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DRAFT
State of Alaska
Prepared For
Laurence A.Peterson
Ga~~y E.Nichols
Nancy 8.Hemming
_--.It1'l'Ile'!i~k-til!.a s pe 11----L.A.PETERSON &ASSOCIATES,INC.
Fairbanks,Alaska
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ALASKA PARTICULATES CRITERIA REVIEW
Department of Environmental Conservation
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Demeo,Inc.38-293
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ARLIS
Alaska Resources
Library &Information Services
McnQf~l Alaska
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
contracted L.A.Peterson &Associates,Inc.to conduct a study
of Alaska's water quality particulates criteria.The
comprehensive intent of the study was to:
(1)Review pertinent literature to determine state-of-the-
art measurement technology,physical/chemical effects,
and biological effects of particulates.
(2)Compile and assess particulates criteria from other
states and Canadian provinces and territories and
com 1=1 1 Ie U.S.Environmental I=Irotect ieln .Agel"'Il:y g'.lidelll1.eS
and requirements for l=Iarticulates criteria.
(3)Evaluate the adequacy and scientific merit of existing
Alaska criteria for particulates.
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(4)Assess the potential for using parameters other than
turbidity,suspended and settleable solids,and the
percentage accumulation of fines in spawning gravels.
(5)Propose new l=Iil.rticulates criteria if scientific
evidence supports this action.
The investigation was limited to the problems of water
pollution resulting from particulates and the direct and
indir.ct methods for measuring particulates.A comprehensive
literature review was performed to document the effects of
particulates on various water uses.Background information
regarding particulate measurement techniques,water quality,and
aquatic ecology apcears in Sectiori 2.0.Section 3.0 summarizes
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REVIEW DRAFT '3/03/65 PAGe:L ARLIS
Alaska Resources
v Information Servtces .
".tra~.Alaska
particulates criteria used in water Quality standards and gUide-
lines throughout the United States and Canada.Alaska's
particulates criteria are reviewed (Section 4.0)and the
potential use of parameters other than turbidity,~u$pended and
settleable solids,and percentage accumulation of fines in
spawnlng gravels are discussed in Section 5.0.Recommended
changes to Alaska's criteria to insure that Alaska's
particUlates criteria are supportable and based on the best
available information are presented in Section 6.0.
2.0 COMPARISON OF ALASKA CRITERIA TO OTHER STATES AND CANADA
Other than Alaska,33 states have quantitative turbidity
crlteria for at least some water uses.Among the 20 states
having cold water systems similar to Alaska and numerical
criteria fo~turoidity,tne criteria are numerically equal to~or
more stringent than Alaska's.Turbidity criteria for lakes are
comparaole.Quantitative turbidity criteria in Canada are
comparable to Ala.ka criteria for recre.tion and tne propagation
of fish and wildlife.Tne U.S.Environmental Protection Agency
criterion fQr turbidity and solids pertains to the compensation
point for photosynthetic activity.Of the 14 states with
turbidity standards for marine water,seven employ Quantitative
criteria.
None of the states nave quantitative criteria for settleable
solids levels.Only four state.other than Alaska currently
have numeric criteria for suspended solids.Of the remaining
states,17 have general narrative statements addressing these
parameters.Alaska is the only .tate with criteria controlling
the accumulation of sediments a.a MaKimum percentage by weight
I~f spawning bed gravels.Currently,there are no water Quality
standards for suspended and .ettleable solids in Canadian
provinces and territories.
REVIEW DRAFT ~/09/65 PAGEl(
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3.0 PARTICULATES REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER SUPPLIES
The amount of particulates allowable in raw water supplies
depends on tne type and degree of treatment used to produce
finished water.An excellent source of water requiring only
disinfection would have a turbidity of 0 to 10 units.A good
source of water supply r.~uiring usual treatment wO~lld have a
turbidity of 10 to a~o units.For disinfection purposes,rdW
drinking water sources should be limited to 5 turbidity units,
and finished water should have a MaKimum limit of 1 turbidity
unlt where the water enters the distribution system.Most
people find water with 5 or more turbidity units objectionable.
The water ~uality requirements for particulates varies among
industrial uses.At one extreme,rayon manufacture requires
water with-only 0.3 turbidity units,wher.as water used-efor
cooling can have up to ~O turbidity units.Most other
industrial us.s re~uir.maKimum turbidity levels within this
range.Placer mining is one industry where water containing
turbidity or suspended solids levels significantly higher than
50 units may be acceptable.
4.0 PARTICULATES REQUIREMENTS FOR RECREATION
The noticeable threshold for water contact recreation is 10
turbidity units and the limiting threshold is ~o units.The
suggested maximum turbidity limit for Canadian contact
recreational w4lt.r ~uality is ~o turbidity units and the minimum
Secchi disk Visibility depth is 1.2 meters.The noticeable
threshold for boating and a.sthetic us.s is 20 turbidity units •
There is apparently no level found in surface water that is
likely to imp.d.th••e us.s,although many people prefer clear
water conditions.Fishing succ.ss is reduced where turbidity is
greatar than about 25 units.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0'9/85 PAGE iii
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5.0 PARTICULATES REQUIREMENTS FOR BIOTA
A large body of experimental data exist regarding the
effects of fine sediment deposition on salmonid eggs in natural
and laboratory stream gravels.By comparison,only limited
numerlcal data are available regardlng the effects of sediment
on fish emergence time and population changes.The percentage of
fines and level of spawning gravel embeddedness ~re critical
factors to developing eggs and emerging fry.In general,
salmon,trout,and char egg survival and emergence success are
adversely affected when the fraction of fine sediment exceeds 20
percent.Although the critical particle si%e is highly variable
among species,sediment smaller than 3 mm in diameter appears to
be the most deleterious to fish egg survival,emergence success,
arid prl:Jductivity.A nWllber of investigatot"s empha?i%e the
deleterious effect of particles smaller"than 1 rom in spawn~ng
gravels.In addition,it is generally recogni%ed that deposited
sediments smother fish eggs and benthic macroinvertebrates by
blanketing the substrate.
