LE 20.0 ARS:NIC, as As lE 2.0 tng/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 BACT'miA. ENTEROCOCCI 1.£ 20 No./dl.. ONTAAIO MINISTRY OF Tt-iE ENVIRONMENT, 197" BACTERIA. FECAL. COLIFORM lE 100 No.ldL ONTARIO MINISTRY OFTHE ENVIRONMeNT, 1974 .J BERVLUUM. as Be LE 0.50 mg!L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD. 1973, EPA.R3,73.033 8MON. asS LE 1.0 mg!L HART.197.a, AUSTR. WAT. RES. COUNCIL, TECH.PAPEA 1 (:ADMIUM, aa Cd lE 0,050 mg/L ENVIRONMr!WTAL. STUDIES BOARD, 1973. E?A.R3.73.033 I CHLORIDE. as Cl LE 150 ~/L ONTARIO MINISTRV OF THE ENVIRONMENT, 1!'\7 .. CHROMIUM. as Cr I.E 1.0 ITIQ/L ENVIRONMENTAL. STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 COBALT, asC~ LE 5.0 mQ/L ENVIF;ONMENTAL STUDIES SOARD. 1973, EP.t..R3.73.033 COPPER. ascu LE 5.0 mg/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 FUJORIOE. u F L.E 15.0 mgll. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES SOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 IRON, as Fa LE 20.0 ~L ENVIRONMEI'liAL STUDIES BOARO, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 LEAO,aaPb u; 10.0 tng/1.. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD. 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 L.ITHIUM. as Ll LE 2.5 mg/L ENVIRONMENTAl.. STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 MANGANESE., ot.t Mr.! LE 10.0 mg/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES SOARD. 1973, EPA.R3.73.03:3 AroL YBOENUM, as Mo LE 0.010 mg/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES SOARD. 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 NICKEL. as N LE 2.0 mg.rL ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3,73.033 pH GE ... 5 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARO, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 ... , LE 9.0 a-RADIATION, TOTAL. LE 0.02 Bq/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 Jl-RADIATION. TOTAL LE O.Ht Bq/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 SELENiUM, JS S. I.E 0.020 mgtL ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 SODIUM ASSOAPTION RATtO I.E e ONTARIO MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT. 1974 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOUOS I.E 500 mg/L ONTARIO MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT, 1974 VAHADIUM. aav L.E 1.0 mgll. ENVIRONMENTAL. STUDIES BOARD, 1973, E;?A.R3.73.033 ZINC, aaZn LE 10.0 mg/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 • AIJ(AL.JtE-pH G.O TO !.5 FOA LESS THAN 20 YEMS OF USE 11 GUIDELINES FOR IARIGATtON OF ACIDIC SOILS I CONTiNUOUS USE (ALL SOILS) PARAMETER LEVEL REFERENCE AUJMINUM, as AI LE 5.0 mQIL ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3 73.033 ARSENIC, as As LE 0.10 mg/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973. EPA.R3.73.033 BACTERIA. E~::IOCOCCI LE 20 No./dl. ONTARIO MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT. 1974- BACTEfiiA, FECAL COliFORM I.E 100 No./dL ONTARIO MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT. 1974 SERYWUM, aa Be LE 0.10 tng/L Ef'NIRONMcNTAL STVDIES BOARD. 1973, EPA.R3.73 033 BORON, as 8 LE 0.5 mg/L ONTARIO MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT. 1974 CAOMIUM,aaCd I.E 0.010 mg/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES SOARD. 1~73, EPA.R3.73.033 CH!.QqtDE. as Cl I.E 150 mglt ONTARIO MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT 1974 CHROMIUM, as Cr L.E 0,1 mgtL ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD. 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 COBALT, as co LE 0.050 mGIL ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA R3.73.033 COPPER. aacu LE 0.20 tng/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973. €PA.R3.73.033 I l FUJOAICE. asF LE 1,0 ITIQ/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73,033 i IAON.atFe LE 5.0 mg/L ENVIRONMEr".fi"AL STUOIE~~ BOARD, 1973, EPA.A3.73.033 ~ LEAD. uPb Le 5.0 ~/L ENVIRONMENTAL $TUDIES BO,,RD. 1973. EPA.R3,73.033 LITHIUM, as Ll LE 2.5 mg/L ENVIRONMENT A~ Sn.JOIES SOARD. t9n, EPA R373.033 I MANQ.ANESE. as Mn LE 0.20 mg/L ENVIRONMENTAL S11JDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 MOL.YBOENUM, as Mo LE 0.010 mg1L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 NICKEI..,asNI I.E 0.20 mgtL ENVIRONMENTAl. STUDIES BOARD. 1973, EPA.A3.73.033 pH. GE ...!I ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73,033 I.E 9.0 a-RAOIAT10N. TOTAl. LE 0.02 -Bq!L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIE!iOOAAO, 1973. EPA.R3,73.033 fJ-RADIATION. TOTAl. I.E 0,19 Sq/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.13 033 SELENIUM, u S. LE 0.020 mg/1. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA R3.7J.033 SOOIUU ABSORPTiON AATlCI LT e ONTARIO MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT, 1974 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOI.tDS LE 500 mg!L ONTARIO MINISlRV OF THE ENVIRONMENT, 197ot VANADIUM, ac 'II LE 0.10 mgtL ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973, EPA.R3.73.033 ZINC,uZn I.E 2.0 mg/L ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BOARD, 1973. EPA.A3,73.033 ~l REF: . Environment Canada 1979, Water Quality Sourcebooko <? lE¥$ .. v;£~'! .... ~.:...,-.; ~.d; TABLE ,.6 CO~WARISON OF ALTERNATIVE USE RESERVOIR REQUIREMENTS Use llydro Power Recreation and Aesthetics Fisheries Wildlife Water Quality -II2S and extreflle suspended solids to be avoided -other parameters not important -aesthetically pleasing -safe to drink with minor treatment -good water quality required for most parameters, aesthetic qualities unimportant -as for fisheries Shoreline Stabiiity -atnble shores desirable to (a} minimize deta·h~ (b) maintain storage volume -stable shores desirable for shore- line uses and aesthetics -desirable for maintenance of littoral zone an~ water quality -desirnble for use of riparian habitat, and maintenance of li ttor·ul zone and water quality ~­~ Floating Debris -large sized debris dc;maging to trash racks th~rcfore avoid -small debris accept- able -preferrably little debris because of maintenance expense -umlcsirable as interfer-es with navigution uncl is ues the tic ally unattractive not ••elevant except us affects water: ttUU l i ty -hazard to some large game -irrelevant to most wildlife -deairablc for some water birds .a;...., .. Underwater Obstruction Access -- -need clearance behind -year round access to da• dam for effective for maintenance and fire operation of intakes protection -he2nrd to navigation -dependent upon type of recreat.:ion desired, varies from fly-in only to high - gr~de road access to several reservoir points {see 'fable 3.1) -desirable for food production and shelter for fish -can restrict utiliza- tion by fishermen -severely limits use of nets -undesirable for large game in nearshore -can be haza~dous to migrations of caribou -desiruble for bea~er -rest~icts water access for· hunters -dependent upon type of fishing (sport fly-in to commercial extraction) -varies from float plane to high gr·adc road to at · -:ast one point on reservoir -hunter. access along low grade roads desirable in some reser·.,oirs fly-in only preferrable in "wilderness" areas -.J ~ --·--·-iliiB£ • f h " ·,~, < 2Si! t:4:l Z!!!2! ~!i ..... 4 Table 4.6 Comparison of Alternative Use Reservoir Requirecaents -· 2 Use Domestic Water Irrigation Flood Control Water Quality -excellent water quality desirable to •inimize tre;.,tment costs -os for fisheries -not relevant Shoreline Stability -desirable as it can deteriorate water quality -desirable as it can affect water Floating Debris undesirable sa it is aesthetically unpleasant and can contribute to coloration of water -can intcrfer·e with operation of intake -only impor·tunt as affects operation of i.ntake stl•ucture -desirable as can -as for hydro power reduce storage volumu of reservoir' ,aJfy'=mrm"JIIiiUIIII f!!!l . .!!!!! LL-' ·. 1!!!11 Underwnter Obstruction Access -: -undesirable as it -road access to intake contributes to reduced facility for ~aintenance water quality (color, taste, odor, etc) -not relevant except as affects intake operation -as for hydro power -other access (and uses) usually restricted -road access to intake fRcility for maintenance -as ·':»r hydro power l - Of 0 ·t.J: . . ' ' ' . ;, '<(,, .• «< . :J! iiJ Sf '.lit ' 'IJ 81 (a) Hand and machine clearing equipment required and areas where each will be used. Equi~ent may include power saws, wheeled skidders, mechanical limbers, mobile slashers, mower type land clearing machines, brush rakes, barges, boats, winches, etc. Terrain characteristics (e.g. steep slopes, bog areas etc) and timber densities will determine clearing methods. (b) (c) Time required availability a affect timing for clearing operations and labor Local weather conditions will of operations. Where prescribed burning is carried out, this operation will be limited by the number of suitable days as determined by wind, humidity and degree of fire hazard. Infrastructure requirements during clearing operation e.g. portable field office, crew quarters and supplies, portable parts depot and field garage, mechanic's truck, passenger busese (d) Location and specifications for access roads. Will they be required for extraction of merchant- able timber? Road equipment may include bull- dozers, front end loaders, pick up trucks, gravel trucks, road graders, sanders and snow plows. Once these logistics have been determined, the adjust- ments required to the preliminary clearing strategy should be made and all parties notified p~ior to preparing a schedule for the work. A typical schedule outlined below has been adapted from Hunter and Associates (1980). L I !"' I ; i ' t l ! I i I I •· j l I j I I J l 1 i ·, ,.,1 I ~ II ... I IJ 82 Year 1 -Construction of access roads and infrastructure facilities Year 2 -Construction of local branch logging roads -Initiation of logging operations (merchantable timber) -Initiation of forebay clearing Year 3 -Completion of logging operations Hauling of wood from reservoir -Initiation of main reservoir clearing operations Year 4 -Completion of hauling activities Completion of clearing activities below first stage flood Year 5 -Completion of all clearing requirements. In many cases a 5-year period for clearing is not available or is not required de?ending en the clearing strategy selected and size of the reservoir area to be cleared. Where an advance in the clearing schedu\le is required to meet the reservoir operations schedule for water use, alternative measures which can. be taken are -reduction of clearing requirements which may involve clearing of selected areas, e.g. forebay, drawdown zone, and/or other areas -clearing concurrently with logging operations -hauling while clearing is underway hand felling and floating with helicopter access (reduces or eliminates time required for construction of access/logging roads). .. I ~ ·~:. ff ,' ff':.; '-'#'" '; " I ' '"" ~ , .• ~I, 1 I \ I .. l I l !' i } f l j l•, I l l l ! l j i ~~ IJ :J 83 With a no clearing option, it is still necessary to clear some areas such as dam sites, forebays and canals. The logistics outlined above will, therefore, still be required, although to a much lesser degree. Logistics should also include determination of labor and equipment requirements for postflood clearing and maintenance. This is particularly important where the no clearing option is selected, since floating debris will require the construction of temporary or permanent debris removal and disposal facilities and the necessary labor to be available for this purpose. Postclearing logistics should also clarify whether the maintenance operations will be carried out during summer or over ice. In some areas of Ontario deep, drifting snow accumulations may make winter clearing operations impractical. 4.2.2 -Economics A step-by-step approach to establishing the economics of reservoir clearing is shown in Figure 4.1. There are basically two approaches to evaluating the econo- mics of reservoir clearing. The primary approach is to determine the costs of all possible clearing strategies on a purely engineering and economic basis without consideration for environmental constraints. On completion of this process, a secondary approach should be followed which incorporates environmental con- straints into the costing of the various alternative clearing strategies. A comparison of the final results from each approach will enable an assessment of financial cost versus environmental benefits. JI :I ii 11 _,, 11 ..If -I;~ ~ , /1 11 RESERVOIR SPECIFICATIONS I CLEARING I -----PRIMARY APPROACH ASSES$ CLEARING REQUIREMENTS ON ECONOMIC BASIS ~--~---- ~------------------~--SECONDARY APPROACH -·- ASSESS CLEARING COSTS INCORPORATING ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS ------------------~--/-- NO CLEAR lNG -DETERMINE MERCHANTABLE TIMBER VALUE IDENTIFY NET LOSS OF MERCHANTABLE TIMBER, INCLUDING CROWN DUES -EVALUATE MERCHANTASLE TIMBER EXTRACTION FEASIBILITY BASED ON MARKET AVAILABILITY, ACCESS ROADS, HAULAGE COSTS, DENSITY OF STANDS, SLOPE CONSTRAINTS, LABOUR REQUIREMENTS I MERCHANTABLE TIMBER REMOVAL FEASIB.LE - - IDENTIFY NET COST/ BENEFIT FOR REMOVAL OF MERCHANTABLE TIMBER ADO COST FOR CI..EARING AND REMOVAL OF REMAINING TIMBER WHERE REQUIRED ADO MAINTENANCE -COSTS FOLLOWING FLOODING I I MERCHANTABLE TIMBER REMOVAL NOT FEASIBLE ~--------------'1 IDENTIFY COSTS TO CLEAR AND DISPOSE OF EXISTING VEGETATION ADD MAINTENANCE COSTS FO~LOWING FLOODING ADD COSTS FOR MAINTENANCE FOLLOWING ·FLOODING :~~ COMPARATIVE COSTS FOR PRIMARY AND SECONDARY APPROACHES ro------INPUT BY SITE t:NGINEERS, FORESTERS, ENVIRONMENTAL STAFF SELECTION OF RESERVOIR CLEARING STRATEGY FIG 4.1 APPROACH TO IDENTIFICATION OF RESERVOIR CLEARING COSTS I ~~~m I 11 ..• }J ~Jl E ..ll II ,, ·-~ ~flJ -'Jf 85 There are many variables that affect the overall cost of clearing. These factors include scale of operation, terrain features, merchantable timber, volume and densities, proximity of markets (and whether they are kraft 0r high-grade pulp mills or sawmills, i.e., mar~et preference) fluctuations in timber, selli~g prices as a result of supply and demand, labor ~vailability, scheduling requirements and environmental constraints. Some of these variations are exemplified by hand clearing costs estimated for the Upper Salmon Re~ervoir in Newfoundland (Kiell 1981). Clea~-:ing Cost/b~ 1,600* 1,850 2,100 2,350 2,600 0 Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 Description Flat area (<35 m3jha forest biomass) Flat to moderate slope Moderate slope (36 to 70 m3/ha) Moderate to steep slope Steep slope (71 to 105 m3/ha) Wetlands and soil barrens In the above example, the clearing class for islands was raised by one to compensate for difficulty of access. *All costs quoted in this section of the report have been adjusted to 1981 dollars by assuming a 4 percent annual inflation rate prior to 1974 and a 10 percent annual inflation rate between 1974 and 1981 based on Canadian consumer price indexes.~ ~ ,1;_ ;· J·"'· . A' ... ~ _',-' -,. ---l I ., l I I l I r I I 11 .} IJ II "'J If 11 ll IJ t 86 A survey of the clearing costs for 10 Canadian reservoirs indicates a mean clearing cost of $2,430/ha which excludes merchantable timber sales. This cost is assumed to includP labor/living expenses, equipment, access roads, crown dues, haulage of salvageable timber and burnin3 of debris. If there is no salvageable timber, the clearing cost could feasibly be reduced to $1,100/ha based on estimates for the Cat Arm Reservoir in Newfoundland (Hunter and Associates 1980). The cost of access roads will depend on whether timber products are to be hauled out of the area. Where extraction roads are required, one estimate quotes $18,000/krn including culverts but excluding major bridges. This cost can be reduced considerably ($9,000/km) if no timber products are to be hauled. These estimates are based on those given by Eddy Forest Products Limited for the proposed INCO power develop- ment near Espanola. Only one estimate was available for the clearing strategy involving complete stump removal. The cost in 1981 dollars was $4,811/ha based on a reservoir cleared by the Grand River Conservation Authority in 1974. To winter clear from ice, including extraction and burning of debris, it is predicted to cost $3,700 to $3,900/ha for Muskrat Falls and Gull Island reservoirs in Labrador (Proctor and Redfern 1980). It takes approximately 25 man-days/ha for the felling and disposal of vegetation from lands ranging from flat areas with 35 m3/ha forest biomass up to steep slopes with 71 to 105 rn3jha forest biomass (Kiell 1981). I I , l . I 1 ~~ ·~ ' ... ~ i IJ 87 The cost of clearing debris after flooding a reservoir is dependent on the clearing strategy adopted and accessibility to the site. For example, for the Musk4at Falls and Gull Island reservoirs on the Lower Churchill River, Labrador, no clearing is recommended except at dams and at the confluence of tributaries. It is anticipated that the clea~ing and burning of debris from these reservoirs will take place over a 5-yr period at approximately $1,100/ha (Proctor and Redfern 1980). This maintenance cost includes an allowance for the amortization of capital expenditures over 5 years. It is emphasized that. the above-mentioned costs must be treated as rough estimates only since there are many site-specific variables. The cost of postflood clearing and maintenance is not always the responsibility of the reservoir operator. It is common practice for the reservoir operator to ' carry out postfloo~ clearing if debris interferes with operational requirements. However, where reservoirs are used for recreational activities (boating, fishing, camping, picnicing), the costs to reduce hazards and improve aesthetics in the reservoir are sometimes the responsibility of the provincial forest service or are shared with the reservoir operator. If the proper clearing strategy is not selected and adequate mitigative measures are not implemented at an early stage, the costs for postflood clearing and maintenance can be exorbitant. In the case of Williston Lake (surface area 177 259 ha) which is the reservoir for Bennett Dam in British Columbia, mainte- nance costs for clearing and debris control are '''J: I . L) i1 I , ... J l I~ I Q i¥ 1I 88 expected to reach 46.2 million dollars by 1984 (B.C. Hydro 1981). The strategy for this reservoir was to clear an area above the lower water level and leave the material to float. Adding to the debris problem in this reservoir are extremely erodible soilsr leading to massive bank slumping •. There are many aspects to consider i~ reviewing the economics of alternative clearing strategies. By taking a logical approach as outlined in Figure 4.1 and interacting with site engineers and environmental staff, a practical as well as economical clearing strategy is possible. 