The adverse impacts of a wide range of suspended solids and
turbidity levels have been reported for a diversity of aquatic
plants,macroinvertebrates,and various stages of fish
development.Research has been conducted under a variety of
environmental conditions for different lengths of time and the
results are often expressed in different units of measure.In
many instances,the data presented in on.investigation either
do not support or cannot be readily compared to the results of
other investigations.An Qrganism's level of sensitivity to
suspended solids is dictated by its age,species.relative
mObility,feeding and reproductive habits,the season,the size
and nature of the"sediment,the duration of exposure,the
general health and stress level of the individual,and the
degree and d~ration to which the individual was previously
expQsed.Fl..lrthet"Tti,;:.re,ar'1 individual's level .::Jf sl.tsceptibility
depend$to some degree upon its origin.For instance,one
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGEiV
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investigator indicates that hatchery-raised coho salmon are
corlsiderably more sen.it ive to suspeY'lded sol ids than are wi ld
coho.Moreover,the results derived from laboratory experiments
do not necessarily reflect field conditioY'ls be6ause of the
stress factors involved aY'ld because many organisms possess
innate adaptation capabilities in respoY'lse to changes in their
environment.These variables are not always presented in the
literature.It is relatively common to find the results from
one particular study cited in three or more literature reviews.
Upon reviewiY'lg the original document,it appsars that some of
the data have been presented without discussing other pertinent
factors.ConseQuently,it is difficult to draw definitive
conclusions concerning the impact of a specific suspended solids
concentration or turbidity level on a particular specie.or age
class of organism.With these limitations in mind,the
following summary statements are made co~c.rning the effect~of
suspended solids and turbidity on freshwater aqu~tic organisms.
Lethal suspended solids concentrations vary widely depending
on the species and duration of .~posure.Arctic grayling can
survive high concentratioY'ls (10,000 mg/L)of suspended solids
but not extremely high concentrations (2~0,000 mg/L)for a few
days.High levels of turbidity (up to 8200 NTU)appear to have
no adverse effect on grayling survival.Rainbow trout are
capable of withstanding 30 to 90 ppm of certain types of
suspended solids for .everal months byt suffer significant
mortality (~O percent)at levels gre.ter than 100 mg/L for
several weeks.At extremely high levels of suspended solids
(160,000 mg/L),rainbow trout suffer total mortality in 1 day.
Total egg mortality may occur at much lower concentrations Cless
than or eQual to 2~00 mg/L)in less than a ~eek.The amount of
sediment required to caus.~O percent mortal1ty in J'Jvenile coho
salmon in 4 days is much higher in November (35,000 ppm)than in
August C1ZOO ppm).Chum salmon egg survival is decreased by
about half when suspended solids levels are i"~reased from 97 to
111 mg/L.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/a~PAGE V
In general,salmonid feeding,growth,reproduction,and
behavior are not significantly affected by turbidity levels less
than a5 NTU or suspended solids concentrations less than 30
mg/L.An exception is the cutthroat trout,which c~ases feeding
at 35 ppm suspended solids.With one exception,there is no
indication that suspended solids concentrations less than SO
mglL have any adverse effect on salmonid gill or fin tissues,or
respiratory funct ions.In one instance,an in a.i~.!.:!
concentration of 34 mg/L produced moderate to marked gill
hypertrophy and hyperplasia in Arctic grayling in 5 days.
Furthermore,suspended solids concentrations as low as 50 mg/L
may be stressful to grayling,as indicated by blood glucose
1 eve 1 s.
Algal-based productivity may begin to be reduced at
turbidity levels greater-than about :5-NTU in ~_trearns and lak-~s.
ReCIted aquat ic plants may be absent at suspended sol ids
concerltrations greater than 200 mg/L.Benthic macroinvertecrate
populations may be adversely affected by suspensions of 40 mg/L
or more and zooplankton may b.harmed by more than sa mg/L
suspended solids.
Lethal and sub-lethal effects of sediments have been
determined for a diversity of marine organisms.Numerical data
pertain primarily to the effects of suspended solids and
turbidity as oppos.d to sediments d.posited on the bottom.Much
of the work done in the marin.system involve.estuarine
invertebrat.s.With few exceptions,marine invertecrates are
more tolerant of high suspended sol ids concentrat ions tharl are
anadromous fish and freshwater invert.brates.
Primary production has b.en reduced at turbidity lev.ls of
41 JTU near offshore mining actiVity.However,mixing and
~ilution limited the sKtent to which prlmary ~roduction was
reduced by localized or temporary sediment increases.The
lethal sus~ended solids concentration for adult bivalves,
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0S/85 PAGE VI
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crustaceans,tunicates,and polychaetes is in all instances
greater than 400 mg/L and in most cases greater than 1500 mg/L.
The survival of a ~ariety of estuarine fish eggs and larvae is
not reduced by suspended solids concentrations iess than 100
mg/L.However,the feeding rate of larval herring is
significantly reduced at 20 mg/L.
The sue-lethal effects of suspended solids and turcidity on
mollusks are quite variable.The feeding rate of some oysters
is unaffected at 100 to 700 ppm turbidity.Some clams cease
feeding at 1000 JTU.The water pumping rate of the American
oyster is significantly reduced at concentrations greater than
100 mg/L.The feeding rate of the mollusk ~~~eig~l~sp.is
significantly reduced at 200 mg/L.Clam eggs develop normally
in silt suspensions of 3000 mg/L,whereas American oyster eggs
are affected by.silt eoncentrations as low as 166 mg/L.Seed
scallops exhibit elevated respiration rates at 250 mglL or
greater.The mussel !!1~til~~sp.is well adapted to 5i It
concentrations up to 50 mg/L.The shell growth of certain
gastropods is decreased when natural suspended solids are
increased to a50 mg/L.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
1.The level of protection afforded by the eXisting Alaska
particulates criteria for the designated water uses is generally
supported by scientific data.However,a number of proposed
modifications to the existing criteria have been made to attain
the best criteria based on information presented in this report.
Use categories for which turbidity criteria have ceen
~etained include industrial water su~ply and contact and
secondary recreation in fresh water.Under the proposed
criteria,no distinction is Made between lakes and streams for
recreational uses.The turbidity criteria for drinking water
supply,growt~and pro~agation of a~uatic organisms,and contact
REVIEW ORAFT '3/0'3/65 Pl=iGE ylf
and secclI'"ldary recreat ion in marine water~are amerlded t'::J allow
variable increases in turbidity within specified ranges.It is
pr-,:,p.:tsed tha,'t the exis'tirlg t'.Lr-bidity and sediment cr-iteria be
deleted for~certain use categories becalJse:(1)There is nCt
eviderlce t'::J SI.lpport their validity,or <2)other cr-iteria a,~e
Jl,.ldged to be more appropriate for the stated use category.It ~I
is proposed that the existing turbidity criteria be deleted f':Jr
a;;r~iculture,seafoOd processing,industrial water supply in
marine waters,harvesting for consumption of raw mollusks or
other aquatic life,and aquaculture in both fresh and marine
water"s.
The sediment criteria for agriculture,seafood processing,
drinklng water supply,and industrial supplies (fresh and marine
water)are amended to include statements addressiri~suspended
and settleable solids.The existing sediment criteria for
aquaculture and.growth and propagation of aquatic biota have
been rewritten to include numerical suspended solids and
settleable solids criteria for both fresh and marine waters.
Add it ionally,the
spawYling gravel
aquatic biota in
allowable percentage aCCUMulation of fines in
is reduced for the growth and propagation of
fresh water.A new criterion for settleable
solids is proposed for the harvesting of raw mollusks and other
aquatic life.It is proposed that sediment criteria be deleted
for contact and secondary recreation in both fresh and marine
waters.
Z.Alaska currently employs particulates criteria for two
categories:turbidity and sediment.The sediment category
include.criteria for total suspended solids,settleable solids,
and the percentage accumulation of fine.in spawning bed gravel.
Criteria for the.e four parameters are adequate for the
protection of all water use categories in Alaska.It was
deterMined that the percentage acc~mulation of fines in spawning
gravel is a difficult parameter to mecsure.Harlce,it is
r"ec':lmrnended that se't·tleable solids criteria be used CIS ti,e
REVIEW DRAFT 3/03/85 PAGE VIII
primary method to limit the accumulation of fines in spawning
gravel.Actual measurement of the percentage accumulation of
fines by weight can be used as a secondary method at the
Depa r..t ment's d i sc:ret i on.~-
~.Settleable solids have direct and detrimental effects on
aquatic biota and habitat by smothering fish eggs,alevins,and
invertebrates,reducing intergravel flow,and by coating aquatic
vegetation,thus reducing the potential for photosynthesis.
Solids in suspension can cause invertebrate drift,cause fish to
avoid previously usable habitat,prevent fish from seeing their
prey,and cause physical damage such as gill irritation to
fish.The lethal tolerance of salmonids and other a~uatic
organisms to suspended solids appears to be relatively high.In
most instances,sublethal effects occur at Much lower
concentrations.Turbidity prevents the growth and photosynt~.
sis of green plants and can also cause fish to avoid otherwise
suitable habitat and prevent them from seeing their prey.
4.Gravimetric techniques represent a more accurate measure of
the effects of suspended solids on aquatic biota while optical
measurements may be more appropriate for photosynthetic or
aesthetic purposes.
5.Sediment is,by volume,the greatest single pollutant of
surface water.The transport and deposition of natural
sediments is often related to local storm events and stage of
hydrograph.The fate of man-induced sediment.differs from
natural sediments in that the former is not necessarily
ass':Jciated ....ith or dependent upon fluctuations in runoff.In
some instances man-caused sediment inputs are greater in
magnitude,duration,and fre~uency than natural inputs.
Furthermore,the timing of man-caused inputs may be out of phase
with natural occurrences.Consequently,the ultimate fate of
man-caused .edimen~s may be different than natural sediments.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/a~PAGE lX
Also,the sequence of artificial sediment le,adirtg may indl"lCe
abnormal behavioral responses in resident and anadromous fish.
6.Because many investigators have not adh~red to the
definition of turbidity and instrument design specification
applied by §1sngsrg__M~~bQg~__fgr__1b~_s~sm1ns1~gn_g!_~s1~r_sng
~s§1§~s~.@r,there is a significant amOl.tnt ';:If variability in the
way turbidity is meas~rea and reported.This factor makes it
extremely difficult to assess and compare the effects of
turbidity on various water uses.Common sour~es of error 11"1
turbidity measurements include the ~ollection of representative
samples in the field,extraction of sUbsamples,dilution
technique,and reporting data to the ~orrect number of
signifi~ant figures.Although it is recognized that turbidity
measurements may be diffi~ult to evaluate,turbidity is the most
applicable of th.potential optical p.ram.~.rs for wldespr~ad
I.lse in Alaska.
7.The standard te~hnique for measuring total suspended solid$
is routine to perform under laboratory conditions and the
results are relatively exact.Common sour~.s of error include
those associated with field sampling techniques and the
extraction of subsamples.Alternative methods for measuring
suspensions of sediment poss••s limitations that preclude their
widespread application.