4.2.3 -Relevant Acts and Regulations There are a number of provincial and federal acts and regulations that may affect selection of a reservoir clearing strategy. The list of Table 4.7 covers all relevant Ontario legislation as well as federal acts and regulations which apply to Ontario reservoirs. These statutes and regulations outline specific requirements to be met prior to, during and after the clearing of reservoirs. For Ontario reservoirs, particular attention should be focused on requirements of the Crown Timber Act, the Forest Fires Prevention Act and the Lakes and Rivers Improvement Act. 4o2.4 -Land Use Current and projected land use within a reservoir area can be a major constraint in the selection of a clear- ing strategy. Although many of these considerations have been addressed in Section 4.1 in respect of "·<" ,' 1·. I . l . l 'l .. J ll .,~ 'I} ., ' J l l ··l .. 'l .. ·) .. , ... il 1 ~II 11 89 TABLE 4.7 RELEVANT ACTS AND REGULATIONS Act/Regulation CANADA WILDLIFE ACT (Federal) Wildlife Area Regulations CLEAN AIR ACT (Federal) Ambient Air Quality Objectives CONSERVATION AUTHORITIES ACT (Ontario) CROWN TIMBER ACT (Ontario) Relevant Power/ Requirements of Regulations Provision of protection for endangered wildlife. . Provides specific protection in following areas of Ontario: Big Creek (Norfolk County), Hahn Marsh (Haldimand-Norfolk), Dover Marsh (Kent County), Eleanor Island (Muskoka), Mohawk Island (Lake Erie), Mississippi Lake (Lanark County), Weller (Prince Edward County), Wye Marsh (Simcoe County). Power of Minister of Environment to prohibit emissions to ambient air if they exceed a national emission standard and create a health hazard or violate an in- ternational boundary agreement. Failure to comply brings maximum fine of $200,000. Acceptable emissions of suspended particulate matter are 0 to 120 ~gjm3 average concentration over 24-h period • Power to alter flow of water course and restrict use of water from rivers and inland lakes in conservation authority jurisdictions. Conservation authorities have first rights to water power on their lands and may charge an annual fee to Ontario Hydro for use of such water. Power to grant licences for cutting and sale of timber. Ministry of Natural Resources may designate trees. to be left standing for watershed protection, forest management, fire protection or preserva- tion of landscape and game reserves. Penalties outlined for ~ommencing cutting operations without appr~val or cutting beyond limits approved by r1inister • . f) ~-;--···-··----·-·-···-'" ·--~~' ·-. ·-· -~-·--·1 " !'" ., •• ii .~ ' .J ~ ~ >/ I ~ ' ... ,.r-,. ;f ~ ' I ' ' ' ' 1·~. l :l 90 Table 4.7 Relevant Acts and Regulations - 2 Act/Regulation Crown Timber Act (Ontario) ( contd) Regulation 159 ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT (Ontario) Regulation 33/77 Relevant. Power/ Requirements of Regulations Covers crown charges for timber cut under licence, terms and conditions of licences, and penalties for wasteful practices in forest operations, e.g. not utilizing merchantable logs. A "merchantable tree" means a standing tree containing one or more merchantable logs having a total con- tent of sound wood that ~B equal to more than one-half of the co~~ent of all the logs in the tree. Up to $3,000 fine or imprisonment up to 6 months for interfering with or destroying endangered species of fauna or flora or associated habitat as outlined in regulations. Endangered Species (a) Fauna Blue racer (Coluber constrictor faxi) Timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horri(jus horrid us) Peregr~ne falcon (Falco peregrinus ana tum) Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus alascanus) West Virginia white butterfly (Pieris virginiensis) Lake Erie Island water snake (Natrix Sipedon insularum) Pip1ng plover (Charadrius melodus) Es/~imo cur lew ( Numenius borealis) Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) White pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) Eastern cougar {Felis concolor cousuar .. -····--·----... ·~-.---· ""7 "'""'--·-·1'' ,, . ' ' ' ! I \ ! ·= l l 1' i ! ,11 .l'i 91 Table 4.7 Relevant Acts and Regulations - 3 Relevant Power/ Act/Regulation Requirements of Regulations Endangered Species Act (Ontario) (contd) . (b) Flora I) Small white lady's slipper orchid It ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT ACT (Ontario) Ge"•.a ral Regulations Regulation 836/76 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT (Ontario) Air Pollution Control (General) Regulations (Regulations 15, 1970, 873/74, 271/i7: 834/80) Ambient Air Quality Criteria (Regulations 872/75, 158/75) (Cypripedium candidurn muhl) Requires certain government agencies and all public corporations and municipalities to submit an environmental assessment prior to an undertaking unless exempt by the Minister of Environment. Failure to comply brings initial fine up to $5,000 and up to $10,000 per day for subsequent convictions. Outlines exemptions. Certificate ot approval required prior to emitting or discharging a contaminant to the natural environment (except water). Minister may authorize studies of the natural environment {including monitoring) as required. Restricts air contaminants that may cause discomfort to persons, loss of enjoyment of property, interfere with normal business, or cause damage to property. Limit of suspended particulate concentration at point of impingement: 100 llgfm3. Suspended particulate matter 120 11 gjm3 over 24-h period. l ! ' I , ) l 1 i I l l ', f f I l l :l ' ' •i li' ., 11· 1:{ lj ,., 92. Table 4.7 Relevant Acts and Regulations -4 Act/Regulation FISHERIES ACT (Federal) FOREST FIRES PREVENTION ACT (Ontario) GAME AND FISH ACT (Ontario) INDIAN ACT (Federal) Indian Timber Regulations LAKES AND RIVERS IMPROVEMENT ACT {Ontario) Relevant Power/ Requirements of Regulations During land clearing, no slash, stumps or other debris is permitted in waters frequented by marine fish. Failure to comply brings maximum fine of $5,000 for first offence and $10,000 for each subse- quent offenc~. Ontario Fishery Regula- tions apply. A work permit is required prior to clearing of any land in or within 300 m of a forest or woodland. A fire permit is also required since tha clearing of land requires piling and burning of all brush, debris, nonm,rchantable timber and- other flammable matg-.::·ial cut (except chips). Failure to comply brings $1,000 fine or 3 months imprisonment or both. Restricts hunting or fishing on land or water bodies where there is written notice not to hunt or fish~ Act of parliament of Canada or provincial legislature required prior to use of Indian reserves by province, municipality or corporation. Applies to harvesting, sale and disposal of timber within Indian reserves and surrended lands. Provides for public rights over waters of lakes and rivers in Ontario; protection of riparian owners; use, management and protection of flsh, wild- life and other natural resources on such waters; preservation of natural amenities of such waters and on shores and banks. l : l : l I , f I : r L I I I ; ! I \, .-I . j tl! 93 •rable 4. 7 Relevant Acts and Regulations -5 Act/Regulation l.ak.es and Rivers Improvement Act (Ontario) (contd) MIGRATORY. BIRDS CONVENTION ACT (FederaJ.) Migra'tory Bird Regulations Migratory Bird Sanctuary Regulations Relevant Power/ Requirements of Regulations Where water has been impounded for power development or storage purposes, the Ministry of Natural Resources may require clearing of timber, slash or debris from flooded lands and removal of any of this material that has escaped from flooded lands to any lake or river. Timber floated down a lake or river must be kept under control and where timber floats out of control or cre~tes a hazard or obstruction, it must be removed from the lake or river. There is a fine of up to $10 for trees cut and felled without lopping off branches and cutting up the trunk into lengths not more than 5.5 m before floatingo Up to $5,000 fine for contravening any provision of act and regulations. In addition to hunting regulations, prohibits taking nests or eggs of migratory birds and provides special pro- tection to wood ducks and eider ducks. No deposit of wastes is allowed wh~re they may be harmful to migratory birds. Permit required from federal Minister of Environment prior to disturbing migratory birds, nests, eggs or habitat in a migra- tory bird sanctuary. Migratory bird sanc- tuaries in Ontario are -Beckett Creek Bird Sanctuary, Russell County (Cumberland Township) Chantry Island Bird Sanctuary, Bruce County (Saugeen Township) Eleanor Island Bird Sanctuary, Mnskoka District -Fielding Bird Sanctcary, Sudbury District ! ! 1 I I t '. t ~ . I }, { I ! . I I ~ I 1 [ l } ;:.'I j I I 94 Table 4.7 Relevant Acts and Regulations - 6 Act/Regulation Migratory Bird Sanctuary Regulations (contd) NAVIGABLE WATERS PROTECTION ACT (Federal) Navigable Waters Works Regulations ONTARIO HERITAGE ACT Relevant Power/ Requirements of Regulations -Guelph Bird Sanctuary, Wellington County (Guelph/Puslinch Townships) -Mississippi Lake Bird Sanctuary, Lanark County (Drummond Township) -Moose River Migratory Bird Sanctuary, Cochrane District -Pinafore Park Bird Sanctuary, St. Thomas {Elgin County) -Rideau Bird Sanctuary, Merrickville (Lanark County) -St. Joseph's Island Bird Sanctuary, Algoma District (Jocelyn Township) -Upper Canada Bird Sanctuary, Stormont County (Osnabruck Township) -Young Lake Bird Sanctuary, Manitoulin . Island Approval required from federal Minister of Transport prior to construction of works in or across navigable waters. Construction is to commence within 6 months qf approval and be completed within 3 years. Failure to comply brings maximum fine of $5,000. Deposit of rubbish which interferes with navigation (or rubbish which sinks in <20 fathoms of navigable water) may bring maximum fine of $5,000. Lights, buoys and other marks are required as specified by federal Minister of Transport. Tools, Lquipment and vehicles must be removed from navigable wat~rs on completion of project. The federal Minister of Transport may require removal of debris which accumulates on bed or sur- face of navigable waters. Reservoir owner may be required to install log chutes around works, provide public roads or footpaths arourtd works and fu·t'nish Minister with records of flows ancl eleva- tion of water above and below th~ work. Power of Ministry of Culture and Recrea- tion to manage property of historical _,_ •' '':' ~·7,.., .. .:. ~-~ ... ~:t/;•a: I j t / I r l l I I I j _,,' \ ~ l I l. l I 1 I 95 Table 4.7 Relevant Acts and Regulations - 7 Act/Regulation Ontario Heritage Act {contd) ONTARIO WATER RESOURCES ACT Water Management goals, object- ives, policies and implement- ation proce- dures of the rwtinistry of Environment PROVINCIAL PARKS ACT (Ontario) PUBLIC LANDS ACT {Ontario) WILDERNESS AREAS ACT (Ontario) Relevant Power/ Requirements of Regulations architectural, archaeol0gical, recreational, aesthetic and scenic interest. Ministry of environment has power to control and regulate storms, distribution and use of water for public purposes and examine any surface waters or groundwater in Ontario. Discharge of any material into a reservoir that may impair water quality is an offence-subject to fine of up to $5,000 on first conviction and up to $10,000 and/or 1 year imprisonment on each subsequent conviction. Reflects current policies for water management in Ontario and outlines provincial water quality objectives. The Ministry of Natural Resources may make agreements for the establishment of works, facilities or services on public lands. Where 25 percent or more of lands fronting on a water body are public lands, those lands comprising at least 25 percent of the frontage shall be set apart for recreational and access purposes by the Min!stry of Natural Resour=es. Where <25 percent of land frontage is public lands, all public lands fronting shall be used for such purposes. Development or utilization of natural resources is possible in any wilderness I ' r l ,, I ' ! I l ~ \ i 1: ' -w· I .. I . I ' J I I 11 ,Jj • I i ' ' '11 96 Table 4.7 Relevant Acts and Regulations -8 Act/Regulation Wilderness Areas Act (Ontario) (contd) Relevant Power/ Requirements of Regulations area that is more than 260 ha in size. Lands and wildlife in designated wilder- ness areas are controlled by the Ministry of Natural Resources. .I , ,I 1 . :I I ) I :I ,. ' ~I " " ~~-,. :I .. ; •• !I J 97 reservoir objectives, these and others are summarized below. (a) Forest Resources -An active forest industry implies both the presence of merchantable timber as well as the equipment and manpower to extract it. It also indicates a probable market for extracted timber. {b) Historical and/or A.rchaeological Sites -The presence of culturally valuable "sites of ant:i.qui ty" can affect the timing of reservoir clearing as well as the actual practices used. (c) Tourism -Even if the future reservoir is not slated for recreatioaal use directly, if it will be visible to residents and visitors to the area, aesthetic grooming will likely be required. (d) Access -If current access is poor, this can restrict clearing options both technically and economically. It can put pressure on reservoir operator to improve access or maintain status quo thereby biasing in favor of one strategy over another. (e) Proximity to Population Centres -Outside of the definition of future reservoir uses, local people provide a source of manpower for clearing purposes. If unemployment is high, major clearing efforts may be vie\'led as a socioeconomic benefit to the region. Conversely, in sparsely populated areas, manpower may be unavailable for clearing activities. (f) Ecologically Sensitive Areas -Will restrict clearing options primarily through access and the definition of future use options. It will directly affect clearing strategy for the maintenance of~riparian and downstream uses. L ' .I •• I ( -~ I. J I. -1. I , I (f.,. .I I t u 98 5 -RESERVOIR CLEARING METHODS 5.1 -Hand Versus Machine Clearing Methods Where removal of any pa.rt of the reservoir site cover is required as part of the clearing strategy, the most appro- priate methods (tools) must be selected. Hand clearing involves the manual use of lightweight power chain saws and is usually employed where physical constraints or economics preclude the use of heavy mechanical cutting methods. Once cut, the trees are mechanically skidded to landings and slashers are used to process and stock tree lengths. Hand clearing may also imply the piling and burning of nonsalvage- able timber. The primary advantages to hand clearing are small capital investment and accessibility to a range of terrains. These advantages are offset to a large degree by the amount of labor and time r~quired to hand clear a reservoir as opposed to heavy machinery operations. Where terrain permits access for heavy mechanical equipment, large mower type land-clearing machines (e.g. Hydro-ax) and crawler tractors with shearing blades can be utilized. For uprooting and moving vegetation, a crawler tractor equipped with a land-clearing rake can grub vegetation out of the soil, move it and pile it. In steep or rugged terrain where there is no access for wheeled or tracked equipment. winches can be set up near accessible areas and long cabl~~ used to drag felled vegetation out of the cut area (Kloster and Mikucki 1978). 1 I 1 . I • I . J I .. IJ ~ I ~ . , ; l' :, ' ~ ; ~ ~ ·U r!. '~ ft :u .t I ~J; 1 . ) -~~ t}' ~~ •~'~ r; ·it') 99 Heavy mechanical cutting equipment is used primarily for large-scale clear cutting operc=ations ~ The large capi te,l investment required and the c1ifficul ty in gaining acce.ss to remote areas with rough terrain limits the use of this equipment considerably. If the selected strategy includes the minimization of residual access, nand methods may be preferred to mechanical t.echniques because of the overgrowth potential of small contour roads • 5.2 -Criteria for Selecting Clearing Method The decision as to whether to use manual and/or mechanical cutting methods is dependent on a number of criteria • (a) Clearing Strategy Recommended The clearing strategy may involve removal of merchant- able timber, piling and burning of slash and debris, cutting and floating, topsoil stripping, etc. A selective clearing strategy often requires manual clearing since heavy mechanical equipmgnt can be impractical in this situation. A complete clearing requirement is often more conducive to the use of heavy mechanical equipment. (b) Physical Constraints These will include accessibility to the reservoir site, terrain characteristics (e.g. swamps, bogs, slope steep- ness) and density of forest stands. () ·---------~~;·--··-···-·~· .. ·----~---~-·-.. ~----............... ---·r ~ . . •. . ' ~ •• ...: -·, ,,. " \ 'i; ':.' .·• : ' ,. " ,!;t. 'f t ·~· ' ' .t:. ':.. 't ~~ \ ' ' I !. ' l ' \ I i ! I ) I , I ~, 1 I I l ! .I I d} =· I l ' 1 100 (c) Identification of Archeological Sites Where these are identified, manual clearing is usually employed to facilitate excavation of a site. Following archeolcgical investigations, it may then be desirable to utilize heavy mechanical equipment. (d) Econ'omit::s ---.: ··-- Economic feasibility 8hould reflect dapital investment, labor requirements, return on merchantable timberr scale of cl·t~aring ope~ation and sche(!ul.e in terms of time required to clear the reservoir. The environmental and economic criteria affectin~ selection of a reservoir clearing method is summarized in Figure 5.1. It is empha~~j~:zed that while one criterion may indicate that hand or machine clearing is clearly preferred, it is important to consider all criteria before making a decision on the method to be used. It may be that a combination of hand and machine clearing methods is the most practical approach. l ,. ' 1 ! ,. I ' .I !1·.·. . ' i . II .I o· ~.·1 ; -~ il fl·. •• /0 l r-----1 ~~:;b~y OFFOREST r-----\ I I (------i MERCHANTABLE TILt. PER ~-----~ I I (------l..._[_TE_R_RA-IN ____ ______,~-----~ I I I CLEARING STRATEGY AND I f SCALE OF OPERATION . t. . ...,,., r ECH. A~{CA. L f .if R 1t~G-__J HAND CLEARING I I ~-_____ ,_, k_ --......,..··--·-l ~ 1'---k __ _ I I I k __ _ I I ----- ----- ---~ . k __ -----I I -----i ~'-- 1 -----1 ~'-- ' \..___ ------ I ... -COMPLETE CLEARING, < 1000 HA _. COMPLETE CLEARING, > 1000 HA ::.·~ -CLEARING SGRUBSING -SELECTIVE CLEt~:!i'iNG ~-PERIMETER Clt:AR1NG -CUT, FLOAT AND BURN -MODIFIED CLEARING (TOPPING) -TOPSOIL STRIPPING ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES ECOLOGICALLY SENSITIVE AREAS e.g. SPAWNING BEDS, EROSION SITES, WILDLIFE HABITAT, RARE SPECIES SITE ACCESSIBILITY LABOUR AVAILABILITY CAPITAL COST (DEPENDING ON SCALE OF OPERATION) TIME CONSTRAINTS ~ ' ---· .--::r if. _J ""'' -><~-_,_-.,._...;......;I ~ -------~ t-----~ -----~ 1------~ 1------~ I I I I I I I I I J I ~-------1 1------~ f----. ---~ I ~-----_) ENVIRO AFFEC NMENTAL AND ECONOMIC CRITERIA TING SELECTION OF A RESERVOIR CLEARING METHOD FIG. 5.1 IDI(~ I HU a: r 'j I I 0 i I . 