8.Under limited conditions turbidity may be effectively used
to estimate suspended solids ~onc.ntrations.There is,however,
no single expre.sion which relates turbidity and suspended
solid.on a regional or u~iv.rgal b.sis.The development of any
predictive relationShip between the••parameters should be on a
d~ainage basin basis rather than &statewide ba....Any
apparent correlation should be a~companied by a rigorous
analysis of the data and include a ~tat.ment of the error
associated with the ~orrelaticln.·In addition to treat1l'"Ig the
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE X
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data collectively,regression analyses should include calcula-
tions of coefficients of determination and confidence limits for
data in the low,medium,and high ranges.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE XI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
a.o COMPARISON OF AL.ASKA CRITERIA TO OTHe:~STATES
AND CANADA
3.t)PARTICULATES REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER SUPPLIES
4.0 PARTICULATES REQUIREMENTS FOR RECREATION
5.0 PARTICUL.ATES REQUIREMENTS FOR BIOTA-6.0 CONCLUSIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
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vii
xii
xiv
xv
~.o ADEQUACY AND SCIENTIFIC MERIT OF ALASKA CRITERIA 3S
4.1 ALASKA CRITERIA 38
4.2 DEMONSTRATED EFFECTS OF PARTICULATES 42
4.2.1 W.ter Supply 42
4.2.2 Recre.tion ~5
4.2.3 Biot.47
E~••Q_~~t.~47
~.~1D!65
4.3 SUGGESTED CRITERIA FROM THE LITERATURE 76
4.3.1 Water Supply 76
4.3.2 Recr••tion 77
~.3.3 Biota 77
gr1~.r1~_!2r_§8g1m~n~_1n_1b~_~~~~r_~21gmD 77
~r1~~r1~_!gr_§~g1m~n~_~.~2.~1~g_2D_1b~
§Y~~~r§~~80
4.4 REFERENCES 81
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/83 PAGE)CIt
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 BACKGROUND
2.1 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
2.2 WATE~QUALITY
2.2.1 Fresh Water
2.2.2 Marine
2.3 AQUATIC ECOLOGY
2.3.1 Fresh Water
2.3.2 Marine
~.4 REFERENCES
3.0 PARTICULATE CRITERIA
3.1 STATES
3.2 U.S.ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
3.3 CANADIAN PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES
3.4 REFERENCES
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TABLE OF CONTENTS continued
5.0 POTENTIAL USE OF OTHER PARAMETERS
5.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TURBIDITY AND SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
5.2 WATER COLUMN MEASUREMENTS
5.3 SUBSTRATE MEASUREMENTS
5.4 REFERENCES
S.O PROPOSED PARTICULATES CRITERIA
G.1 INTRODUCTION
5.Z PROPOSED CRITERIA
S.3 REFERENCES
APPENDIX A:ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES--FRESH WATER
APPENDIX B:GENERAL LITERATURE--FRESH WATER
APPENDIX C:ANNOTATED BIBLIDGRAPHIES--MARINE
APPENDIX D:GENERAL LITE~ATURE--MARINE
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0'3/65 PAGE )(11\
'30
90
101
104
105
109
109
110
127
A-l
B-1
C.~l
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-LIST OF TABLES
3-1 Turbidity Criteria for U~ited S~~tQS ~nd C4nada~
3-2 SI.lspended and Sett leable Sol ids Cr~i"ter~ia fOl~the
United States and Canada 30
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
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Effects of Settled Solids and Fines on Salmonid
Mortality .nd Survival
Miscellaneous Effects of Settled Solids and Fines
';:In Salnlonids
Effects of Suspended Solids and Turbidity on
Salmonid Survival and Mortality
Miscellaneous Effects of Suspended Solids and
Turbidity on AQuatic Biota
Survival and Mortality of Marine Organisms
Miscellaneous Effects on Marine Ogranisms
Correlations a.tween Turbidity and Suspended Solids
Concentrations
58
SS
60
61
71
73
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6-1 Water Uses and Parameters for Which Standards Must be
Established to Meet Water Quality ObJectives 111 --
LIST OF FIGURES
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5-1 Correlations Between Turbidity and Suspended Solids
Concentrations
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE XIV
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The fed.r.l W.ter Pollution Control Act as am.nd.d in 1972,
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Public 1-....92-eOO,.....modifi.d and r.nam.d th.Cl ••n W.t.r Act
in 1977.This Act r.Quir.d all st.t.s to adopt standards of
Qu.lity to prot.ct th.ir ....t.rs for .p.cificu....In Al ••k.,
th....at.r Qu.lity .t.nd.rds .r.the r.sponsibility of the
Dep.rtm.nt of Environm.nt.l Cons.rv.tion (ADEC).Exc.pt in af....speci.l c ••••,fr••h and m.rin.surfac.....t.rs in Al.sk.
mu.t m••t .11 .t.nd.rd.d ••ign.d to protect ...at.r Quality for
th.u...sho...n b.lo....Th..xc.ption••r.not.d in th.1gee
....t.r Quality .t.nd.rd....hich indicat.th.t .11 ....t.r bodi ••in
Al ••ka .xc.pt th.lo....r Ch.n.Riv.r .nd Nol.n Cr••k .nd .11 it.
tribut.ri •••xcluding Acm.Cr••k ar.cla••ifi.d for .11 u••••
Et:••h!!At.t:_Y •••
+Drinking,including cooking .nd food proc•••ing
+Agricultur.(irrigation .nd .tock ....t.ring)
+Aquacultur.
+Industry (mining,pulp milling,etc.)
+Cont.ct r.cr••tion (....imming,....ding,bathing,.tc.)
+S.cond.ry r.cr••tion (bo.ting,hiking,c.mping,.tc.)
+Growth .nd prop.g.tion of fi.h,.h.llfi.h,.nd oth.r
.qu.tic lif.
§Alt!!At.t:_Y•••
+S••food proc•••ing
+H.rv••ting of cl.m.or oth.r .quatic lif.
+AQu.cultur.
+Indu.try (oth.r than •••food proc•••ing)
+Cont.ct r.cr••tion (.wimming,w.ding,b.thing,.tc.)
+S.cond.ry r.cr••tion (bo.ting,hiking,c.mping,.tc.)