1 l I I w· ::1 I ., 102 6 ~ DERIVING A SITE SPECIFIC STRATEGY ~~~~.c----~----------~----~--------------- In the Introduction an overall process was put forward, by which a cle~ring strategy could be derived for a given ~eservoir. Having presented the background material for this process in Sections 2 to 5, this process is now elaborated below. 6.1 -Model Development . . The term "model" in this context is simply the structuring of the decision factors and input requirements for the reservoir under considerations. It involves the first 4 boxes in the logic diagram presented in Figure 6.1. 1 -Description of Baseline The system in which the reservoir will be created, must be described and understood. From this, the physical properties of the reservoir can be predicted. 'l'he project objective -power generation -forms part of this baseline so that reservoir operational limitations must be described. 2 -Definition of Constraints Using the baseline data, constraints to secondary uses are defined. This includes topographic, social and economic, biological, physico-chemical features, as well as legal and jurisdictional limitations, etc, that can eliminate or restrict secondary uses. •I\ i' ~ :~ ,. "Jo-t ' -~ ! •• ... ) •J !. ,, f ':10 l··.·t, ·• ·~ ,-~ .. ! J' J I II l ~ . ! I t I I , l l l I I ~~1 I I .} ! -,. __ ,._J?J .. ... ® RESERVOIR NEEDS FOR EACH USE CD 0 POWER --STATEMENT l OF OBJECTIVES 0 2 - --J DESCRIPTION PRIORIZE ' OF S~CONDARY ___... EIASELINE USES 3 '--- 0 - DEFINITION OF r 4 - ~ CONSTRAINTS -· 5 I l - . - ® - • ... - CLEARING STRATEGY FOR POWER AND SECONDARY USES D D -o --.. -· t -- 0 ~ IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR SELECTED STRATEGY I [ I I I t Fig 6.1 - ---J ------------------------------------------------------------------------=:=:=:=:=:=:::::::::::.:::::::::::~::::?E::w:.::::::::.::.:.:;::::::.:::r::::::~::~~~~~~~~~~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~~= ~ ----·--·--.--·--~~-------,,~··---:c-•·~:·~--~--e-.,---=-~---·;;:~::~cy,~\V~~,.t;,A;_~ ONTARIO HY ORO [ii] RESERVOIR CLEARING a PREPARATION-ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION STRATEGIES ~~~~ RESERVOIR CLEARING DECISION FRAMEWORK ll I I , I • I • I I I , I I J I 104 3 -Statement of Objectives Through discussion with MNR, local people, and whoever else may fruitfully contribute to, or be affected by the decision, the secondary needs the reservoir may fill, over and above the primary power producing goal, are derived. The aim is to include only those uses which have a reasonable probability of success. This selection has three components -anticipated regional or local needs -area constraints and limitations -compatibility with hydro power generation 4 -Priorize Secondary Uses Having assembled a list of possible secondary uses, rank these, placing those deemed most desirable at the topo Uses for immediate implementation should rank above those which, although not required at the present time, may become so at some future date (ioe. those options which are not to be specifically excluded or foreclosed). These first 4 steps are executed without specific consideration of reservoir clearing needs per se. Reservoir preparation is a tool. The clearing strategy finally derived is designed to meet projected needs not vice-versa. 6.2 -Decision Framework The remainder of the decision process depicted in Figure 6.1 relates to reservoir clearing specifically. Having established and ranked secondary uses (objectives) for the reservoir. I I , I • I J I -1 I , I .). I J} I 105 5 -For each reservoir use, describe those reservoir charac- teristics (needs) for which reservoir preparation can be seen to be an assisting tool. Start with the primary objective of power production. This is in fact, the base case -the minimum and absolute need. The remainder of the decision process is premised on this point. 6 -Examine the possible approaches to reservoir preparation (Section 3.2) and outline what strategy or combination the~reof, would best meet the power-producing goals of this specific reservoir. Then progressively incorporate each of the secondary uses ana see how their reservoir ~eeds alter the strategy. The Use l (power) plus Use 2 combination produces a new strategy. This is then revised to incorporte the needs of Use 3, etc. When completed, there will be list of ranked use combinations with associated strategies for each. This list is reviewed. Some cutoff must be selected, i.e., in the illustrated example in Figure 6.1, there are 4 secondary uses depicted. In view of the clearing requirements, should all 4 be retained, or some lesser number? 7 -Whichever level is decided on, an implementation plan is outlined to execute the indicated strategy. There is more than one way to "skin the cat". Economics, logis- tics, site constraints, etc, will be used to determine which methods will best serve for any givec reservoir. Some Points of Consideration Having briefly reviewed the decision framework as presented, there are some points which warrant expansion. .. .. ' . . ·-~---..... -___ ... _ ................. ·----·-··--·--·.···---.. -·----·---·-------· ·"·--.... ·-·::-. ..... -··r I •. l , I i t I -1· I , I a I • I I ) -1 I , I If .,lj 'VIJ 106 Because of the many variables involved, a reser'\roir clear-ing selection methodology cannot be generated that will tell the operator precisely what to do for a specific reservoir. -Many subjective decisions must be made, particularly in the model developm~.nt where reservoir objectives are laid down. -The premise upon, which this framework is built, is that the hydropower objective is unquestionably first and that and other uses remain secondary and that it is indeed possible to rank the secondary uses in order of priority • -Some secondary uses such as flood control and irrigation are completely compatible with storage for power generation (re: reservoir preparation). Other usas vary to differing degrees. More conflicts arise between secondary uses in some cases, than with power generation. For example, high intensity recreational usage and wildlife enhancement are rarely compatible. These conflicts should be identified in the selection and ranking phase. The only uses for which a reservoir can be viewed holisti- cally are power, flood control, irrigation and domestic water supply. For other uses, the reservoir can and should be subdivided, with clearing treatment designed fot each section according to its designated use. Many of the apparent conflicts ~etween uses, can thus be resolved through separation. I I ' I ell I -1 I I ' I ••. ': n I ' I 107 -Step 6 -selection of strategies -would probably involve . the preparation of a reservoir management plan showing where specific shoreline developments could take place and what level of clearing effort should be used for that purpose, e-.g. Removal of deadfall throughout reservoi.: and shoreline back 2 m above TWL • -Select cut and remove softwoods below TWL. Topping to designated elevation except in zones A, B, c, and D. All clearing roads below bottom operating level except as shown. -Complete clearing and grubbing zones E, F, and G. I I .. t: .,. I~ ,.,.,!.,/ ,i I! • I, 108 -The design of an implementation plan should be reserved for that single overall strategy finally selected e.g_ the decision as to whether to burn or to haul material away from the reservoir is relevant to implementation in fact -not to strategy. As long as the material is removed, the strategy requirements are met. If it is logistically or economically impossible or environmentally too disruptive to haul -burning may be the only way to dispose of unwanted material. Decisions of this sort should be deferred to the implentation phase and as there will be many of them -it would only 11 make work" to go through the process for more than one strategy. Economics -the actual cost of clearing is included directly only in the selection of an implementation plan. If the best way to implement a strategy from all other viewpoints turns out to be exorbitantly expensive, a different strategy (i.e., lower level or different combina- tion of uses) may have to be considered. In other words, one may have to retrace some steps. I I St I .I I .. I, I I t .I I 109 7 -CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This study has been an overview exercise aimed at examining all aspects of the reservoir clearing question. In so doing, it has become apparent that there is much conflicting evi- dence reported both in the literature and by power utilities, regarding the effectiveness and impacts of different reser- voir preparation strategies. Some of the problems attribu~~d to lack of clearing in some reservoirs may in fact be functions of other factors upon which the level of preimpoundment preparation could have little influence. Likewise so~e of the apparent successes could well be a function of good luck rather than good planning. The supporting science is lacking as are complete reservoir case histories involving direct assessment of reservoir clearing practices • Nevertheless, the major issues, clearing strategies avail- able, and criteria used in deriving site spPcific approaches to preimpoundment preparation have been addressed~ Nearly a hundred reservoir case histories have been reviewed. Hundreds of literature references have been searched for relevant material and a framework for decisionmaking, is put forward. The many variables that can affect and be affected by, reservoir clearing practices made it impossible to devise within the scope of this study, a detailed clearing selection manual. Indeed, several aspects require considerable further work before such an undertaking can even be considered. Major deficiencies in the data are seen to be as follows • j l ' ' • I • I I :.f I I 110 {a) No detailed approach or guidelines are available in Canada for reservoir clearing. Brief guidelines are available for MNR reservoirs and those reservoirs proposed by Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro. In the USA the US Army Corps of Engineers also has a brief set of guidelinese •(b) There has been little or no monjtoring of environmental effects of alternative clearing strategies. Only reservoirs constructed in the last 10 years have been monitored on a continuing basis. Much of the environmental monitoring currently carried out concentrates on water quality/fisheries effects as a result of reservoir configuration (surface area, volume depth, drawdown) and changes in stream flows. Specific effec :·:s of clearing strategies are rarely documented. (c) There is a lack of cost data for alternative clearing strategies. A good set of cost data were available for general clearing and burning operations but not for other strategies such as cut and float, stump removal, topsoil stripping, prescribed burning of all vegetative material, and modified clearing (topping). Comparative costs for post-flood clearing were not available for underwater clearing and reservoir sweeping in relation to preflood clearing strategies utilized~ Recommendations (a) Detailed Examination of Erosion/ Bank Stability Question An understand.i.ng of the complex interrelations between erosion, bank stability and vegetation are fundamental l l. j. ! l l I I r I, l ) I I , I I. •' • I -1 I I .I •• . ' (b) 111 to the design of a reservoir clearing strategy. Every soil type behaves differently in a given set of conditions and it was outside the scope of this program to analyze all the variables of importance. This particular aspect more than any other, requires detailed investigation. Field measurements and possibly experimentation will be required to quantify rates of erosion, revegetation possibilities and status of existing reservoirs. Monitoring of Environmental Effects of Clearing The lack of information regarding the impacts of various clearing strategies was evident from this survey~ In future, this documentation should be sought. It can be accomplished during regular post-flood monitoring but should clearly distinguish, wherever possible, between the effects of clearing and inundation and subsequent operation of the reservoir. The post-clearing analysis should include an evaluation of any mitigative measures such as revegetation of banks and construction of protective works, as well as general effects of the clearing strategy on the local environment, i.e., fisheries6 water quality, wildlife habitat and distribution, social/cultural opportunities, recreation, navigation, and aesthetics. {c) Long-Term Debris Problems In many of the reservoir case histories, the surfacing of tree-length debris was reported as a continuing problem. The mechanisms whereby flooded material is released to the surface, should be clarified. Some speculation was put forward in this report but as there 1 I . ! f I I ! j ) l 1 1. ! I I 1 I , I I • I ~-• .. I ,, , ·= , 'I I I I ;1_' . I (d) (e) 112 is a continuing economic e~penditure, not to mention the potential hazard, generated by this phenomenon, it deserves further attention. In situ examination of floating debris should be carried out to determine the controlling factors. Cost Analysis for Alternative Clearing Strategies Comparative cost analyses for different clearing strategies or a given reservoir have not until recently, been reported. In future the presentation of these comparative costs should be encouraged as they are very useful in assessing future reservoi~ clearing options • Preparation of a Detailed Guideline for Assessing Reservoir Clearing Requirements The decision framework develope¢ from this study is a general one, based on general information collected in an overview capacity. With some infilling of the data gaps already identified, a more detailed guideline for the selection of appropriate clearing strategies and implementation plans, should be formulated. I ; t l ' I l l:. I ' I l ' ! l i: ~ 1' j·, I f , I f , r ~~--;, ~· ~I . -~· ~ ~I 1, "I i . .. -'-·I l ' ~- r(_ . ..... J ~I i BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES --~ I I •. I I ., I ,, I' •• I, ·~ -~~ I \,J, I ·'{ BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES Acres Consulting Services Limited. 1979. Arnprior Generating Station Reservoir Reassessmentof General Land-use Restrict:ions. Prepared for Ontario Hydro Acres Consulting Services Limited. 1978. Spanish River Environmental R~~port. Prepared for Inco Metals Company Ackerman, w. c., G. F. White and E. B. Worthington. 1973 Han-made Lakes:; Their Problems and Environmental Effects. American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C. Airphoto Analysis Associates Consultants Limited and Beak Consultants Limited. 1976. Comparative Environmental Impact Assessment, Proposed Upper Salmon and Cat Arm Hydro-Electric Developm~nts. Dept of Consumer AffaTrs and Environment. St. John's, Newfoundland Alberta Forest Service~~ 1981 Personal Communication with J. Nowasad, Timber Management Forester .• Oct 1 Allen, E., Jerry, 1960. Taste and Odor Problems in New Reseryoirs in Wooded Areas. J. American Water Works Assoc, Vol 52(8)~ 1027-1032 American Fisheries Society. 1967. Reservoir Fishery Resources Symposium. Presented by the Reservoir Committee of the Southern DiVision, American Fisheries Society at University of Georgia, April 5-7, 1967 American Society of Civil Engineers. 1978. Environmental Effects of. Large Darns Report by the Committee on Environmental Effects of the United States Committee on Large Dams. New York Balatinecz, J, J., 1980 Unpublished Report on Properties and Utilization of Eastern Cana.dlan Wood Spec1es Faculty of · FOrestry, University of Toronto Banfield, A. w. F. 1974. The Mammals of Canada~ University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ontario Baranov, I. v. 1961 Biohydrochemica! Classification of the Reserv'oirs in the European U.S.S.Re, p 139-183 In P.V. Tyurin {ed) The Storage Lakes of the U.S.S.R. and Their Importance for Fishery I~zv. Gos. Wauchno-Iss led Inst. Ozerc Rech. Khoz Vol 50 Baxter, R. M~ and P. Glande, 1980. Environmental Effects of Dams and Impoundments in Canada -Experience and P~o~pe9ts. Can. Bull. Fish. Aqu. Sci No. 205~Dept of F~sher~es and Oceans, Ottawa r--, ,, II I ' ' , ' I I I ' • I -I ~~ ii Beak Consultants Limited. 19--. Wreck Cove Hydroelectric Project Environmental Assessment and Management Strategy. Prepared for Nova SCot~a Power corporat~on Benedetti, A.J. and J. A. Roller. Impoundment Area in Washington. Assoc. Vol 54( 2) 1961. P~eparation of an J. Amer~can Water Works Berkes, F. 1981. Some Environmental and Social Impacts of the James Bay Hydroelectric Project, Canada. J. Env. Management, Vol 12:157-172~ · Berkowitz, D.A. and A.M. Squires (eds). 1969. Power Generation and Environmental Change. Symp of Committee on Environmental Alteration, American Association for the Advancement of Science, December 28, 1969. Bollulo, D.T. 1978. dans la conception domplexe La Grande L'ingenieur 325 L'interaction ingeniere-environment du complexe La Grande, p 25-35. In-Le et son environment by A. Soucy (ed.). Brooks, J.L. and E.S. Deevey, Jr. 1966. New England. In: D. G. Frey (ed) Limnology in North America. University -of Wisconsin Press, Madison Bruce, W.J. 1974. The Limnology and Fish Populations of Jacopie Lake, West Forebay, -smallwood Reservo~r, Labrador. Fisheries and Marine Service, st. ,JOhn's, Nfld. Tech Rept No. NEW/T-74-2 Burress, Ralph M. 1961. Fishing Pressure and Success in Areas of Flooded Standing T~mber ~n Bull Shoals Reservoir, Missouri. Proc. of the 15th Ann. Conf8 of S.E. Assoc. of Game and Fish Comm. pp 296 -298. Campbell, P.G~, B. Bebee, A. Caille, M.J. Demalsy, P. D~malsy, J. L. Sasseville and s. A. Visser. 1975 Pre-Impoundment Site Preparation: A Study of the Effects of Topsoil Stripping on Reservoir Quality. Ve r:h .~ Internat Verein L~mnol. 19:1768-1777 · Campbell, P.G.C., D. Cluis, P. Coutureo 1979 •. BXna~~9~~ d~s elements nutritifs dans les ecosystemes aquat~ques: etude de deux reservoirs dans la province de Quebec. INRS -Eau, rapport scientifique No. 98. Canadian Forestry Service. 1951. Canadian Woods -Their Properties and Uses. Prepared by Forest Products Laboratories Division Chapman, L.J. and M. K. Thomas. 1968. The Climate of Northern Ontario. Climatological Studies No. 6, Dept. of Transport, Meteorological Branch . b .. ' . " . . 1 11 I~ r 'I ' ~ '( j ., .. ~.·. I :.1 I .If I ,, J. 'I iii Ciliberti, V.A. Jr. 1980. !_he Libby Dam Project: An Ex-Post Facto Analysis of Selected Environmental Impacts, Mitigation Commitments, Recreation usage and Hydroelectric Power Production. Montana Water Resources Research Center Report No. 106 Claflin, T.O. 1968. Reservoir Aufwuchs on Inundated Trees. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 87(1):97-104 Clayton, J.S., W.A. Ehrlich, D.B. Cann, J.H. Day and I.B. Marshal. 1977. Soils of Canada Canad~ Dept of Agriculture, Supply and Services, Ottawa Courchene, J.E. and J.D. ~hapman. 1975. Algae Control in Northwest Reservoirs. In J. A~erican Water Works Assoc., March, pp 127-130 Cowell, B. C. and P. L. Hudson. 