+Gro...th .nd prop.g.tion of fi.h,.h.llfish,and oth.r
.qu.tic lif.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/ee PAGE 1
Associat.d with .ach u..a~.c~it.~ia fo~diff.~.nt wat.~
\
quality pa~am.t.~s.Fo~.Hample,d~inkin;wat.~quality
c~it.~ia s~ecify limits on bacte~ial contamination,colo~,
t.mp.~atu~.,tU~bidity,and ••dim.nt,a.w.il a.oth.~
~a~amet.~s.Tn.wat.~quality s~anda~d.consi.t of the set of
mo.t .t~in;.nt c~it.~ia a ••ociat.d with .ach wat.~u•••
~a~ticulat..includ.the fin•••dim.nt in the wat.~column
and on the .ub.t~at..Typical m.a.u~.m.nt.of pa~ticulat.
l.v.l.includ.total su.pend.d .olid.,tu~bidity,s.ttl.able
.olid.,and the p.~c.ntag.accumulation of fin.s.diment in
;~av.l b.d••
Pa....ticulat.l.v.l.n ••d to b.cont~oll.d .0 that man-induc.d
s.diment load.do not .ignificantly .Mc••d o~b.com.out of
ph a..with natu~al l.v.l.,t~~.adv.~••ly affecting ~h.
cha~acte~i.tic.of the wat.~column and .ub.t~ate.Th.mo.t
obvious .ff.ct i.oft.n the a ••th.tic impact on ~.c~.ational
use.o~vi.ual evid.nc.of pa~ticulat.d.po.ition.How.v.~,
oth.~wat.~u•••may b.impact.d,too.H.avy ••dim.nt load.in
wat.~u••d fo~d~inking and food p~.pa~ation,fo~ag~icultu~.,
and fo~indu.t~y may ~.nd.~it unfit o~un.af..In addition,
aquatic biota,wat.~fowl,and fu~b.a~.~.may b.adv.~••ly
aff.cted by inc~.a••d ~a~ticulat.l.v.l..Impact.on biota may
~ang.f~om mo~tality to .ho~t-t.~m eff.ct.on biotic p~oc•••e.
and/o~b.havio~,th••e .ff.ct.may b.di~.ct o~indi~.ct.
Inc~.a••d ••dim.nt load.can aff.ct aquatic biota di~.ctly
th~ough chang..in th.i~anatomy and physiology,and indi~.ctly
th~ough chang••in th.i~habitat.Eitn.~of th•••b~oad cla••••
of .ff.ct.may induc.a va~i.ty of b.havio~al ~••pon••••
inclUding inhibited mov.m.nt and fo~aging,avoidanc.,modifi.d
f ••ding ••l.ction and ~at.,and modifi.d ~.p~oductiv.b.havio~•
~I
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Cont~ols on
Cont~ol Act and
both num.~ical
••dim.nt a~.mandat.d by the Wat.~Pollution
admini.t.~.d by the ADEC in Ala.ka.AOEC u•••
and na~~ativ.c~it.~ia fo~tu~bidity and
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS p~eE 2
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sedime~t._The ••criteriA Ar.de.crib.d in d.tAil in S.ction
4.1.In g.nerAl,th.turbidity criteriA for the vArious
protected us..range.from a ~to 25 n.phelometric turbidity
unit (NTU)incr....Abov.nAturAl condition..-The s.diment
standards are more SUbJective And include .ucn statements a."No
increa.e in conc.ntration of .ediment,including settleable
solids,above nAtural conditions"And "No imposed sediment loads
that will interfere with established water supply treatment
levels."
Num.rou.method.for measuring particulat••,including both
direct and indirect methods,CAn be u ••d to s.t crit.ri..Th.se
m.thod.include mea.ur.m.nt of turbidity,total susp.nd.d
solid.,••ttl.abl..olid.,tran.mi ••ivity,a.ccni disk d.pth,
comp.n.ation point,and m.thod.for m•••uring th.amount of fine
s.dim.nt in stre.mb.ds.Th ••e m.thods .r.di.cu•••d briefly_in
S.ction 2.0 and in detail in S.ction 5.0.
Th.purpo..of this stUdy i.to .valuat.tn••ff.ctiv.ness
of .Mi.ting Al ••k.w.t.r qu.lity crit.ri.for p.rticulat ••and
to r.comm.nd n.c••••ry ch.ng••to the••crit.ri..Th ••p.cific
obJ.ctiv.s .r.a
(1)R.vi.w p.rtin.nt lit.r.ture to d.t.rmin••t.t.-of-th.-
.rt m.a.ur.m.nt t.cnnology,phy.ical/ch.mical .ff.ct.,
and biologic.l .ffect.of p.rticulat •••
(2)Compil.and ••••••particulat ••crit.ria from oth.r
.tat ••and Can.dian provinc••and t.rritori ••and
compil.U.S.Environm.ntal Prot.ction Ag.ncy (EPA)
guid.lin•••nd r.quirem.nt.for particulat ••
crit.ria.
(3)Evaluat.the ad.quacy and .ci.ntific m.rit of .Mi.ting
Ala.ka crit.ria for particulat •••
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 P~GE 3
(4)A•••••the pot.nti.l for using p.ram.t.r.oth.r than
turbidity,.usp.nded .nd ••ttl.abl ••olids,.nd the
p.rc.ntage accumul.tion of fin ••in sp.wning gravels.
(~)Propo••n.w particul.t ••criteria if sci.ntific
evidence supports this .ction.
This .tudy is limit.d to the probl.ms of w.t.r pollution
r.sulting from p.rticul.t.s and the dir.ct .nd indir.ct m.thod.
for m•••uring p.rticul.t.s.Th.r.port provid••b.ckground
inform.tion p.rt.ining to m.a.ur.m.nt t.chniqu..of
p.rticul.t ••,n.tural wat.r quality,and aquatic .cology in
S.ction 2.0.S.ction 3.0 summarizes particulat.s crit.ri.u ••d
in the United Stat.s and Canada.Th.purpose of the proJ.ct is
to r.vi.w Al.ska's particulat.s crit.ria and the docum.nt.d
.ff.ct.of particulat.s on b.n.ficial wat.r u••s (S.ction 4.Q).
the pot.ntial us.of param.t.rs oth.r than turbidity,susp.nd.d
.nd ••ttl ••bl.solids,.nd the p.rc.ntage accumul.tion of fin.s
in sp.wning gr.vels (S.ction ~.O)1 and to r.comm.nd n.c••••ry
chang.s in Ala.ka'a crit.ria to assur.that Alask.'.
p.rticul.t.s crit.ria .r.bas.d on sci.ntific information
(Sect ion 6.0).
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/a~PAGE 4
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2.0 BACKGROUND
This chapter summarizes pertinent background information
regarding measurement techniques for particulates,natural water
quality,and aquatic ecology.Quantitative data obtained during
a comprehensive review of literature from a variety of sourc••
regarding the effects of particulates on various water uses are
pre.ented in detail in Section 4.2,Demonstrated Effects of
Particulates.
Literature reviewed appears in Appendices A,e,C,and 0,
which are organized as follows.
Appendix AI
Appendix B.
Appendix·CI
Appendix 01
Annotated Bibliographies--Fresh Water
General Literature--Fresh Water
Annotated B~bliographies~-Marine
General Literature--Marine
-
References listed in Appendices Band 0 addressed the sUbJect of
this study but were not considered to provide pertinent
information due to the general nature of the data or
availability of more detailed coverage in other references.
2.1 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Particulate levels in water are measured by numerous direct
and indirect techniques,summarized below.A more detailed
discussion of the techniques for measuring turbidity,suspended
.olids,and settleable solids appears in Section ~.O.
Direct measurements of particulates include parameters such
as total suspended solids,settleable solids,and the amount of
fine sediments on streambeds and lake bottoms.Four different
techniques for me.suring total suspended solids are reported in
the literature.The most Widely accepted technique involves
filtering,drying,and weighing.Centrifugation has been used
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/8~PAGE ~
to concentrate samples followed by drying and weighing,but
there are di ••dvantages to this t.chni~u..On.disadvantage
occurs with fine-grained material having org.nic matter
a ••ociat.d with it sinc.some organic m.tter can have •d.nsity
similar to w.t.r,th.reby making it v.ry difficult to ••p.r.te
(Gibb.1974).Centrifug.tion .1.0 h ••limit.tions for dilute
w.ter h.ving 1•••th.n .bout 10 m;/L .u.pend.d solida (Campb.ll
.nd Elliott 197~).R.dioactive .b.orption h •••lso been us.d
becaus.the absorption of radi.tion i.proportional to the m••s
pre••nt and th.r.for.a direct m•••ur.ment of the concentration
of .usp.nded ••dim.nt (Gibb.1974).Fischer .nd Kar.b••hev
(1977)r.port th.t .uspend.d organic m.tt.r c.n b.d.t.rmin.d in
the marine .nvironm.nt by dir.ct counting of particl ••und.r a
micro.cope.How.ver,this t.chniqu.i.tim.consuming.
S.tt le.b"le .01 ids .r.direct ly m•••ur.d by s.curing a 1
lit.r ••mpl..n~.llowin;1 hour of ••ttling b.for.r.ading the
volume of ••ttl.d m.t.ri.l.
Th.volum.-of fin..in bedlo.d ••mpl.s .r.det.rmined by
obtaining •••mpl.u.ing •bedlo.d ••mpler,such •••corer or •
dredg..Th.s.mpl.is th.n .ubJ.ct.d to •gr.in .ize .n.lysi ••
Like oth.r ••mpling t.chniques,diff.r.nt b.dlo.d .amplers have
advant.g.s .nd di.adv.nt.g.s wh.n .ampling diff.rent .ized b.d
mat.ri.l.
Indir.ct me ••urem.nts of p.r~icul.tes .r.r.l.t.d to light
p.n.tr.tion .nd .re ••••nti.lly .n indic.tion of the
conc.ntr.tion of p.rticul.t.s.Thes.me.sur.ments includ.
turbidity .nd tr.nsmi.sivity,or it.invers.,light eMtinction.
P.r.m.t.rs c.lcul.t.d from light tr.nsmission me.surements
includ.comp.n••tion point <the d.pth .t which 1 p.rc.nt of
av.il.bl.surfac.light is found in the w.t.r),light eMtinction
co.fficient,p.rc.nt incident photosynthetic.lly .ctive
r.di.tion <PRR),.nd w.v.length analysis.
REVIEW DRF\FT 9/0'9/e~PF\GE 6
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Indirect measurements quantify optical absorption andlor
light scattering.Nephelometric turbidity measures the gO
degree scattering of light by suspended particles,whereas the
beam transmittance meter measure.the attenuation~of light by
scattering and absorption.The Secchi disk is a simple kind of
irradiance meter whose values have b.en correlated with
turbidity and light eKtinction coefficients (McCarthy et al-
1974)•
An alternative method for directly counting suspended
organic matter in the marine environment wa.employed by Fischer
and Karaba.hev (1977).The volume concentration of particulate
matter of different size wa.measured u.ing a conductometric
particle counter or Coulter counte~and the abundance of
part icle.wa.mea.ured by a nephelometer.A fl uorimet'ric
det.rmination of pigments (by luminescence)in phytoplankt~n
cell.was then used to determine the amount of organic matter.
z.a WATER QUALITY
Ala.ka
inclUding
system
general
'various
aquatic environment.encompa.s a variety of systems
wetlands,pond.,lakes,rivers,and intermittent
Although all are interrelated,each type of aquatic
has unique characteristics.This section provide.a
de.cription of the particulate levels common to the.e
aquatic system••
A'\filIIa.,
-
Lakes are lentic,or non-flowing,aquatic environments.