1967. Some Environmental Factors Influencing Benthic Invertebrates in Two Missouri River Reservoirs in Reservoir Fishery Resources Symposium, Amer1can Fisheries Society. Cuerrier, J.P. 1954. The History of Lake Minnewanka with Reference to the Reaction a£ Lake Trout to Artificial Changes in Environment. Canadian Fish Culturist 15 1-9 Cu~ran Assoeiates. 1975. Guidelines for EPA Review of Environmental Impact Statements on Projects InvolVing Impoundments. Prepared for U.S" P.nvironmental Protection Agency, June, 1975 Dai, T.S., and I. K. Hill. 1977. The Role of Vegetation i:n Stabiliziqg the Lower Great Lakes ~anadian Shoreline. J. Great Lakes Res. Oct 1977, Int. Ass~c Great Lakes Res. 3(1-2): 46-56 Davis, H.E. 1946. Reservoir Clearing in the Tennessee Valley. Civil Eng. Vol 16(1): 27-30 Davis, J.T. and J.S. Hughes 1971. Effects of Standing Timber on Fish Populations and Fisherman Success in Bussey Lake~ Lou~s1ana. In Reservoir Fisheries and Limnology, Gordon E. Hallt ed. American Fisheries Society, Washington, DeC. Dobie, J. and M. Salamon. 1973. What Lumber Quality to Expect from Salyaged Flooded Timber. Canadian Forest Industries Douglas, R.J.W. (ed). 1Q70. Geology and Economic Minerals to Canada~ G$ologieal survey of Canada& Queen's Printer, Ottawa Duthie, H.D. and M. La Ostrofsky. 1974. Plankton, Chemistry and Physics of Lakes in the Churchill Falls Region of Labrador. J& Fish. Res. Board Can. 31: 1105-1117 I ·tr ·~ , I I ' I J I .. iv Efford, I. E. 1975. Assessment of the Impact of Hydro Dams. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. Vol 32{1), pp. 196-209 El-Shamy, F. 1977. Environmental Impacts of Hydro~lectric Power Plants. ASCE J. Hydraulics Div. Sept, 1977, p 1007 Emberley, G., D. Noseworthy and A. Penney~ 1974. The Impact of the Bay d' Espoir Development -Final Report Engineering News-Record. 1954. Timber to Burn at Reservoir Site. November 25, 1954. pp. 32--33 Environment Canada. 1979. Water Quality Interpretive Report, Ontario 1967-1977. Inland Waters Directorate, Water Quality Branch, Ottawa Environment Canada5 1975. James Bay Hydro-Electric Project Environmental Concerns. Fowells, H.A. 1965. Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States. Prepared for u.s. Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Agric. Handbook No~ 271 Fredriksen, R.L. 1971. Comparative ~hemical Water Quality in Natural and Disturbed St~eams Following Logging and Slash Burning in Krygier, J.T. and J. D. Hall (Dir) Forest Land Uses and Stream Enviror~.trent, A Symposium Continuing Education Pubs, Cornwallis. Oregon F'rli:~l, F. s r; 1957. Land Pol icy for Impound ins Reservoirs J. American Water Works Assoc Vol. 49 (9): 1147-1155 Geen, Glen. 1975. Ecological Consequences of the Propo_sed Moran Darn on the Fraser River. J. Fisheries Research Board of canaa20 vol -32 Geen, G. H. 1974. Effects of Hydroe,lectric Development in Weste~n Canada on Aquatic Eco5~tem~. J. Fish. Res. Board Can 31:913-927 Geological Survey of Canada. 1981. §ensitivity of Bedrock and Derived Soils to Acid Precipitation Maps 1550A and 1551A. Energy, Mines and Resources, Canada Gill, C.J. 1977. Some Aspects of the Design and Management of Reservoir Margins for Multiple Use. J. Applied Biology. Vol 2:129-182 Haworth, S.E., o.w. Cowell and R.A. Sims. 1978. Bibliograph~ of Published and unpublished Literature on the Hudson BaS "E'OW'land. Environment Canada, Great Lakes Forest Researc Centre, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario l I l ! i l ' j Hl I ! l m , v Hodgins, D.B., P. E1 Wisner and E.A. McBean. 1977. A Simulation Model for Screenin a S stem of Reservoirs for ~nvlronmenta. Impact. Can. J. Clvl • Eng. Marc , 1977, Vol 4(11) p .. l Hunter & Associates. 1980. Cat Avin Reservoir Preparation study. Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro International Commission on Large Dams. 1980. Dams and the Environment. Prepared by Committee on Damming and the Environment, Bull. 35, Paris Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique. 1973. Rapport annuel 1972-1973. INRS-Eau Universi~e du Quebec Kay. B.D. (ed). 1973. Proceedings: SymposiEm on the Physical Environment of the Hudson Bay Lowland. March 30-31, 1973, University of Guelph, Ontario Kelly, D.H.and J. K• Underwood and n. Thirumurthi. 1980. Impact of Construction of a Hydroelectric Project on the Water Quality of Five' Lakes in Nova Scotia Kennedy, E~I. 1965~ Grown in Canada. Strength and Related Properties of Woods Dept. of Forestry Publ. No. 1104 Kiell, D. J. 1981. Development of a Reservoir Preparation Strategy. Presented at the International Symposium on Reservoir Ecology and Management, June 2 and 3, 1981. Quebec City, Canada Kloster, S.E. and W.J. Mikucki. 1978. Management of Reservoir Clearing and Cleaning Debris~~ Construction and Engineering Research Laboratory, Illinois. Tech.. Rept. N-50 Kortright, F. H. 1967. The Ducks, Geese and Swans of North America. The Stackpole Co., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania and Wildlife Management Institute, Washington, D.C .. Lagler, K.F. 1971. Ecological Effects of Hydroelectric Darns. In Power Generation and Environmental Change, D.A. Berkowitz and A.M. Squires (eds). Lagler, K.F. (ed). 1969. Development. FAO, Rome Man-Made Lakes -Planning and ----~c~--------------------=----- Likensf G.E., Bormann, F.H., Johnson, N.M. Fisher, D.W. and R.S. Pierce, 1970. Effects of Forest Cutting and Herbi~ide Treatment on Nutrient Budgets in the Hubbard Brook - Watershed Ecosystem. Ecol. Monogr.-40:23-47 . \) -·c;~, ' ~ ,;":) 11 f 1 • e I~ -~~ B I • I I vi Lowe-McConnell, R.H4 {ed). 1966. Man-Made Lakes: Proc. of a Syrnp. held at the Royal Geographical Society, London on 30 September and 1 October 1965. Academic Press, New Yorke Lower Churchill Development Corporation Limited. 1981. Lower Chuchill Project Generation Facilities. Environmental Impact Statement (Vol II) S~. John's, Nfld Machniak, K. 1975. The Effects of Hydroelectric pevelopment on the Biology of Northern Fishes. A Literature Review and Bibliography Environment Canada Tech • Re pt • 5 2 7 • . Manitoba Department of Natural Resources. 1981. Personal Communication with Frank Penner, Water Resources-Branch> Oct. 2. McCullough, c. A., and R. R. Nicklen. 1971. Control.of Water Pollution During Dam Construction. In Proc. ASCE, J. San .. Eng. D7.v. FeE" pp 81-89 • HcNeely, R. N., v. P. Neimanis and L. Dwyer. 1979. Water Quality Sourcebook - A Guide to Water Qualit~ Parameters. Environment Canada, Inland Waters Directorater Ottawa. Meth, F. F., A. V. Bell and G. F. Gillis. 1978. Prescribed Burning as a Reservoir Preparation T~chnique. presanted to Hydraulic Power Section, Canadian Electrical Assoc. Spring Meeting. Toronto. Miterev, G. A. and E. M. Belova. 19 • The Effect of a Flooded Forest on Reserve~~ Water Quality. ( Transl. from Russian). Sb. Nauchn~ Rab. Mosk. Farmi. Inst. Nelson, R. Wayne, G. c. Horak, and J. E. Olson. 1978. Western Rservoir and Stream Habitat Improvements Handbook. Prepared for Fish and Wildlife Service, u.s. Dept. of the Interiore New Brunswick Department of Environment. 1981. Water Quality of Long, Trousers, Serpe~jlne and Sisson Branch Reservoirs. 1979-80. Freder1cton • Nelson, D. A. and R. c. Landine. Changes at a H¥droelectric Darn. Water Poll. Res. Canada. 1974. Water Quality Proc. 9th Can. Symp. Normandeau Associates Inc. 1977. Environmental Impact Statement, Dickey-Lincoln School Lakes, Appendix E: Aquatic Ecosystem and Fisheries Studies. l [ • . -~---: :--,.1 ".~ ' -· .. , " f11 •f); fl' .. ,.;-. } : ~ ! 11; .K .. II lfl lli I' I IJ .I IJ 1 Northern Canada Power Commission. 1981. ?ersonal Communication with J. Long, General Manager. September 16. Northland Associates Ltd. 1979. Upper Salmon Development Reservoir Preparation Study. Prepared fOr Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro. Nursall, J.R. 1952. The Early Development of A Bottom Fauna in a New Power Reservoir in the Rocky Mountains of Alberta. Can. J. Zool. 30: 387-409 . Obeng, L.E. (ed). 1969. Man-Made Lakes: The Accra Symposi~. Ghana Academy of Sciences Ontario Department of Lands and Forests. 1970. Policy re Timper Cut During Clearing Projects by Utilities Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 1981. Condensed S~mmary of Timber Licensees 1980-1981 Season for Province Ontario ?-1inistry of Natural Resources. 1980. Clas.s Environmental Assessment for Ministr of Natural Resources Dams and ny: es. Toronto, Ontar1o Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 1979. Environmental Quality Implementation Handbook for Ministry of Natural Resources Dams and Dykes. Toronto, O~tario ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 1978. Strategic Land Use Planning Process. A Summary of Background Information and Approach to Policv. Northeastern Ontario Planning Reg1on Ontario ~1inistry of Natural Resources. 1975. Proposed Clearing SpecificatJ.ons for .Inco Head Pond North of Agnew Lake. Prepared by ~1NR Regional Office, Sudbury Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 1974. Strategic Land Use Plan. Background Information and Approach to Policy. North\iestern Ontario Planning Region. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 1974~ Guidelines for Environmental Protection in the Hudson Bay Lowlands. Policy Research Branch File: 50:1.7.12 (Hess) Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 1973. Clearing Specifications for the Headpond of the ~rnprior Generating Station Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources {no date) Design Guidelines for Forest Management. Toronto, Ontario · •11 n , II II i, .. ! ~ .. .l' J[ ~,.'.: I( 1 ~. i\ ,, , - It ell ~ .-tn viii Panshin, A.J. and C. DeZeeuw. 1980. Textbook of Wood Technology. Fourth ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co. -New York Paterson, C.G. and C. H. Fernando. 1969j The Macro- Invertebrate Coloniza.tion of a Small Reservoir inEastern Canada. verh. Int. ver. L~mnol. 17:126-136 Paterson, C.G. and C.H. Fernando. 1970. Benthic Fauna Colonization of a New Reservoir with Particular R~ference to the Chironomidae. J. Fisheries Res·earch Board of Canada 27:213-232 Petts, G.E. 1980. _Long-term Consequences of Upstream Impoundment Env Cons Vol 7(4):325-331 Plosky, G.R. 1901. yactors Affecting Fish Production and Fishing Quality in New Reservoirs with Guidance on Timber Clearing, Basin Preparat16n and Fillins. Prepared for the u.s. Army, Chief of Engineers, Washington, D.C. Tech Rept E-81-11. Proctor and Redfern Limited. 1980. Lower Churchill Hydro electric Project Reservoir Preparation Study -Final Repor~. Lower Churchill Development Corportion Ltd. Ralston, c.w. and Hatchell, G.E., 1971. Effects of Prescribed Burning on Physical Properties of Soil in USDA Forest Service, Prescribed Burning Symposium five p68-85. Ashuville, N.C: Northeastern Forest Experiment Station Rowe, J.S. 1972. Forest Regions of Canad~. Canadian Forestry Service Publication No. 1300. Information Canada, Ottawa Saskatchewan Department of Environment 1981. Personal Communication with R.L. Kellow, Environmental Assessment secretar1at. -Oct. 1 Schaumberg, F.D. 1972. The Influence of Log Handlin~ on Water Quality. Project No. WD-013<20 for ~'later Qua:ity Office of EPA Scott, W.B. and E.J. Crossman. 1973. Freshwater Fishes of Canada. Bull. 184. Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Ottawa Sinclair, D.C. 1965. The Effects of Water Leval Changes on _!.he Limnology of Two British Columbia Coastal Lakes, with Particular Reference to the Bottom Fauna. M.Sc. Thesis, Uni v. British Columbia, vancouver, B.C. 84 Skinner, R.G. 1973. Pleistocene Stratigraphy of the Hudson Bay Lowland. In Proc Symp on the Physical Environment of the Hudson Bay Lowland, B.D. Kay, ed., University of Guelph, Ontario l l. l ~~ •11 u '481t:, r It r I Ill j ,. i . ·i . fit ~ -11 ~ ix Slaney, F.F. and Co. Ltd. 1973. General Guidelines -Timber Clearing. Southern Indian Lake, Rat-Notigi Drainage, Burntwood River, Outlet Lakes. Prepared for Lake Winnipeg, Churchill and Nelson Rivers Study Board Smith, D.W. and S.R. Justice. 1975. Effects of Reservoir Clearing on Water Quality in the Arctic and Subarctic, Institute of Water Resources, University of Alaska, Fairbanks Smith, o.w. 1970. and After Fires. Concentrations of Soil Nutrients Before Can. J. Soil Sci 50:17-29 Societe d' energie de la Baie James. 1980. Document d'information pour les membres du comte consultatif du reseau de surveillance ecologique. Directlon Env1ronment Soci~te dfenergie de la Baie James. 1978. reservoir de LG2. Montreal, Quebec. , , Reamenagement du Strearns, F.P. 1890. The Effects of Storage Upon the Quality of Water. J. New Eng. Water Works Assoc 5:115-125 Sylvester, R.Oa and R.W. Seabloom. 1965. Influence of Site Characteristics on Quality of Impounded Water. J. Amer1can Water Works Assoc. Vol 57 ( 12}: 1528 Tennessee Valley Authority. 1976. Tellico Reservoir Construction Specification for Reservoir Clearing and Drainage Tennessee Valley Authority. 1977. The Tennessee Valley Authority's Tellico Dam Project -Costs, Alternatives and Benefits Tennessee Valley Authority. 1972. The Nickajack Project. Tech .. Rept. 16 Tennessee Valley Author~'" ty. 1966. The Melton Hill Project. Tech. Rep 15 Tennessee Valley Authority. 1957. The Upper Holston Project. Tech. Rep 14 Tennessee Valley Authority. 1949. The Kentucky Project. Tech. Rep 13 Therrien-Bolullo, D. 1980. Ecological Clearing and Removal of Floating Timber at the LG2 Reservo1r. In Eau du Quebec, Vol. 13(1): 47-52 ·~·· ···-·.,·-·"····-··.··.£]" ·.-.... ' . . ' <~ . - ' • • 'J ' .· ,\;._) . '' 0 ' : .. ' ~r1 il~ ~.~ . I ; 111 ~ I @Ill: : --~ I. I ' X Tennessee Valley Authority~ 1949. The Fontana Project. Tech Rep 12 Terasmae, J. 1970o Northern Ontario. Mem No. 99, Ottawa Postglacial Muskeg Development in Proc. 13th Muskeg Res. Conference, Techn Trafethen, J. B. 1973. Man-Made Lakes and Wildlife Values, in Man-.Made Lakes: Their Problems and Environmental Etfects, Acherman, White and Worthington (eds). u.s. Army Corps of Engineers. 1977. Environmental Impact Statement -Dickey -Lincoln School L~kes. Appendix E. ~:val tham, Mass. u.s. Army Corps of Engineers. 1981. Final Environmental Statement -Dickey -Lincoln School Lakes, Maine. ~valtham, Mass. U.S. Army Corps of Ertgineers. 1978. Construction Policies and Practices -Clearing. Regulation No. 415-2-1. Office of the Chief of Engineers, Wahsington, D.Ce U.SoD.A. Forest Service. 1974. Wood Handbook. Forest Products Laboratory, AGriculture Handbook No. 72 u.s. Department of the Interior. 1978. Water Resource Development Activities: Approach Impact Assessment of A Dual Matrlx Visser, S.A., P. Couture. 1978. Etude de quelques effets de 1a matiere organique dissoute provenant de 1a baie James sur des processus physiologiques dans le milieu aquatique. INRS-Eau, rapport scientifique No. 97, 67 p. Walesh, S.G. 1966. Water Quality at Loch Raven Reservoir In J. American Water Works Assoc, April, pp 508-509 Wells, c. G. 1971. Effects of Prescribed Burning on Soil Chemical Properties and Nu~rient Availability, in ibid p.86-99 Zoellner, D.R. l979s Hydroelectric Power Generation: Water Resource Impacts of Large Scale and Small Scale Development. Presented at ASCE Conservation and Utilization Symposium, San Francisco ' ·' I l . ! t ... J f. f. ~~··.'··.· .. ; .l f . . ,. . !' ! • i r -~r . ' f. t' ~ 1 i i f I I I ,,1 --·· APPENDIX A CASE HISTORIES OF RESERVOIR CLEARING PRACTICES IN CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES ! t I, w ' ~ lr n J ~ ~ J NOTES RE APPENDIX A -CASE HISTORIES The table in this appendix provides a record of clearing practices for 80 reservoirs in Canada and 12 in the United States. All reservoirs listed are in the temperate region of North America with the exception of reservoirs operated by the Tennessee Valley Authority. Much of this information was obtained from a previous reference (Efford, 1975) and through discussions with utilities and government agencies. During the survey it was discovered that documentation was usually available on clearing strategies but follow-up studies on the environmental effects of clearing or not clearing were not undertaken except for recent projects. As a consequence, the environmental effects are documented only for 50 of the 92 reservoirs listed, although predictions are being made or studies are currently underway for an additional 10 reservoirs as specified in the table. One of the difficulties in reviewing the environmental documentation that was available was that on many occasiops it was not clear whether the effects resulted from clearing or flooding of the reservoir or a combination of both. Prior to the 1950's the trend was toward no clearing, particularly in remote areas (especially north of N60° latitude) and where the reservoir site en~ompassed a particularly large area. Clearing and burning was carried out only where the reservoir area could accommodate hand tools (e.g., ~~all stands of timber, flat areas, small reservoir sites). With increased mechanization and more emphasis on recreation, the trend moved toward complete clearing of many reservoirs in the 1960's. In the 1980's the trend appears to be reversing~ For remote areas of Canada l !. ! ,. I . l . ~ j I . I . . i I . l l I <· l' \. [· i I I . t It II i II -II _, I • I E • I J A-2 the no clearing option has been r~commended recently (Lower Churchill River project, Labrador) where there is little recreational value and since no significant long-term adverse impacts are expected to the aquatic ecosystem. In more southerly locales of Canada where recreational and commercial interests are of more importance, the trend is often toward selective clearing to alleviate environmental, socioeconomic and aesthetic con·cerns as much as possible. In addition to the references noted in Appendix A, information from the following utilities and government agencies is gratefully acknowledged: -B. c. Hydro -Grand River Conservation Authorit¥ -Great Lakes Power -Hamilton Region Conservation Authority Hydro Quebec -New Brunswick Power -Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro -Northern Canada Power Commission -Ontario Hydro -Tennessee Valley Authority ~ TransAlta Utilities -u""s. Army Corps of Engineers (Walla t'lalla and Seattle, Washington; Waltham, Massachusetts). (' M.t; APPENDIX A • ~ ·gg CASE HISTORIES OF CLEARING PRACTICES IN CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES Province/State Newfoundland ( 170 km southwest of Gand~r) Newfoundland ( Grea·t Northern Peninsula) Newfoundland (West central) Newfoundland (Western) Reservoir Upper Salmon (1982?)* Cat Arm (198 ) Hinds Lake {1980) Grand Lake (1925) *Approximate date of flooding Use Hydro, recreation Hydro, recreation Hydro, recr,eation Hydro wm --~~ Surface Area (ha) 11 100 5 300 49 210 Clearing Practice Selective clearing and salvage of merchantable timber Selective clearing; salvage of merchantable timber in entire reservoir zone; small trees protruding into drawdown zone removed by ice Complete clearing of all woody vegetation taller than 1 rn within impoundment zone, extending 2 m above full supply lA'!'el • Merchantable timber salvaged; remaining vegetation piled and burned No clearing -.... ,...~ "-----~-~------~--::---~~-,.·~-~~~-~~~~ ... -~)· 7 ~-:::-:~~0~ .. :"'·--=-~~:~~~-.:~ ~~'t~~ .: (:-: • L.J L~ Constraints Recreational potential; caribou migration rcutes Rugged, rocky terrain, site remoteness, availability of labor Wet slash (due to machine handling) made burning difficult; forest fire started during burning of slash in summer of 1979 == ....... ~~ Environmental Effe~cts Reservoir not filled as of October 1981 Predict floating debris after flooding will create recreational hazard (Hunter and Associates, 1980) Project not complete afs of September 1980 ~ I w Impacts on water quality, fisheries or aquatic furbearers not not:i.ceable. IDeal residents harvested firewood and pulp~«>od from reservoir zone for ·~ ·Jt:;~b!14.¥£4J:ftt§( •• & _ _,y;ft,~.l) ... ,!~.U--~«4MS!W$!@!ti'WJ" y h 1 -ldiJ!J!!Q ~ • ifJ!¥J ~ • ~ R¥1 ~ . ~ ~ ,, __ l\t!.t:~ mil #'t" ~~ Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada .and the United: States -~ Province/State Newfoundland (Western) (contd) Newfoundland (Labrador) (Lower Churchill River) i~ewfoundland (Labrador) (53 -55°N Lat/ 63 -66°W IDng) *1981 dollars .:-:-,:;',' Reservoir Muskrat Fallr.:;/ Gull Island (198_) Smallwood (1971) ' "".~ .. Use Hydropower surface Area (ha) Hydro; 569 818 potential for commercial/ sport fishery Clearing Practice No clearing recom- mended eKcept at dams and confluence of tributaries (prospects of recreational activities remote) No clearing except around civil works. Approximately 2,600 km2 of taiga, low bogland and spruce forest were floodf:d ,, ~ ~-= Constraints . '··· c:::J No road access in merchantable timber areas; steep slopes; merchantable timber recovery uneconomical Bogs, noncontin- uous permafrost zone 1 cost oi: clearing L,.: &.:& .IL == ~.~ Environmental Effects 8 to 10 years after flooding (wood was still sound and saleable) [Hunter and Associates (1980)] Construction of reservoir not commenced as of 1981e Predict no significant effect on water quality, fish ~ on other acquatic I organisms. Anticipate~ slumping of banks due to sandy/silty valley. Clearing of debris required over 5-yr period at 1 ,, 100/ha* (Proctor and Redfern, 1980). Changes in water quality slight (LCDC, 1980). Little evidence of trophic upsurge following flooding (Duthie and Ostrofsky, 1974) but removal of some spawning beds and habitat. Low levels of dissolved nutrients but shallowness compensates resulting in good fishery (Bruce, 1974) lc " ::) '"· PAY • ga; t@!i! ~~ lfi-''=*' w Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States -3 Province/State Newfoundland (South central) Nova Scotia (northeast Cape Breton) Nova Scotia (Hersey River) Reservoir Bay D'Espoir (1968) Wreck Cove resen.roirs ( 6) (1978,) Lake Ros_ignol (1928/29) Use Hydro Hydro, recreation Hydro -~~..., surface Area (ha) 66 500 2 489 17 600 ........ ,.....'!""'_' ~.··-.• --· --·-;--. ~·-':";.~,..,-----_-:-....,..--c-~~.;-~ ~i •. ':--~~. ,;,; .. " : ~~~~ 0 f. "'.l ~~~ Clearin~r PrDctice No clearing based on economics and limited use for recreattion. Subsequent limited selective clearing at low water levE~l by cutting tree tops standing above1 ice Complete clearing with chain saws and burning of slash in reservoir zone. Clearing to 3 m above high water level. Merchantable timber salvaged No clearing except for some nierchantable timber .,, e.a···· e~ Constraints Primarily economics Difficulty with slash burning due to high humidity and precipitation. Fire control also a problem. Cost of harvesting exceeded market value Isolated area k~ --~ Environmental Effects Impacts based on evaluation 7 years after flooding: -no major differences in water quality·c phytoplankton, zoo- plankton, or fishery -poor reservoir aesthetics due to drowned forest -recreational ~ activities hazardousl { Airphoto/Beak, 19t76; U1 Emberley et al, 1974) Significant change in water quality in Surge Lake (lowest lake in chain) and moderate change in remaining lakes after 2-1/2 ~ears monitoring. Relative rates and amounts of revegetation of exposed soils key factors in changes in water quality (Kelly et al, 1980) Water quality appears good. Problem with floating debris I. ~; -:~' ~~~~ ' " I < ' ,, ~ ~ ;t)i!{J FJ!IQ ~ ~-" ~ ·~4 Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States -4 Province/State New Brunswick (Tobique River) New Brunswick (Saint John River) New Brunswick (Saint John River) New Brunswick (Saint John River) New Brunswick (Tobique River) Reservoir Sisson Branch (1952) Mactaquac (1968) Beechwood (1957) Grand Falls (1929) Tobique Narrows Use Hydro, sport fishery Hydro, boating, swimming, sport fishery Hydro, recreation (boating) Hydro, recreation (boating) Hydro, boating, fishing b~J! surface Area (ha) 1 345 8 347 1 157 1 421 415 New Brunswick (Tobique River) Trousers Lake (1952) Hydro, 1 007 sport fishery (brook trout) ~-r ~ Clearing Practice No clearing Complete clearing using cut and burn method ComplE: ... ·e clearing using cut and burn method Complete clearing using cut and burn method Complete clearing using cut and burn method No clearing • _ .... _ _-:;, ~ Constraints Remote area with no road access Steep slopes Steep slopes Steep slop!~s Steep slopes Remote area w~th no road access l ' ___ , ___ ; _____ _ ~" -~ Environmental Effects Water quality monitored 28 years following flooding • Well buffered reservoir with high J?Otential productivity. Reservoir supports brook trout, land-locked salmon and rainbow smelt (NB Environment, 1981) Water quality varies only with upstream inflott/ No data l':)orly buffered hum:i.c lake with low potential productivity :P' I 0\ ' , .. ~ c " Ia ;g __ , 1~ l'!.t!i"' «=' ~ \!!<~-""'*"' Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States - 5 Province/State New Brunswick ( ~·obique River) New Brunswick (Tobique River) --- Reservoir Serpentine Lake (1953) Long Lake (1952) Quebec LG2 (east of James Bay) (1979) ./1 J,'\ Surface Use Area (ha) Hydro 495 storage, sport fishery Hydro, 910 sport fishery (trout) Hydro 401 450 '~ ~~ Clearing Practice No clearing Completely cleared and burned Only 1 percent of total reservoir area cleared (forested lands of little commercial value) • Clearing of access ramps at fishing sites and areas suitable for spawning at mouth of tributaries (Therrien- Bolullo, 1980) ~,_:_ __ , ,. ; ....... ·~~~ ~37~- Constraints Remote area with no road access Poor road access; site remoteness Remoteness; inaccessibility ,. ..... ~· liiior;~"'~ Environmental Effects Poorly buff'ered humic lake with low potential productivity I:Qorly buffered humic lake with low potential productivity Negligible changes in physical/chemical conditions and chloro~ phyll pigmentt.: after 1 filling. Sligh··-....... mineralization after second winter. Increase in zooplankton biomass after .flooding. Increase in fish captures in 1979 in La Grande River but then returned to capture levels of ~977/ 1978. Appearance of drowned forest expected for many decades (Societe d'energie de la Baie James, 1980; Environment Canada, 1975) f .. ' ··' . -~ ' . .. Appendix A ~-··· ~ UE~W ~ "·~'wm\! ;. ~'·· ~ ll:PJS Case Histories nr ~~~aring Practices in Canada and the United States -6 R~ovince/State Quebec (east of James Bay) Quebec (east of James Bay) Reservoir Desaulnier (1977) Opinaca Use Hydro Hydro '~ ..at--,j' ...... !'tl' Surface Area (ha) 130 795 : ..... ~ Clearing Practice Minimal selective clearing (forested lands of little commercial value) Minimal selective clearing (forested lands of little commercial value) ;-l~$ Constraints Remoteness; inaccessibility Remoteness; inaccessibility L'~ LJ I!ZJ Environmental Effects Extreme changes in physical/chemical condi tiona and then stabilizatione Almost reached benthic state of equilibrium in fourth year after flooding. Fish pro- duction increased; results particularly ele~ated in 1980 for ~ certain principal I species (see reference00 above) Some variation in physical/chemical conditions but generally insignifi- cant. Zooplankton stayed same .from year to year. Little mineralization and poor in nutrients (Societe d'energe de la Baie 1James, 1980; Environment canada, 1975) ... .... Jt, ... ,.,. Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States - 7 Province/Sta t.e Quebec (Cote Nord) Quebec (north shore St. Lawrence -Baie Comeau) Quebec (north shore st. Lawrence -Labrieville) Quebec (Cote Nord) Quebec (Cote Nord) Reservoir Manic 3 Manic 5 (1970) Bersimis 1 (1956) Outardes 2 Outards 3 Use 1-~~ Hydro Hydro Hydro Hydro Hydro ~ ~lt;"--::,;;;;;;~ Surface Area (ha) 20 720 195 027 79 254 3 969 1 235 --'··-----~., ------~-;---··-,;--·~~---,~-·-~-~· -,--. -. ---.-.. -~--·:--.-.. -. ~. --~~__......,~~-:--:~·.,.",~~~ 0 ; ... !.:ttW>t'J1"t:;Af:' Clearing Practice Perimeter clearing from 3 m below full supply level to 1 • 5 m above FSL. Topping of trees in bottom of reservoir. Merchantable timber previously recovered Approximately 15 percent of merchantable timber harvested; remainder not clea=ed before flooding Merchantable timber recovered; partial clearing before flooding Clearing from former water level to 1.5 m above full supply level. Merchantable timber partially recovered. Debris buried or burned Complete clearing to 1.5 m above full supply level. Timber left on site ~-:.$;'(~~- Constraints Cost of clearing versus timber market value Cost of clearing versus timber market value Not economic to recover timber L~!i\ -· .... ·"' ,.,..,._ Env.tronmental Effects -~. No floating timber. Shoreline colonized by shrubs and herbaceous vegetation. Abundant waterfowl populations. Little change in w:tter quality !l:>' I 1.0 Floating debris recovered and burned. N0 floating timber now. Shoreline colonized by shrubs and herbaceous vegetation. Abundant waterfowl population. L:i.ttle change in w:tter 1 ..... qua ~ .... y Floating timber. Shoreline vegetation relatively scarce; some high shrubs. Associated waterfowl scarce. Little change in water quality I " ·-· ,. --~ 1'-'l~t l~ ,:!,; ,.,-,.,.~--""'"*' • ' .... ~~-~,.,; ~ Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States -8 Province/State Quebec (north shore st. Lawrence -Baie Comeau) Quebec (south central -Maurice) Quebec {south central -Maurice) Ontario (Spanish River) Ontario (Muskoka District) Reservoir Outardes 4 (1969) Beaumont (1958) Rapide Blanc ( 1934) Inco Head Pond (198 ) Lake Orillia (1948/49) .r.:) j ... Y--<'~~~· Use Hydro Hydro Hydro Hydro, recreation Hydro, recreation '-,:, _, .. ,, ;-;......:.r~:~: . ..:.sl%,j, Surface Area (ha) 65 268 440 8 288 Approx .. 4 500 2 590 ~-\..,_.,-::;~~ Clearing Practice Approximately 20 percent of merchantable timber cut; remainder not cleared Approximately 200 ha cleared before flooding Approximately 4,150 ha cleared before flooding Perimeter clearing to 3 m above high water level and 7 m below high water level. Slash and debris to be piled and burned; stumps 10 em. Merchantable timber to be harvested where economical Canpletely cleared;. no stumps removed. Merchantable timber logged, and small trees burned ....... :-..,;..;;:;-~ Constraints Low density of forest stands; rough terrain; high road. con- struction costs L·~ .... ~~~ E'3 Environmental Effects Predict temporary dis- turbance to fish due ~ I ...... 0 to increas(ed sedimenta- ..:.1.on of habitat. Minimal changes in water quail ty expected. Initial trophic surge in reservoir expected to peak in 3 to 5 years with stabilization in about 1 0 years (Acres, 1978) Good fishing and general recreation~! capability -· ,~) I ! ' ' -."'10, I ... t._,~ Appendix A 1~ '"-~··-"• Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the· United States -9 Province/Sttate Reservoir tiiJIJI!l! t;.,;,#.,;:;....,....,.. Use Ontario (Montreal and Micbipicoten rivers) Great Lakes Hydro, Power reservoirs recreation (8} Ontario (Timiskaming District) Lower Notch (1971) Ontario Arnprior ( junction of Madawaska and Ottawa rivers) Ontario (Cochrane District) Ontario (Renfrew District) Ontario (Algoma District) Otte:t Rapids (1961) Centennial Lake (1967) Aubrey Falls (1969) Ontario Harmon (Cochrane District) (1965) Hydrl:> Hy·~::-- Hydro Hydro Hydro, r~creation (boating, fishing) Hydro ·--~,;;:~<,,_.., Surface A:r:ea (ha) 9 638 (total) 1 256 931 932 3 445 ? 2"17 251 ·-L,-.w~.,r. Clearing_gractice Hand clearing and burning to 1 m above high water level, 46-am high stumps left. Merchantable timber salvaged Completely cleared before flooding Clearing to high water level. Merchantable timber salvaged. Stump heights 10 em except in bottom of reservoir where they are 30 to 45 em Complete clea.ring before flooding Canplete clearing before flooding (similar to specifi- cations for Arnprior) Complete clearing to 3 m above high water level before flooding Complete clearing before flooding -·.,.;.e-~ Constraints ....,.;.,......:.; ... ~ .. ~~"""· Environmental Effects --. ~proved boating and fishing opp:>rtunities ~ Riprap bank protection ~ required in sensitive ~ areas along shoreline Good angling potential Good fishing !:"'')'.. t -~ ! c I ., l '~ ! ~---i ·j l l . l f i ~ l' ~ !£-! .... 1.:-~--· --.... _..,. .:.:.._ -., .1 ~_P¢4) .. ~, .... ,;;,.~ Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States -10 Province/State Ontario (Cochrane District) Ontario (Cochrane District) Ontario (Hamilton Region) Ontario (Hamilton Region) Ontario (Grand River) Ontario (Spanish River) Reservoir Kipling (1966) Little Long ( 1963) Christie (1972) Val@ns (1966) Guelph (1976) Agnew lake (1920's) Use Hydro Hydro Flood control, recreation, irrigation, low flow augment:ation Flood control, recrea.tion (swimming, boating, fishing), low flow augmentation Flood control, low flow augmentation, recreation Hydro, recreation ·-.. ~; ..... ........,.-.~ ... Surface Area (ha) 14Z 7 615 60 76 445 ;-"--.>;:,~ Clearing Practice Complete clearing before flooding Complete clearing before flooding Clearing and slash burning to recreation level. Recreation surface cleared .and excavated to bedrock ( 0 to 2 m of muck soil) 26 ha cleared of bushi upper 8 ha left standing in water as habitat on advice of MNR wildlife perso,nnel; remainder wet pastUI.'e. Limited burning of slash, remainder left Clearing of trees and stumps Mo clearing !!..LY!! Constraints Little merchantable timber Limited funds for canplete clearing. Difficult road access in muck soils I. ., ..... -----"'-..,..>.l' -....,<,JW~-~ Environmental Effects Excavation improved water q1,1ali ty and increased reservoir capacity. Algal blooms not a problem. t«> continuing naintenance. Some islands created ~ for wood duck:s Nonremoval of slash I ~ 1\J and muck soils con- tributed to reservoir nutrients causing large algal blocnt s r"":'tia poor water quality in early years • Trend reversed with 5 years ( 197 o- 1975) of destratifica- tion. Water quality now good Water quality similar to inflow character- istics Good boating and fishing, only a few floating stumps, aesthetics excellent ... f~ Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States -11 Province/State Ontario (Grand River) Ontario (Grand River) Onti'\rio ( ) Manitoba (Nelson River.) Manitoba Manitoba (northern), Reservoir Conestoga ( 1958) Bel wood (1940's) Mannion Lake Kettle Rapids {1970) SCuthern Indian Lake Rat-Notigi : .. 1,. •. .,._~. -'-"c-<W Use Flood control, low flow augmentation, recreation Jf·lood cc:mtrol, low flow augmentation, recreation Hydro, recreation Hydro Hydro, potentia,! commercial fishery Hydro, recreation ~ Surface Area -·--(ha} 735 758 33 722 ••• '!t_.!. IIIII .,. _., ~,.,.,.__....._,~.. ~,,;.;,,_.,_,,......:,.. Clearing Practice Clearing to stump level; stumps removed as they fl-oated to surface or after drawdown when easier to extract Clearing ro stump level; stumps removed as they floated to surface or after drawdown wen easier to extract No clearing 21135 ha of forebay area cleared; rest uncleared before flooding Hand and machine clearing of selected sites; replacement of riparian vegetation with more preferred wildlife habitat at selected sites Hand and machine clearing of channel areas; cut and float in some areas; trees <5 em diameter inundated Constraints t~·-'' .... .; .•• ,,.:"'...,.~..;..t".;.:t knvironmental Effects Water qualitw similar to inflow Character- iEitics tia.ter quality similar to inflow character- istics ~ I 1-' w ,~~1~::~~ ~·:· ;~~i ,-~:--o '~-~~·::~ ;~:­ __;~, ~"::_·li~::, -_ .. ',~ ._· ;---·--. --IS··-·' :~\ ::~~~~> -:~;!: ,. ,t.;,.- t. -~~--~---~ _., -"-"-·-~-·-"'' -·~' Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States -12 Province/State Reservoir Manitoba Burntwood (northern) Manitoba Long Spruce {Nelson River) (1977) Manitoba Cedar Lake (Saskatchewan (1965) River) Manitoba Kelsey (Nelson River) (1960) Saskatchewan Tobin Lake (Saskatchewan (19631 River) Saskatchewan Lake (South Diefenbakt::;:- Saskatchewan (1968) River) :-; ~ ' !Ji!4" Use Hydro Hydro Hydro Hydro Fydro Hydro, Irrigation "- -.• ,, . -·-:1 --~ --~ Surface Area Clearing Practice Constraints Environmental Effec·ts -~--~---(ha) Selective clearing of coniferous and deciduous trees less tolerant to flooding; willows and cottonwood left standing to enhance soil stability and provide wildlife habitat. Clearing boundary 0.6 m above high water level ~ 2 383 Completely cleared I 1-' before flooding ~ 349 391 5,232 ha of forebays cleared; rest uncleared before flooding 70 785 <26 ha of forebay cleared; rest uncleared before flooding 30 044 Merchantable timber Floating material removed. Ot.he:rc tree requir~s continuous growth cut but. burning removal unsuccessful 42 994 Completely cleared of trees and brush before filling ~~ L~ 'I "' ,!._• ·:4 t.\.~ -.:; Jl!l!l .. Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States ~ 13 Province/State Alberta (Brazeau River) Alberta (North Saskatchewan) Alberta (Kananaskis River) Alberta (Bow River) Reservoir Brazeau (1965) Bighorn (1971) Upper Kananaskis Lake (1933} Bears paw Forebay (1952) ... Use Hydro, limited recreation Hydro, campsites Hydro, recreation (fishing, boating, hiking) Hydro, recreation (boating) - Surface Area (ha) 4 533 5 569 868 251 • -..... Clearing Practice No clearing except near diversion structure and reservoir outlet works. Sub- sequent clearing in visible areas by cutting from winter ice, clearing after drawdown and reservoir sweeping Complete clearing and grubbing before flooding Hand clearing and burning Hand clearing and burning , .. Jllllll -,.,_ ~ I., Constraints Soil composi- tion; road access; clearing cost judged to exceed recrea- tional value Minimal Accessibility; steep, rocky terrain, excessive snow- pack; strong winds, timber deterioration Environmental Effects ---~- Water quality adequate; bank erosion not a problem. High main- tenance costs for floating debris. Debris is problem to hunters, fishermen and boaters ~ Water quality outflow ~ similar to natural Ul flow; erodible banks due to lack of tree protection; suspended glacial silt imparts aquamarine coloring; boating hazardous due to high winds Clear and potable water; tree stumps a problem from erosion along shoreline • ·¥-~.Jii -= ----.. ~ I I I I "" I ,>< :, ~ ~·,. l ·-"' ~ ;::.