'They may have inlet streams wh ich contribute water and
nutrients,but the level of the lake remain.e.sentially the
ilame and there are generally no permanent currents within the
water body.Lake.can be miles in length and hundreds of feet
in depth with numerous tributaries or they can be small tundra
ponds an acre or le••in size.Alaska ha.a diversity of lake
REVIEW DRAFT S/Og/aS PAGE 7
typ.s encompassing larg.,clear water systems like Lake Iliamna,
silty lak.s such as Tustum.na Lake,and small,tea-colored melt
ponds characteristic of th.North Slope.Glacier-fed lakes are
oft.n naturally turbid.
Lak.s gen.ra11y contain distinct habitats.The littoral
habitat,found along lake margins,is a relativ.ly warm habitat
wh.r.light p.n.trat.s to the bottom and where rooted a~uatic
plants grow.Many shallow lakes (ponds)can b.described as
littoral .v.n at th.ir d.epe.t point.V.ry d ••p lak.s nave a
profundal zone where it is too dark to allow gre.n plants,
including alga.,to grow.The open water ar.a above the
profunda1 is known a.th.limn.tic zon••
Sunlight and wind act upon 1ak••in way.which .om.~im••
r.sult in t.mp.ratur.stratification.In ~••p lakes in ~h.
summ.r,the upp.r 1ay~r.r.ceiving the most sun ar.the warmest,
wh.r.as those neHt to the profundal zone ar.the cold.st.Winds
can caus.miMing currents,and t.mp.rature chang••in the spring
and fall can caus.a lake to mix compl.tely or "turn ov.r."
Wh.n a lake turns over,th.cold,oMygen-poor wat.r 1ay.r com.s
to the surface whi1.the upp.r layer ia forc.d to th.bottom.
Mixing currents can also bring bottom s.dim.nts up causing a
normally c1.ar lake to b.com.temporarily turbid.In addition,
turbidity can b.introduc.d to a lake via its tributarie••
C1.ar wat.r lak.s s.ldom .Mc.ed 1 to 2 mg/L total susp.nd.d
solids and turbidity is typically 1...than 1 to 2 NTU.
Sett1.abl.solids are commonly unm.a.urabl.and rarely eMce.d
O.1 ml/L..
Rivers and str.ams are lotic,or flowing water,systems.
Wat.r flow is continuous and in one dir.ction,v.10city changes
with d.pth,and wat.r d.pth and stream widths fluctuate with
precipitation,runoff,and .rosion.Th.re is continual miMing
within the wat.r column with persistent or occa.ional turbidity,
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/e~PAGE e
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and the streambed is relatively unstable.Streams are
considered "open systems"with respect to their interaction with
and interdependence on the terre.trial environment.
In lakes,material brought in by tributaries or contributed
by runoff usually is deposited on the lake bottom and remains in
the system.In streams,material is carried downstream with
heavier particles settling out fairly soon and lighter material
remaining in suspension longer.Low density material may not
settle at all and may be carried into lakes or estuaries.This
is the case with glacial streams such as the Susitna River
where glacial silt is carried into Cook Inlet.Particulates
carried in the water column are referred to as wash load,
whereas those moving along a streambed are bedload.The
particles that bounce along the bed make up the saltation load.
Alaska has a wide variety of rivers and streams,most of
which are important to water-dependent life.Stream types range
from short,steep,clearwater systems in southeast Alaska to
small,slow-moving tannic tundra streams,to enormous systems
like the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers.Streams can also be
classified as clear,colored,and glacial.Colored or brown
water streams drain boggy areas and have relatively high color
value.due to organic leachates.
Life forms in streams must either drift with the current 01""
possess some mechanism to remain stationary within the channel.
Clear streams usually are not deep enough to have a profundal
zone,the whole stream is within the euphotic zone where light
reaches all depths.
Undisturbed reaches of clear and colored streams typically
exhibit low concentrations of solids.Total suspended solids
concentrations are usually less than S mg/L but may increase to
abo\.lt 100 mg/L during spring breakup and summer floods.
However,higher levels of sediment do occur in some systems
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0S/aS PAGE 9
during floods.Turbidity is gener.lly l ••s than 5 to 10 NTU,
but may be 25 to 50 NTU during periods of high water.
Settleable solid.level.rarely exceed 0.1 mIlL.Glacial
str~ams carry l.rge .u.pended sediment load.during summer,but
normally become clear water streams during winter.During
summer,glacial stream.and lake.m.y exceed 1000 mg/L total
suspended .olid.and turbidity typically ranges between 50 and
1000 NTU.
Wetland.are a common and important type of aClUat ic habitat
in Ala.ka.Ma"y lake.are .urrounded by both tundra bogs and -
marshes With emergent aCluatic plants.The.e peripheral wetlands
furnish energy to the lake sy.tem in the form of in.ects,~~
plankton,and plant materi.l.The .ame is true for many rivers.
Streams often receive much of their w.ter from surrounding
wetlands.wetl.nd.also .upply nutrient.and furni.h re.ring
are..for fi.".uch a.coho .almona"d gr.yling.Nearly all
wetlands in Ala.ka c.n be cla••ified a.clear water .ystem••
Hence,they .eldom exceed 1 to a mg/L total .uspended solid.and
turbidity i.typically le••th.n 1 to 2 NTU.
2.2.2 Marine
(mainly rivers),di.tance from shore,current
temper.ture,and ••linity.Particul.tes data
are ba.ed on Burbank (1974)and Sharma (1979)
Mea.urement.
.ource.
are highly variable and
••••on,proximity to
.u.pended
a.
.nd/or
Ala.k.
.uchfactors
turbidity
waters of
of
••veral
marine
depth,
herein
on
thewithin
dependent
sediment
.tructure,
summarized
except as otherwis.noted.
Within Boca de Quadra and Sme.ton Bay in southea.t Al.ska,
the .u.pended .ediment load is relatively low.The mean water
column concentration in the central ba.i".is le.s than 0.5 mg/L
and less than 1.0 mg/L in the inner b••in.(Burrell 1984).