~ t cJ ~ ~ I ~, ,.. r -I '. i <. t .. ~. ·i ' l I Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States -14 Province/State Alberta (Bow River) Reservoir Ghost (approx 1927) Alberta Barrier (Kananaskis River) (1946) Alberta (Cascade River, Banff National Park) Alberta (Kananaskis River) Lake Minnewanka ( 1941) .Lower Lake Kananaskis (1955) ~ ···-~·-·-··.-.~~~---·---. -~~---~:;o·~--.. ~----:·-···-·--·-·-~~-~---; Use Hydro, recreation (boating, skating) Hydro, recreation (fishing, boating) Hydro, recxeation (fishing, boating, camping, scuba divin~) Hydro, recreation (boating, fishing) Surface Area (ha) 1 155 308 2 226 -646 . •• .La -·\... -.... ,., Clearing Practice Probably hand cleared and burned; few trees, primarily open grassland Hand clearing and burning Hand clearing and burning; grubbing in upper drawdown zone Hand clearing and burning; merchantable timber salvaged for cribwork during con- structjon --' Constraints No merchantable timber Accessibility; park restrictions; economics of timber salvage No significant constraints .L: -.L -a.. Environmental Effects Eu·~ .rophic conditions due to leaf lit.ter on reservoir bottom. Silt in spring r\h&off of 1948 buried litter and oligotrophic species became daninant (Nursall, 1952) ~ I ~ m Water is clear and green; shoreline is tidy. Little change in physical/chemical conditions after flooding. Initial decrease in benthic organisms. Size of lake trout reduced after separation from whitefish pr.ey ( Cuerrier, 1954) No adverse effects on water quality reported "\ _.,. __ :·:.. ' "' ·""" .., .& lt\bl 'im fi!JZ --·-Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United 3tates -15 Province/State Alberta (Spray River) British Columbia (Revelstoke) British Colub1nia (north of Revelstoke) British Columbia (between Revelstoke and Trail) Reservoir Spray Lake ( 1950) Revel stoke ( 1983) Kinbasket Lake ( l-iica Dam) ( 1972) Arrow Lakes (1969) Use Hydro, recreation (boating, fishing) Hydro, recreation Hydro, recreation (fishing, boating and camping) Flood control, power stor- age for u.s .. A., recreation .. - Surface Area ( ha) 2 006 11 534 43 181 51 802 ... _._.. • ,..,_ • a.. .. ... -... Clearing Practice Hand clearing and burning; machine clearing in flat areas; ~orne waste piles buried below low supply level; stump height 30 em ClearJng entire reser- voir from low to high water level. Burning except in inaccessible a~eas where wood is floated Selective clearing and burning. Low water level exposes shoreline of tree stumps and other debris. Debris disposal still under way and to be completed by 1985. Complete clearing and stump removal Constraints Accessibility and steep slopes, limited merchantable timber salvage Steep slopes Steep slopes (mountainous) Mountainous with some agriculture along old valley; three villages relocated Environmental Effects ----------------------~ Trout fishery suffered from inundation of spawning beds; tree stumps are problem to boaters and fishermen Environmental studies under way and mitiga- tion measures under- taken ~ t-' -.J Extensive debris accumulation e~pected to continue for 6 to 10 years. Waterfowl habi·tat limited by deep water, few marsh- lands and fluctuating water levels. Logging in area due to availability of reservoir to float timber. Bank slumping seeding of drawdown areas in low water years. Water fowl habitat poor due to lack of marshland, deep water and heavy drawdowns. Shoreline areas important far ungulates -~---""-::",..•""''',.__, __ ,...",___, ___ ~~----·,-~~-....._,_,.._,~~-+--"'-,""--~~ '""'":'-:--'--~~:~--...~-~~--~'-··"-~~~--~7-~~::---:.-~::~:t~-~1 ' t ~fb;_;~~~;~¥i'<~iil.lii~l~llillllllllll l '," '. l! ,,•, ..,,; •' •' (~-' ! "'~ ~.' 1 t:.r·. 1 ~·$:."' ...... ~ J ,-:;i~~ 1<1 :~ J ~ Ail® -Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States -16 Province/State British Columbia ( Peace River) British Columbia (north of Kalso) British Columbia (Cheakamus River) British Colwnbia (Bridge River) R.eservoir Williston Lalt:e (Bennett Dam) (1967) Duncan Lake. {1967) Daisy Lake (1957) Carpenter Lake ( 1960) -Use Hydro, recreation Flood control, storage for do11wnstream power, recreation (boating, fishing) Hydro Hydro .. Surface Area (ha) 177 259 7 163 425 4 920 -• --,.,.,~ • -'-Clearing Practice Cut and float above low water. Debris clearing to 1984. Tbtal main- tenance costs estimated at $46.2 million Downstream portion cleared between high and low water level. Upper portion boomed off and eventually cleared. Standing timber in drawdown area cleared Complete clearing No clearing before flooding. Clearing of reservoir margins during drawdown. Floating debris boomed anc( burned. Constraints Remote area; poor access Inaccessible and remote l 'Environmental Effects Slumping of banks. Good fishing with potential for enhance- ment of fish stocks. Shoreline important for ungulates. Boating and fishing hazards from floating debris ~ I I-' 00 Debris no longer a problem. Loss of spa~ing areas; new spawning areas res- tricted; reservoir supports many ungulates and large furbearers. Waterfowl habitat restricted due to deep water, little rnarsh- la nd a. nd eKte ns i ve draw down ., $~,.<"~ .. ".--~~<A."'-._._ ........ ~~''l. ,~'L~· ..:'ii" •'• ·.~;;;•\ -:;~~~ ..... ~f~ ..... ~ :~~;~·1 :~ ~'(t 0 ~~;:; '~~\· r~Je !t:!k'b!\i: 1!.~: .-' Appendix A s e.;sa .e;.~ \._. '. I.. -·, Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the Unitet· States -17 Province/State· Reservoir ·~ Use British Columbia ( J o:rdan River) Bear diversion Hydro British Columbia (Campbell River) British Columbia (Campbell River) British Columbia (Stave River) Yukon (1913) Elliot Lake (1971) Buttle T..ake ( 1958) Lower Campbell Lake (1949) Hayward Lake (1930) Canyon Lake Hydro Hydro Hydro Hydro, recrea.t.ion ~'"~~ ~.;;;:'~ Surface Area ( ha) 2 590 297 890 Rib!. Clearing Pr'!ctice No clearing before flooding; reservoir to be ~ompletely cleared aft~er flooding Clearetd to ground level and buocned before floodi:ng Clearing of large trees around lake; secondary growth left to decay and beakdown under water No clearing before flooding -underw~ter clearing still car:ried out Perimeter cle~ring of of 24 ha • !!!!!!.! 1!!!!11 J;' Constraints .. .. -· a.. Environmantal Effects No major changes in water quality. Draw- down zone became little more.than large, sterile gravel bar as a result of wave action and erasion. Absence of amphipads associated with disappearance of rooted aquatic plants (Sinclair 1 1965) ~ I J--1 \.0 No major changes in water qUality. Erasion less serious than Buttle Lake because zone of regulation not canpletely ·--of vegetation (Sinclair 1965) ij nt',;-....,..""1<"'"d tJ. ~~.-:-~--::-: i~ " ,., ··"'·· •;-;4 ~ if:..~ .. ;;::;:; Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States -18 Province/State Reservoir Yukon Aishihik Lake Yukon Wareham Lake Yukon Marsh Lake N.W.T. Big Spruce Lake Yukon Mayo Lake N .. W.T .. Nonacho Lake Idaho Dworshak (Orofino) 1 .... ~~ Use Hydro, recreation Hydro Hydro Hydro Hydro Hydro Flood control, hydro I recreation ,.....) ':"-~ -... ~,..-~~ Surface Area (ha) 15 379 368 50 020 12 sso 10 320 89 439 6 644 '-"~·-----~-"-"'~--., ...... ,~__.....__........,._,_,""7rt'_ .. _........."'<1",~~-·'""'"'""-~-~ ... ~~--·-·---.-~-'~~~,~~~~~-~~:·~~~ L ~ e:;!"~ Clearin2 Practice No clearing No clearing No clearing No clearing No clearing No clearing Perimeter clearing; timber in bottom of ~;..,~"**i -~-~->~ Constraints Very steep, J no access roads reservoir left standing L ~ ~ "' Environmental Effects Bank erosion and adverse effect on fish primarily a result of drawdown and flooding :J:ol I tv 0 I : tr, I ·~. l ·~~~ ,1. i .;A,;. r ·~~, \ l ' ·:, l."l ~: .. ~ ··.~;:.."" .. l . '· ! j .,, ::0.-· .. l .• ,, •. 'l -~.!'~-~ ·1'1>-.·j ! ~:j .'~'. I ~ JfL,_!$l b Appendix A ~w~"'i ~ ~ ~~ Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States -19 Province/State British Columbia/ Montana (Kootenay River) Maine (St. John River) Reservoir Lake Koocanusa (Libby Dam) (1976?) Lincoln School Lake ( 198_?) ''~"""'- ~'Mdi!!,~ Use Hydro, flood control,. recreat.ion, navigation Hydro, recreation (fishing) .!!!.. SU.Lf:!~e Area (ha) 18 818 1 060 !J~~ ~--~ ~~ ~· ~ z~ .. Clearing Practipe In Canada -Complete clearing and burning In USA ---Rem.oval o'f ~rchantable timber prior t~ perim- eter clearing to 1 m above maximum pool and 1.5 m below 10-yr frequency low pool. Trees topped in reservoir bottom and floatable material removed. Recommend complete clearing to 0 to 1 m above high water level Constraints. Environmental Effects Steep forest-Impacts relate coverf;:d mc:untains; primarily to flooding relocation of of reservoir and railroad and highway Archaeological sites changes in river flows ra·ther than cleariitg; also affected by chemical wastes from upstream smelter, fertilizer plant and pulpmill. ~ I N ._, Reservoir not cleared as of 1981. Anticipated effects: reservoir should support marginal cold-water sport fishery; sedi- mentation not expected to be a problem; zooplankton and bt::~tthic pops should be high; mercury not expected to exceed natural conditions - '~ d -~ ~ t~-r:9 ~ ~ fil!!!!!!!!!!!. ~-4 t:-JJF.g tt. ~·-.. ,;;;;; ~2~ Appendix A Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the un.:. .ed States -20 Province/State Maine (St. John River) Colorado (Fryingpan River) Tennessee (Little Tennessee River) Reservoir Dickey Lake ( 198_?) Ruidi (1969) Tellico (T.V.A.) ( 198-?) Use _,_ Hydro, recreation Flood control, recreation, municipal/ industrial use, irrigation Hydro, navigation, flood control, recreation Q;;d! Surface Area (ha) 34 814 400 6 678 ~ ·~.,., Clearing Practice Perimeter clearing plus complete clearing within 1.6 km of main dam structure or primary public use area; log boan to be placed 120 to 180 m upstream of forebay Clearing by chain saws and D6B tractor with brush rake. Winch lines used to pull trees down steep slopes. Burning as prescribed by US Forest Service Selective clearing to enhance canmercial navigation, recrea- tional boating, and provide optimum sport fishing. Use of logs and. brush to construct fish attractors <I k.-4!¥ !,'!!ttl Constraints Archaeological sites; reloca- tion of 162 families Steep slopes; unstable cut slopes required realignment, rock bolting, chain- link meshing; relocation of 2.1 km road Careful skidding of logs to minimize s ilta- tion and turbid- ity; historical and archaeological sites L: ll!!l 11!11 Environmental Effects Reservoir not cleared as of 1981. Expect short-term enrichment and anaerobic condition in lake bot tom. EKpect chemical stablity in 6 to 9 years. Mercury may be a problem. Navigation hazards fran debris ~ Currently being I N analyzed by Bureau of N Reclamation Project halted in 1977 due to harming of habitat of snail darter. Work ca:nmenced again in 1979. ' l ·-l 1.~ I c'::');-. l ' ·,: i ' ' ..... ~ :-t~:-l -~. l ''~-\ l .~ ,. ,,g:~: .. ~.:--~--J -~' e :.;lJ_.t~ 1 'irlr' t \~';~~ t ~.r~. f ...... '" i I j :; l -~::d. ~ \!',-~.! Appendix A ~ ~~ Case Histories of Clearing Practices in Canada and the United States -21 Province/State Tennessee (Elk River) Tennessee (Tennessee River) Tennessee (Clinch River) Reservoir Tims Ford (T,V.A.) (1970) Nickajack (T.V.A .. ) ( 19.67) Melton Hill (T.V.A.) ( 1963) l¥k~ Use Hydro~~ flood control Hydro, navigation, recreation (boating) Hydro, commercial navigation -~ ~ ~J! Surface Area (ha) 6 252 4 423 2 315 ... -~~.fit Clearing Practice Perimeter hand and machine clearing, including piling and burning Complete clearing 1 representing 114 percent of total reservoir area -remainder agricultural. Hand and machine clearing; six areas cleared and graded for future commercial fishing Complete clearing to maximum pool except on steep slopes and very flat areas where adjustments were made to clearing contour. Hand clearing in inaccessible areas ···~--~·-·-·~·-~··-·~-pr-·--""""':.~--~~~·'-,,':;:-·---:-,-·-~--~~--:--~---:-·.-.. ~~~ ~$i'il'-"~~~f;JJU-~>t/ .._~~ --~~~;_( ,. ~ ·"t • "'· jl{ ... "----~. ~·~~· •• •• _ _:_-~~,~--":.!' ::.,: -·-, ->~ .. · ',~-.:... "•': '!!!!! ' .. "~-Constraints Relocation of 215 families; highway, railroad and utility adjust- ments; steep slopes; low, swampy lands; relocation of 318 graves Relocation of 82 families and 7 cemeteries; high- way, bridge and railroad reloca- tion; historical/ archaeological sites Relocation of 89 families; reloca- tion of highways, railraods .:and bridges; steep slopes1 bank cledring difficult il!A :-·-~..\<""' Environmental Effects ~ I l\.) w -;~ ':; 4- 0 { < ~ ~ 1, ... :~~;;:~;) e:-,·-:-4 ~---...r Appe~~dix •\ }&,1!'!' ~.:.....,;t ~ e-! ~ ~ ~ £!~ . -~:..1 l!fh Case h.: E" tories of Cl~aring Practices in Canada and the Uni t.ed States -22 Province/State Tennessee (South Fork Holston River) Tennessee/ Kentucky (Tennessee r~ver) North Carolina (Little Tennessee River) Reservoir Fort Patrick Henry (T.v.A.) (1953) l{entucky {T.V.A.) ( 1944) Fontana (T.V.A.) { 1944) Use Hydro, recreation (boating) Hydro flood control Hydro, flood control, recrjqation ~p-~J Surface Area (ha) 361 ~ ¥=.•""""' Clearing Practice Perimeter clearingu Below lower limit of clearing buoyant material tied down Complete clearing involving hand clearing, machine piling and burning Perimeter clearing to 0 • 6 m above maximum pool; topping below low water level; 870 ha wired down, merchantable timber recovered where economical ~· -·!.1!1 L_ Constraints Environmental Effects Malaria control requiret! timber clearing, reloca- tion of 22 families; desire to designate shore areas as state park Relocation of 2,609 families; malaria control required forest cleitlring Shortage o,f man- power during war; relocation of 1,311 families; reloca- tion of highways/ railroads; mine access; mountain- ous and rugged terrain L_· ~ I tv ~ ------..,-,_ .... _ _.... . ..,...._.., ___ ,_.........._.,. __ ....,__..,..."._,__,_.-:-~""--...... ----...., .... -~-,~-~;;---.... ~~---~~ ..... '";'--·"'-'·'"'·, .... ---------~-: , ·~--·~---~ r .... :~~'*-~~-~~$J~· -..~~~.·._.·!~ ":t,""'l··~ ........ :~ ,' .. ·~-: i.~~~ .. ·~_.:.~ · ... ., "" ·;, ~ ~ ... • ;:. .... -.... ... ... -... ~,.':.: ~:. ~. ~.. ~* ~ .. ,. . • ~: ·:: .. I~~ I ~I 1. :1' ' -:-1 ~I· ~· ; .• I '1: 0 ~ . -I: " .. I: . .I .. 1: . r .I APPENDIX B EXAMPLE CLEARING GUIDELINES --" _j f; I! .. 1 l i J CLEARING SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE HEAD POND OF THE ARNPRIOR GENERATING STATION 1972 (Ontario M1n1stry of Natural Resources) 1 -Jurisdiction -All pr~vate lands purchased by Ontario Hydro are to be considered Crown Lands for the purpose of clearing, but shall not imply that Crown timber dues are to be paid. 2 -Notification -All clearing, burning and salvage shall be carried out only with the full knowledge and to the satisfaction o the District Forester. 3 -Elevation for Determining Clearing Boundaries -The upp~r contour limit of clearing shall be the regulated high water level. 4 -Removal of Dead Trees -The Hydro Electric Power Commission of Cntario will, during the 10 years follow- ~ ing loading, remove all trees above the regulated high J: water mark deemed by the District Forester to have been I ll . : killed as a result of flooding. 5 -Slash Disposal -All slash, debris, timber refuse, etc, is to be burned. No push outs, burial plots or stake- down of slash permitted~ 6 -Timber Salvage -All timber deemed to be merchantable by the District Forester is to be salvaged. Disposition of timber shall be the responsibility of Ontario Hydro, its agents, or subcontractors • J~ It It ·' ,• f l. l l l l l I ! •• i I ·.-. I I. J I I 1 I f, ll 11 :J 11 B-2 All salvaged woods, shall be removed from the land to be flooded prior to flooding. 7 -Stump Height (a) In areas between the regulated high water level and 12 ft below the regulated high water level, stumps are not to exceed 4 in. in height. (b) In areas 12 ft below the regulated high water level and deeper, stumps shall not exceed 12 in. in height where the stump diameter is 18 in. or less, and sh~ll not exceed 18 in. in height where the stump diameter exc>;£:eds 18 in. 8 -Fences and Other -Wooden fence posts and poles shall be disposed of as per Clause 5, or removed from the area. Metal fence posts, wire and wire fencing, old cars, and other. metals, etc, shall be removed or disposed of by burning, burying or otherwise to the satisfaction of the District Forester. 9 -Burning -Burning shall be done under the authority of a burning permit. 10 -Sweepins -The Hydro Electric Pov1er Commission of Ontario will carry out a S\/eep of the head pond within 1 month of the initial lood to the regulated high water level, and will boom and then remove within 4 months all floating debris into a bay approved by the District Forester. Subsequent sweeps and removals will be car.~ied out when, in the opinion of the District Forester, free floating debris constitutes a safety hazard in using the waters of the head pond. i . 1 I 1 l l ) ! f I l l • l I .. I ; I ~-1 I -~ IJ .; .. II ~- 1 f<· I B-3 11 -Cutting Operations -Trees shall not be felled into standing timber above the clearing contour and clearing shall be so carried out that as little damage as possible is done to the trees at or above the clearing contour. 12 -Responsibility for Operations -Primary responsibility for clearing operations rests with Ontario Hydro, subject to final approval by the District Forester or his representative • ', ' i l f l I l ! I I ~ I , I I I , I .; .. I • I I J E B-4 PROPOSED CLEARING SPECIFICI\.TIONS FOR INCO HEAD POND NORTH OF AGNEW LAKE, ONTARIO (Ontar1o M1n1stry of Natural Resources, 1976) 1 -All clearing, burning ~nd salvage shall be carried out only with the full knowledge and to the satisfaction of the Ministry. 2 -The upper level of clearing shall be hand cleared and shall continue 10 ft in linear distance above the regulated high water level and 23 ft in linear distance below the regulated high water level. 3 To reduce the effects of erosion and trees falling into the lake, Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR) may direct that additional clearing be carried out. 4 -Slash and debris may be piled and buried but not within 10 ft ,elevation) of the regulated high water level. 5 -No stump shall be left higher than 4 in. above ground level between the regulated low water level and 4 ft (elevation) below the regulated low water level during open water season. 6 -All wood shall be salvaged where this can be done without monetary loss. 7 -Nonsalvageable standing trees and brush shall be felled and removed from the area to be flooded so as not to present a hazard for fishing or navigation. r I I ., I .I I I • IJ JJ B-5 8 -All wood, including felled trees, floodwood and windfalls, and material, such as cull logs, tops, booms and dam timber, left by logging operations, shall be burned, buried or otherwise disposed of to the satisfaction of MNR. Any ashes from burned wood shall be bured to the satisfaction of MNR. INCO shall be requred to sweep tha lake of all wood as required by MNR after flooding has taken place. 9 -Burning shall not be carried out on areas where salvaged wood is piled. 10 -All salvaged wood shall be removed from the lands to be flooded prior to flooding. 11 -Trees shall not be felled into the standing timber above the clearing contour. Clearing and burning shall be so carried out that as little damage as possible is done to trees at or above the clearing contour. 12 -INCO shall be charged Crown dues for all trees of merchantable quality as determined by a timber estimate made under the direction of the District Forester as follo\vs ( i) (ii) Spruce, Balsam and Jack Pine all other species 3.5 in., dbh and 8. 0 in. dbh and up. I 1 I l I I ' ,J • .I I I , r· • I • I I J1 I B-6 CLEARING GUIDELINES SOUTHERN INDIAN LAKE RESERVOIR, MANITOBA (Slaney, 1973) Suggested Sites for Clearing in Order of Priority 1 -Hand clear (pile and burn) identified archaeological sites according to priorities and specifications of the archaeologists • 2 3 Hand and machine clear all foreshore areas of identified recreational or park sites designated within about 20 mi of Leaf Rapids. Clear (pile and burn) all fire-killed stands to e~.eva­ tion 852 ft within about 20 mi of South Indian Lake Village and the town of Leaf Rapids. 4 Hand clear (pile and burn) all woody material over 1 in. in diameter or 4 ft tall to elevation 852 ft within about 10 mi of South Indian Lake Village. {Operate during periods of minimum fire hazard.) 5 -Clear, as above; for all lands to elevation 852 or 50 ft horizontally from el 850 ft, whichever includes the least area, from Leaf Rapids to Opachuanau Lake. 6 -Clear for mitigation purposes, sites identified by biologists for special significance to fish or wildlifeo ... t .I I I , • I I I I I , I • I • I I B-i 7 -In accordance with wildlife interests, clear selected sites above elevation 850 ft for replacement of riparian vegetation with more preferred wildlife habitat. 8 -Circumstances will alter cases and clearing priorities should be reassessed before embarking on a post flooding clearing and cleanup operation. Use of both water-based equipment and complementary units operating over the ice is envisaged. I .. I : ... ; ' . I • I J I ,. I • I ~· I I 1 B-8 CLEARING AND TIMBER SALVAGE STRATEGY CAT ARM RESERVOIR, NEWFOUNDLAND (Hunter and Associates, 1980) Salvage of all productive timber including that in nonmer- chantable stands greater than 10 em DBH is recommended for the entire reservoir zone if favorable contract prices and a willing buyer may be obtained. This strategy is only practical within nonmerchantable stand areas where felling, limbing and topping may be undertaken manually with portable power saws and tree length or shorter logs may be floated, boomed and removed from the future flooded reservoir at centralized haul-out zones. As an alternative to bo.oming, tree length logs will float and eventually will be caught along the eastern shore of the reservoir. Collection of the logs from the shore, however, is a tedious tasku Float salvage of timber from the drawdown zone near FSL is ~~re complicated and logs must be hauled to a point where they can be floated. Conventional machj~e logging of merchantable timber zones will allow sale of logs to generate short-term revenue in contrast to a float method, which \'iOuld delay return and increase working capital costs. Total clearing of scrub is recommended for the dra\'idown zone, but not for the submerged portion of the reservoir. After timber salvage, the entire drawdown zone from LSL to and elevation of 3 rn above FSL should be cleared of all vegeta- tion greater than 2 m high or 5 ern at the base. Clearing above the FSL allows for freeboard and improved shore zone habitat for wildlife. However, severe windfall may be expected along this abrupt forest edge. Merchantable timber salvage of the drawdown zone would be undertaken as part of the contract for salvage in individual blocks. Clearing of the drawdown zone would be undertaken under separate contract ' t ' > ) ~ f 0 I .·-f It· t ., I J I -1 I , I • I •• I J I .... ' ~ ~~ • B-9 following logging. Hand clearing and burning methods are recommended for the upper drawdo\vn or "freeboard.. zone, due to the general rugged and rocky nature of the terrain. Total clearing after timber salvage of the submerged reservoir zone below LSL is not recommended as the remaining brush will be less than 10 ern DBH, and usually less than 5 n tall and poorly rooted. Scrub and small trees protruding into the drawdown zone will be removed by the winter ice. Considerable small size floating debris originating from uprooted shrubs, small trees, and logging slash \vill result after flooding. Smaller material will be abraded by waves on the rocky shores and wood fragments \'Till collect in the easterly embayments as a result of wind and current action. It is unlikely that post flood winter clearing at Low Supply Level would be feasible in the Cat Arm Reservoir environment, as a result of deep drifting snow accumulations, blown from the adjacent uplands and across the frozen reservoir. The high humidity of the reservoir area will make burning of -~acked debris difficult. The burning season will be short, t,robably through late July to September. Even then, care will have to be taken to avoid including saturated mosses, peat, and other wet ground cover in the debris piles, and these will have to be well aerated for ef~ective burning to take place. Bulldozer methods of "pushing debris 11 into piles should be discouraged to ensure that burning may be completed in the short time available prior to flooding. J I .. I • I J I , I • I I • I I B-10 RECOMMENDED CLEARIG STRATEGY MUSKRAT FALLS/GULL ISLAND RESERVOIR, LABRADOR (Proctor and Redfern, 1980) The finding of this study is that the forest need not be cleared for any environmental reason, except in the vicinity of the dams, and at the confluence of tributary streams. This finding is based on the following environmental considerations • (i) There was no evidence that submergence of the forest would have a significant effect on water quality, fish or other aquatic organisms' (ii~ (iii) Plants will be killed and birds, mammals and other I animals presently occupying the flood zone will be displaced or possibly killed regardless of the strategy. The prospects for substantial recreational and tourist activities (except of a local nature) on and in the vicinity of the reservoirs are considered remote. Hence, the need for special preparations in the interests of appearance, safety of watercraft or the use of beaches is not a high priority consideration • There is, however, an important consequence of not clearing j and that is the disposal of the debris broken from dead and uprooted trees which will float towards the dams and shores • Experience elsewhere suggests that over the initial 2 or 3 years of flooding, large rafts of trees will appear and will have to be disposed of. This will probably be .I I I _, , I J I el I' , I •• I • I Jl I 1 B-11 ENVIRONMENTAL MATRIX Gull Island Stratesx_ .!!_iolos ical Parameters* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 No clearing l-1 N NA N mE mE mD mE ID 2 Complete clearing mD N NA N mD N mE mD IE 3 Partial clearing -clear perimeter N N NA only N mE N mE N mE -clear by timber N N NA N mE N mE rnD N class Muskrat Falls Strateg4: Biological Parameters* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 No clearing N N NA N mE mE mD mE mD 2 CompJ~te clearing mD mD NA N mD N mE mD IE 3 Partial clearing -clear perimeter mD N NA N mE N mE N mE only -clear by timber N N NA N mE N mE mD N class *Biological Parameters r-1atrix Rating 1 Bank stability and Disruptive -MD -Major sediment transport -ID -Intermediate 2 Water quality -mD -Minor 3 Terrestrial vegetation N None 4 Mammals 5 Birds Enhancement -HE -z...tajor 6 Aquactic vegetation -IE -Intermediate 7 Fish -mE -r1inor 8 Other aqur.,tic life -N -None 9 Recreation ~nd aesthetics Not applicable -NA I I I " ! i i ' . " I I , I • ""' I J I _., I , I •• I Jl I 1 B-12 followed by a number of years when lesser volumes will have to be removede Slumping of the banks will, from time to time, contribute more dead trees. In itself, this will not have an environmental impact provided that the debris is extracted and disposed of and provided none is permitted below Muskrat Falls. This finding is conditional on these steps being taken. An outline assessment of environmental impacts is in the attached table .. I ·-1 I I ·I , I " I I. 8 I J I 1 B-13 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CLEARING UPPER SALMON RESERVOIR (Northland Associates, 1979) Three options were considered for preparing the Upper Salmon Reservoir: no clearing; complete clearing; and, complete clearing in selected areas. The options were evaluated based on the environmental analysis, cost of clearing in relation to the environmental benefit accrued, and engineering variables such as project scheduling and manpower .requirements. The no-clearing option was rejected because of the future recreational potential of the reservoir. Although the area is not intensively used at present, the potential use was judged significant enough to prote~t. Data indicated that the Grey River caribou herd crosses in the area of the reservoirs and that a no-clearing option would present a major barrier to such movement. Complete clearing was also rejected as an option because of the high cost relative to the environmental benefit. The third option, a progrrun of clear cutting selected areas on the reservoir was recommended by the consultants. The following recommendations were made 1 -Clear selected areas on the reservoir to enhance caribou migration. 2 -Clear forest areas underlain by gravel material to create salmonid spawning in the reservoir. l ! l l ! ! ' ' :• ;il l li jli I I I. 1J I '!!! I I ® I J IJ 11 . -'1 ~ B-14 3 -Clear Cold Spring Pond to encourage and preserve recreational potential in the reservoir zone (198 ha). 4 -Clear a 200-m strip between Great Burnt Lake and Crooked Lake to enhance movement of boats between these lakes (5.1 ha of productive forest, 22.8 ha of scrub forest, and 600 man-days). 5 -Clear a 200-m strip through the diversion channel areas (2 ha of productive forest, 5.5 ha of scrub forest and 18 8 man-days) • All recorunendations were agreed to by regulatory agencies except one (Kiell, 1981). Clearing of part of the reservoir to increase the amount of salmonid spawning habitat was considered costly given the uncertainty as to whether fish would use and spawn successfully in such areas. (; I ., .:1.' ' l . l ; i ·li. '! '' t 1., ~ l ut. • i'J ! 1< ! I ~~ i ;: ·, I •.. I~~-.· { ' ~ . :, ""I' i. ... 14 . .. ., ~~ • \o. .. . \ i . ' 1: ! ·r.l. '· • fJj1 ' i.' . ~ ~A i ' ·I .1 ... ~ ! • ; .I • ·. I I I ' I , . . 1-' '~ . : APPENDIX C REGIONAL CONSIDERATIONS --"' I I • I 0,1 I -1 I , I I • I • I I . @'I APPENDIX C Cl -PRECAMBRIAN SHIELD The Canadian Precambrian Shield can be divided into a number of structural provinces related to folding, lithologies and radiometric age. The area of interest here is the part of the Severn-Abitibi Uplands of the Superior Province which is found in Northern Ontario (see Figure C.l). This area comes under the authority of both the Northwest and Northeast Ontario Planning Regions. Geology The geology of the shield is extremely complex. In early Precambrian (Archean) times, orogenies produced greenstone belts or metamorphosed, complex folded, volcanic and sedimentary and intrusive rocks separated by large expanses of banded gneiss and granitic rocks. It is within the greenstone belt that most of the economic minerals are found. c Thick, relatively flat-lying sedimentary and volancic rocks i\ found in the Thunder Bay-Nipigon area are related to sedimentation and vulcanism during the middle and late Precambrian (Proterozoic) times. Iron-ore, lead, z1nc and silver are associated with the Proterozoic rocks • Glacial erosion has turned the Archaen rocks to a rolling topography of low relief and the Proterozoic rocks into strongly broken topography • I t I i l l I l' , . ' I 4 I , I • I .I I -1 I , I I • I • I I C-2 Surficial Geology and Soils Till deposits are found over much of the area but they are discontinuous and main.:.y thin (less than 1 m deep). These deposits are generally composed of a sandy till mixed with large boulders, stones and gravel and little clay. Bedrock outcrops through out the region. Postglacial lakes filled many of the low-lying areas depositing deep layers of clays and silts interrupted by sand ridges. These deposits have a relatively high produc- tivity. The farming areas of Kenora and Rainy River, Thunder Bay, Sault Ste Marie-Sudbury, New Liskard are found in these clay and sand areas. The Cochrane Clay Belt is the largest of these areas and least developed. These depos~ts would be easily eroded if forming the shoreline of a reservoir. -Where the bedrock outcrops, there is little or no soil 1evelopment and thus, would provide good shore- lines. On the clay-silt soils agricultural use will probably be given first prinrity over any other development. Eskers and moraines occur throughout the region and usually provide the best source of aggregate material. Topography and Drainage Generally, surface elevations vary from 900 to 1,200 ft. The land is gently rolling to the west and north and is more broken to the south and east. The highest area is to the west of Lake Superior where 2,000 ft is reached in a few places • There are a large number of rivers and lakes with over 10 percent of the region covered by water. There are three I• . ~ I I I • I I • I -1 I , I .) I I ;l1 I I •I C-3 major watersheds. The northern half drains to Hudson Bay. The southwest drains to the Winnipeg River and the south- east flows into the Great Lakes system (Figure C.2). There is a gentle rise in elevation to almost 1,500 ft from Hudson Bay to the \later divide between north and south drainage. The southeast flowing rivers have a more rapid decent to Lake Superior which is 600 ft above sea level. The rivers have been dammed in several places and water diverted from one watershed to another for hydro develop-- ment. Most of the watersheds are at least partially controlled. The water supply varies both annua~ly and seasonally. The winter minimum to spring maximum may be of the order of 1:20 • Water Quality Environment Canada has carried out water quality sampling from 1967-77 on a number of watersheds. They found that the waters have low total dissolved solids with concentra- tions ranging between 23 mg/L and 61 mg/L. All water was soft (17-60 mg/L hardness as CaC03) and mostly unsatu- rated with respect to calcite. Stability index calcula- tions indicate that these waters are extremely corrosive. The nature of the underlying shield bedrock is evident in the low concentrations of calcium and bicarbonates. The majority of the waters were classified as alkaline-earth bicarbonates. The watersheds of the Precambrian Shield are extremely sensitive and are easily disturbed by atmospheric and geochemical inputs. The waters have a V'=rY poor buffering capacity and tvould bt: extremely sensitive to acid rain (see Figure ) • It has been found to be advantageous to leave as much living organic matter in the lakes as possible. The NOx in acid rain tends to be taken in by the I I I • "· .1. I 0 I , I . ') I I •• I C-4 vegetation. Thus, the hydrogen ion component of NOx is lessened reducing the possibility of lowering the pH in the reservoir. various impurities have been found in the waters of the Canadian Shield. Mercury, ~n particular, has given cause for concern. This has been released by both indust·ry and from natural sources. Fishing waters have been affected, these include Rainy Lake, Lac Seul, Lake St. Joseph, parts of the English River and the Thunder Bay area of Lake Superior. r-tajor water quality problems have resulted from discharges from the pulp and paper industry, from mining operations and from community waste. Cl ~.mate - The continental type climate of the region is modified by the presence of both Hudson Bay and Lake Superior. Their moderating effect is most marked in the fall and early winter ~~hen minimum temperatures are raised. Annual temperature ranges in the south, around Lake Superior, are 30°C and in the north, in the Patricia region, are 35°C. January temperatures range from -25°C in the north to -l0°C in the south. In July there is less variation, l5°C in the north to 20°C in the south • Precipitation is low in the winter and shows a summer maximum. There is an increase in precipitation from west to east {600 mn in Kenora to 820 rnm at Lake Timiskaming) with the least in the extreme northwest (500 mm). Snow· depths can reach 1,500 mm and are usually greater than 300 mm. Northeast winds predominate in winter and southwest in summer. ...__.... r i • I ~ I • I I -1 I , I • I I • I I •I C-5 Vegetation In the very south the Great Lakes--St. La~vrence forest region is found which includes sugar maples, pine, birch, hemock and poplar. In the far. northi' there i~ very stunted growth. Small bla.ck spruce, taraarack and bog eondi tions are found bordering the Hudson Bay towlands. The central belt is covered by Boreal forest with the dominant specie~ being black spruce, tamarack, aspen, jac·): pine and white birch, and with white spruce, balsam fir and red ~ine being well represented. Wildlife Terrestrial wildlife includes those species associated with a forest habitat. Furbearers such as otter, mink, muskrat, beaver and fish are common, as are bear and moose. Deer and caribou have a more restricted distribution. Due to the large number of lakes, there is an abundance of waterfowl. over 80 different fish species have been identified. Warm water species are found in the lakes north of the water divide and cold species to the south. Population and Employment The northwestern Planning Region had a population of * --- and the northeastern had * people. The construction of the railway has clearly influenced the settlement pattern of the area and its economic development. Th1: majority of the population north of the CNR mainline is Indian, ei thet· *Awaiting data from most recent census. • ',. j; f -~•;-·--·--~·---····-w-"C''~""---_,--··~"-~-~~-., '~ '· ., ' '!· o.' y ~~-:' .. 1>. . . ' r: '< < I 1 • I 01 I -1 I .,_ I •• .I I I C-6 Cree or Objib~a, living in numerous small isolated communi- ties. The main urban areas are found in the south along the east-west rail links and highways. Indian group~ carry on their traditional .sustenance activi- ties of hut1tin~ and fishing and also engage in commercial trappin,g, f\shin. a tourism and wild rice gathering. These activitir:s do not support the whole population and many are dependent on welfare • ~h~ re$t of the populatio·n is, employed mainly by the priruar:::t i~'Jdustri.es in the resource fi~ld, mining and forestry industries being the primary employers. The tourist industry is important especially on a seasonal basis. Resources (a) Mining The region 1s rich in mineral deposits. The mineral potential of the area is high especially in the greenstone belts and the nickel belt around Sudbury. (b) Agriculture The land capable for agricultural is that associated with the deep clay soils laid down in the postglacial lakes. The only area not developed extensively is the northern clay belt where the climate can impose serious constraints on crop production. However, with the introduction of hardier varieties, agricultural expansion can be expected. 'Wild rice During the people can is 2- be an important caoh crop for Indians. to 3-week harvesting period up to 1,000 employed. t I l --~---~--~---·------1. ~-"~~: . ;~ ':•. ~· - I 1 I .. I • I ®I I, -1: I , I •• I .I I I C-7 With any reservoir development the agricultural poten- tial of the area must be considered as well ~s any detrimental effect it might have on wild rice paddies. (c) Forestry The forest industry is the major employer in Northern Ontario. South of 52°N about 50 percent of the lan-d has a high to moderate forest ca.pabili ty. The north- west region of Ontario contains about 40 percent of Ontario's merchantable timber. The gemands by the forestry industry may influence reS;,?-rvoir developme·rit and clearing practices. (d) Recreation The recreational potential of the region is high. The southern area is the most attractive to the majority of tourists, the potential decreases farther north, but numerous fly-in camps exist and wilderness out- fitters service this area. Recreational activities include picnicing, bathing, angling, hunting, camping, canoeing and boating. The majority of the tourists stay in cottage accomiilodation. Again, conflicts of interests may occur between reservoir development and recreational needs. (e) Fish and Wildlife Moose, deer, bear and small game are the main animals hunted. Commercial fur trapping involves about 3,000 people and of these half are probably Indians. Beaver is the most important species trapped. Waterfowl and grouse are also hunted. I ! I I I I ! I I ! ! l ) l \ f I t ~-:' I I I I J ----·····-,··--·~-·--·~~~. I < ~:...; ·,. 'C '· ' . . . . . . I I I , I •• I • I I fjl C-8 Sport t'i~hing is probably the most important element in the touri~t industry. It is also an important source of recreation and food supply for the local population. Walleye, northern pike and bass are the f:sb favored by the tourist while the locals prefer wall&ye, pike, lake and brook trout. There are a large number of lake trout waters in the region, these are being fished to capacity and are very sensitive to overuse. Commercial fisheries are active in over 200 lakes, competing with the sport fishermen. The bait fi~h industry is growing in importance. Unfortunately, the discovery of mercury in fish above the acceptable minimum of o.s ppm is having a noticeable effect on the tourist industry and the lives of the Indians. Reservoir Clearing Considerations on the Canadian Shield Generalized recommendations for reserv~ir clearing on the Shield cannot be ffiade due to the heterogeneity of this large region. Listed below, however, are some of the key features which can influence the section of a site-specific strategy for Shield reservoirs. -Much of the area is covered with very thin (<1m) till deposits. This implies shallow root systems for standing timber. Some areas have deep layers of clays and silts which are easily eroded along shore, although deeply rooted trees would be found. I I I , I •• I • I .I I ._ C-9 -Surface waters are very poorly buffered and are therefore sensitive to acid precipitation. The presence of organic materials aids in reducing pH depression by absorbing the NOx function of acid rain. -Natural mercury levels are high in some areas. Removal of mercury-laden soils may be warranted in these area. -There is a general trend from hardwood to softwood dominance as one proceeds north along the Shield reaching stunted Boreal and bog at the lowlands. The floatability of hard US software is a determining element. -Generally speaking, waterfowl habi,tat is not lacking due to the high density of water bodies 0n the Shield. The forest industry is the major employer in the Shield. Clearing equipment and manpower likely available. -There is a high recreational potential, particularly in the southern parts of the Shield. -Sport fishing is very important to tourist industry (walleye, pike and bass). Locals prefer trout. Reservoir encouragement of warm water fishing could relieve pressure on trout lakes • -200 Shield lakes support commercial fis'heries. There could be a demand for net use in new reservoirs • I , I • I .I I I , I •• I • I ·~ I ~ C-10 C2 -THE HUDSON BAY LOWLANDS ' The Hudson Bay Lowlands are a distinct physiographic unit occupying the coastc;l plain area to the south and west side of James and Hudson Bays from the Nottaway River in Quebec to the Churchill River in Manitoba ~see Figure C.l). These flat, swampy lowlands contrast sharply with the rocky outcrops of the Precambrian rocks which bordered them • Geolog2: The area is underlain by Palaeozoic rocks of Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian age and consists of sandstones, shales, limestones, dolomite and evaporite deposits. In places, a low escarpment marks the boundary between these rocks and the Canadian Shield but in other locations boulder clay deposits make delineation of the area more difficult. The sutton Inlier is an outcrop of Precambrian rock providing the only relief to the otherwise very gently dipping Paleozoic rocks. Surficial Quaternary deposits cover the area in the form of till sheets, lacustrine deposits, buried soils and marine beds. These deposits could present engineering problems; in particular, the postglacial marine clays (Skinner, 1973). The Pleistocene deposits are mainly fine grained and generally do not provide aggregate material suitable for road construction. Topography and Drainage The highest elevations, of about 500 ft, occur in the areas bordering the Shield and from here drop to sea level giving a gradient of about 3. 4 ft/mi. The major rivers flow in a southwest-northeast direction draining into Hudson and -- ,. I l I l ! l r l l ~' I • I ) I I , I •• I • I ·I 1 C-11 James Bays (see Figure C.2).. Drainage is poor due to the flat nature of the ground; over most of the region are rivers and lakes with extensive areas of swamp and muskeg. There is little dry land and this is related to some glacial deposits, riverbanks or the old strand lines which encircle Hudson Bay. These· old bf~aches indicate that the area is still rising under isostatic rebound, which is reducing the gradient and encouraging even poorer drainage. Any proposed reservoir in this area would be very shallow, large areas would be exposed to wave action and shorelines would have gentle slopes. Water Quality All the rivers drain the Canadian Shield in their headwaters and the water chemistry reflects the amount of Palaeozoic-carbonate or Precambrian-silicate which makes up the watershed. The total dissolved solids vary from 61 to 94 mg/L, calcite units are from -1.1 to o.s. The stability indices ranged from 8~5 to 9.5 pH units. The rivers are all classified as alkaline-earth bicarbonate. The waters are harder than those of the Shield and they have an excellent buffering capacity. During high runoff periods solute dilution occurs. Trace . element and nutrient data are limited but concentrations are always low and exhibit no evidence of human activity. The color is often very dark (50 to 100 relative units), the result of runoff and leaching of organic materials in peat .• Climate and Permafrost Distribution The continental climate is modified by the presence of Hudson Bay which delays heating in the summer. Average I l l , l 1 l j l 1 j 1 I •1,. ' ' .a I I , I • I I • I .I I . 'i C-12 temperatures are 0 to -4°C with an annual range of as much as 40°C. Precipitation is about 450 mm/yr with a summer maximum. Snow depth rarely exceeds 30 em. Permafrost distribution appears to be directly related to temperatu~es {see Figure C.4). A narrow strip of contin- uous permafrost exists around the southern shore of Hudson Bay where annual temperatures are !ess than 25°F {-4°C). ~ermafrost is generally not found south of the 30°F (-l°C) isotherm. Between 30°F and 25°F (-l°C and -4°C) permafrost is discontinuous and related to drainage. If the water table is at the surface, permafrost is absent. Its forma- tion appears to be dependent on an insulating layer of dry material which prevents summer thawingo The active layer varies from 1 ft to 3 ft and the thickness of the perma- frost may be as much as 100 ft near Hudson Bay. Permafrost features include palsas to elevated peat platforms, the latter which are greater than 10 ft high and may cover several acres. Soils and Vegetation Weathering of the soft bedrock produced fine grained material, which when reworked by ice sheets produce fine textured sediments (san~s and silts) with restricted internal drainage. The marine sedi~ents are mostly silty learns which are also almost impervious. These conditions, plus the gentle gradient, produce continual waterloqging .and have given rise to the greatest peat accummulations in Canada (Figure C.S). Peat deposits are generally greater than 2m and can reach 10 m, becoming progressively thinner toward H~dson Bay. Peat is easily eroded and would provide poor shorelines for reservoirs. Massive slumping can also be expected where permafrost underlies the peat. The reservoir water would cause the permafrost to melt and thus remove the support for the overlying material • -j.i' ~ ...... --f --· r ,. I I I. ,J I I I I , . I J C-13 vegetation shows a gradual change from boreal conditions in the south to tundra in the north (Figure C.6), however, the poor drainage interferes with usual plant development. On the peatlands in the south a closed black spruce-moss cornmunity is found, on the permafrost peatlands -an open spruce -lichen forest and a shrubby tamarack fen grows on the unfrozen areas. Tree growth is much improved on the better drained peat plateaus and palsas where trees may reach 15 em diameter and their height may be twice that of trees growing on the fens. Near Hudson Bay there are true tundra conditions with sedge and heath., On the better drained soils and in the protected valleys, white and black spruce and balsam poplar grow. These are larger trees, maybe 22 m in height and 50 em in diameter. Wildlife The coastal lowlands of Hudson and James Bay are inter- nationally significant as a nesting and staging area for waterfowl. Along the Hudson Bay coast, whales, seals, polar bear, barren ground caribou, arctic fox, lemmings, blue geese and ptarmigan are found. The muskeg provides nesting sites for the sandhill crane. Moraine and beach ridges are ecolo- gically important areas for caribou and denning areas for bea.rs, wolves and foxes. Brook trout, northern pike common sucker and sturgeon are the predominant fish species • ~··~!!~',")' C:.~ _;~:· ;~l • ·~ )~ I ' '~ I ._. I • I •• I .a I , I •• I • I J I 4 c-14 Social Structure The total population in 1971 was 5,810; 76 percent were Indians {Cree) and many of the remainder were Metis. The population is found in small ccmmunitie3 along the coast (Moosonee, Moose Factory, Albany, Attawapiskat, Fort Severn, Winisk, Moose River Crossing). The lowlands represent the traditional hunting, trapping and fishing territories of these coastal Indians. The travel rou~es of the Indians are alon; the rivers and lakes. Although many of the Indians are wholly or partially dependent on welfare for their economic well being, they do continue their traditional activities and way of life and these must be respected when any development in the area is considered. There are no effective land links between the communities ~nd access to the Lowlands is mainly by plane. The only land route to the south is the railway to Moosonee • The recreational potential of the area is just begi11ning to be exploited. Moosonee is developing .into the center of the tourist trade which is based on wilderness activities. The Indian community has been incorporated in this recent tourist development. For instance, they have been trained to run six goose camp operations. Two provincial parks are located on the lowlanos. An extensive part of the Hudson Bay coast is included in the Polar Bear Provincial Park and the Winisk Wild River Park extends 238 miles along the lower reaches of the Winisk River to within 32 miles of the coast • r) .~~ .. I >' r I I • I I e I I • I J I 1 C-15 Resources Forest The physical conditions of the region make exploitation unfavorable. The environmen~ is extremely fragile. For instance, it appears that the removal of trees from the peat plateaus, where better growth occurs, can cause melting of the permafrost and collapse and disappearance of the plateau. Much of the forest comes under the "Protection" class. Thus, capability of the area plus the distance from market all impose very restricting conditions on forest development. Mineral Mineral deposits of lignite, gypsum, silica, kaolin, and niobium are found in the area. Ther~ is a potential for lead and zinc in the Palaeozoic rocks and iron in the Precambrian inlier. Oil and gas drilling exploration is underway in the Palaeozoic rocks. Reservoir Clearing Considerations in the Hudson Bay Lowlands The two major problems that are encountered in the lowlands are the inaccessibility of the area and the fragility of the muskeg permaforst environment. Muskeg patterns and drainage can be destroyed by movement of heavy equipment. Machinery exe~ting over 5 lb/sq in. can only be used when the ground is frozen to at least a depth of 20 em and covered with 20 em of snow. Cutting operations if required would probably be of small scale () I .I I .J I ,. I • I C-16 involving hand clearing which would reduce the effects of heavy machinery. The creation of reservoirs will cause melting of the adja- cent permafrost and slwnping of the banks. The presence of trees and other vegetation cover may slow bank erosion and thus perimeter clearing is not generally recommended. By flooding peat areas the water quality will be changed. There will be an inflow of acidic lurnmus, (phosphorus} and nitrogen will rise and an oxygen deficit will develop, especially near the bottom. These changes will last for a number of years. The present color content is so high that any increase from the peat will probably be insignificant. Clearing of the peat before flooding is not a practical solution. Peat soils can reach a depth of 10 ~. and there would be considerable environmental damage wrought by both its removal and dumping. Floating peat islands may form in the newly flooded areas. These may have to be removed, since they may persist for years, if they affect the use of the reservoir. Clearing cost at Gull Island in Newfoundland ran to $1,100/ha .:!::,20 percent and this could be the same order of magnitude for this area. If the reservoirs are constructed near communities, some aesthetic clearing ~ay be necessary. The local population must be consulted on any development and their requirements incorporated into any decision taken. In general, it would appear that minimal clearing is preferable in reservoir construction in the Hudson Bay Lowlands. The inaccessibi.Lity of the area and the fragile nature of the environment pose considerable problems to any development. Depending on reservoir size and location, minimal clearing may not be possible due to the necessity r ... I I , ·I • I I I .J I of large-scale clearing of floating muskeg and timber following flooding to prevent problems with reservoir operation. One alternative may be to tow floating islands ashore where they can be anchored as refuges for wildlife and waterfowl. This possibility has been considered by the Soci~ta d'~nergie de la Baie James (1978). Also, fine mesh screens should be installed near the intakr gates and cleared on a regular basis. Addltionally, it is expected that reservoir sweepin~J would be required on a more frequent oasis than is necessary in other areas of Ontario. I .. I • I .. I •-I I I ;.J I r ( I I . I I ! I ~;( -'t..~.-<,_. '%~ ·C ./ / / SEVERN / UPLANO ./ ./ / HUDSON BAY LEGEND 111111111\1 BOUNDARYOFCANADIAN SHIELD AND INLIERS ----BOUNDARY OF STRUCTURAL PROVINCE ----· BOUNDARY OF SUB-PROVINCE (SIMPLIFIED MAP AFTER DOUGLAS 19'{0) FIG. C. I ONTARIO HYDRO! . I RESERVOIR CLEARING a PREPARATION-ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION STRATEGIES jiPDl'.l LOCATION MAP HUD 0 L------------------------------------------=~--------~-----------~ f) I -1 I , I .. I I I . ! IL -·-·~.~ ~ l?AIN~~S£/N£ -LAK£ ., . ............. ,. '· LEGEND HUDSON BAY ----BOUNDARY OF HUDSON BAY LOWLAND \ \ .......... -. -·-.,. riG. C.2 ONTARIO HYDfi'O I I RESERVOIR cLEARING a PREPARATION-ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION STRATEGIES IAPD(Q! DRAINAGE PATTERN JHUD O! \ \ i 1-, r l l \ ~ !. l l I r ~ ' ' .-r·· .... ·.' I I I • I I • I .a B a I I c-ao HUDSON BAY LEGEND SENSITIVITY GF BEDROCK AI'ID DERIVED SOILS ~':A ~ LOW SENSITIVITY-HIGH BUFFERING CAPACITY~ MAINLY BY CARBONAT£ ANION INTERMEDIATE SENSITIVITY-LOW OR UNCERTAIN BUFFE!i;".!IJ MAINLY BY CATION EXCHANGE IN CLAY AND SILT SIZED D£TR!nJS HIGH SENSITIVITY-LOW TO lNSIGNIFICANT BUFFERING CAPACITY-/FAN~ MAINLY BY CATION EXCHANGE WITHIN C.LAYAND SILT SIZED DETRITUS (SIMPLIFIED MAP AFTER GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 1981 MAP 1551A 8 1550A SENSITIVITY OF BEDROCK AND DERIVED SOILS 10 ACID PRECIPITATION ) FJG.C.3 ONTARIO HYDRO. RESERVOIR CLEAf.'ING 8 PREPARATION -ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION STRATEGIE.S IPDlQ . SENSITiVITY TO ACID RAIN IIUOlll l) ~c (;~ ' l i' r t 1 l j r l I ) l I' I , l I I • I .I I I r . I . I I I I ! I I LEGEND. ) I I I ' \ \ \ ----BOUNDARY OF HUDSON BAY LOWLAND CONTINUOUS PERMAFROST ZONE WIDE SPREAD PERMAFROST SOUTHERN FRINGE OF PERMAFROST HUDSON BAY ' _../ ........ ___ , -SOUTHERN LIMITOFCONTINUOUS PERMAFROST ----SOUTHERN LIMIT OF PERMAFROST (AFTER BROWN, 1973) . \ \ \ ' \ \ . \ \ \ \ \ '· ....... ---.... ......... '· FIG.C.4 ONTARIO HYDRO • RESERVOIR cLEARING a PREPARATION-ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION STRATEGIEs IPD(I j PERMAFROST IN HUDSON BAY LOWLAND HUD 0 I ' I LEGEND D . . I FREOUENCYOFOCCURRE:NCE OF MUSKEG HIGH MEDIUM LOW (AFTER RADFORTH 1966., MUSKEG MAP OF CANADA' FIG.C.S ONTARIO HYDRO r-1 RESERVOIR CLEARING a PREPARATION-ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION STRATEGIES IAPD£0 ! OCCURRENCE OF MUSKEG I HUO[O! c } r I ~ I l t I t ~ l l l l l j f t {-...1·, ) l ! l l l ' I ! l I l I 1 l I r i l I I I • a J c .I I HUDSON BAY , ___ ,z LEGEND ----BOUNDARY OF HUDSON BAY LOWLAND ~ HEATH-FENLAND ~ OPEN SUBARCTIC FOREST § BOREAL FOREST ~ SOUTHEASTERN MIXED FOREST (GREAT LAKES -ST. LAWRENCE FOREST~ (MODIFIED MAP AFTER ZOLTAI, 1973 AND ROWE 1972) FIG.C.6 ONTARIO HYDRO I I RESERVOIR cLEARING a PREPARATION -ENVIRONMENTAL. PROTECTION STRATEGIES jAPO[@ j VEGETATION ZONES !HUOlO: .. ,:-f