Conver.ely,Taku Inlet,.1.0 in .outhea.t Ala.ka,has
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE 10 -
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e)(traordin..rily high susp.nded s.diment levels from di.charge of
the Taku Riv.r and .ubglacial streams.The suspended sediment
load at the head of the inl.t e)(ceeds 10,000 mg/L in
near-surface water.during .ummer month ••
Conc.ntrations of su.p.nd.d ••dim.nt in contin.ntal snelf
surface wat.rs off Icy Bay in the northea.t Gulf of Alaska
gen.r..lly d.cr w..rd Ci •••,1.3 mg/L n.arshore and 0.1
mg/L at 6~km from .nor.in Marcn).The particulate
conc.ntr..tion i.r.1 ..tiv.ly const ..nt with depth from the surf..c.
to within .bout 10 m above tn.bottom,and from .nor.to 30 km
off.hor..t the 100 m d.pth.A .t••dy incr••••in susp.nded
solid.1.v.l.within 10 m of the bottom .ugg••t.the pr.sence of
a n.phloid or turbid l.y.r .10ng the bottom.
In the north.rn Gulf-of Al ••k.during h ••vy runoff,t~.
gl.cial str••m.typic.lly c.rry 1000 to 2000 mg/L of suspended
.olids.P••k di.ch.rg.in the Copp.r Riv.r in summ.r c.rrie.
appro)(imat.1y 1700 mg/L of su.p.nd.d m..t.ria1 ..t the d.lt ••
Offshore from the Copper River during low disch.rg.and minim.l
glaci.1 m.1t,.urf.c.v.1u.s a.high ••30 mg/L .r.pres.nt.
Co ..rs..edim.nt.rapidly ••ttle out within the fir.t few
kilom.t.rs,d.p.nding on the .n.rgy of the .nvironm.nt.At
distanc.s gr••t.r th.n 10 km off.hore,.urfac••u.p.nd.d .01ids
1.v.l.of 2 to 10 mg/L .r.typic.1.Th.low••t conc.ntr.tion.
indic.t.d by ERTS imag.ry in wat.r.gr••t.r th.n ~O km off.hor.
g.n.r.l1y r.ng.frOM 1 to 3 mg/L.
Su.p.nd.d ••dim.nt conc.ntration.in Cook Inl.t v.ry from
2000 mg/L n.ar Anchor.g.to 1.0 mg/L n ••r the .a.t .id.of the
In1.t mouth.Th.M.t.nu.k.Riv.r,on.of ••v.r.1 ••dim.nt
.ourc.s in the Inl.t,h...u.p.nd.d ••dim.nt 1.v.l.th..t
appro)(im.t.3800 mg/L.Th ••u.p.nd.d load i.mo.tly of gl.ci ..1
ori§lin and m.)(imum valu••occur at d.pth.of appro)(im.t.ly 10 m
near the Inl.t h ••d.Conc.ntration.incr••••with depth south
of th.'For.land.,.nd conc.ntr.tion.in the low.r Inlet
g.n.rally v.ry b.tw••n 1 .nd 100 mg/L.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/Se PAGE 11
In the western Gulf of Alaska from Resurrection Bay thro~gh
Shelikof Strait to Unimak Pass,surface suspended solids vary
from 0.5 to 2.0 mg/L in July and August.Values are generally
higher to the east near the Kenai Peninsula and Shel1kof Strait.
On the shelf east,south,and southeast of Kodiak Island,there
is an app ...rent absence of any input of suspended sediment.
In the Bristol Bay region of the southeastern Bering Sea,
streams flowing from the Alaska Peninsula contribute as much as
500 to ~000 mg/L of suspended solids.The dominant sediment
sources are the Kvichak and Nushagak Rivers at the head of the
bay.The Kuskokwim and Yukon rivers to the north provide
sediment input appro~imating 4 and 100 million metric tons per
year,respectively,which e~uate5 to more than 90 percent of all
river sediment input into the eastern Bering Sea.SU5P~nd~d
sediment levels for surface waters off the Yukon River and .-in
Norton Sound are between 1 and 5 mg/L in July.Surface
concentrations generally average between 0.5 and 2.0 mg/L 1n the
northern Bering Sea.Concentrations increase with depth.The
near-bottom sediment level from near Cape Romanzof to Nome
ranges from 7.5 to greater than 20 mg/L,respectively.
Suspended solids levels in the Berin;Strait and vicinity
range from 1.2 to 4.1 mg/L for surface waters.The level
decreases with increasing water depth immediately south of the
Strait.As the water moves northward through the Strait,the
distribution becomes almost uniform.North and northeast of the
Strait,surface and sub-surface levels increase fourfold to
nearly 10 mg/L.Surface water concentrations reach 5.3 mg/L
near Point Hope while at depth,only about 1 mg/L is in
suspension in July and August.
In the northern Chukchi Sea,the suspended load at the
surface is low (less than 1 mg/L)and increases with depth.
Nearshore loads in suspension are higher than offshore.
REVIEW DRAFT 9109/65 PAGE 12
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Measur.ments during two open-wat.r seasons in the Beaufort
Sea demonstrate the inter-annual variability of suspended solids
levels.During 1972,inshore surfac.waters had concent~ations
av.raging 1.0 mg/L with a range of 0.1 to 4.2 mg/Lf however,in
the following year,nearly a threefold increase was noted.
Levels rang.d from 0.5 to 31.0 mg/L and the average was 2.6
mg/L.Except during floods,waters low in suspended matter
(about 1.0 mg/L).re commonly discharg.d in lat.summer from the
maJor distributary mouths,while the presence of relatively
turbid waters can be delin.ated .t some distance from the
mouths.Th.se observations sugg.st that in mid-and
late-summer,turbidity in co.stal waters for the most part is
associ.t.d with w.ve-induced resuspension from shallow water
region.(U.S.Co.st Gu.rd 1972;1974).
2.3 AQU~TIC ECOLOGY
In •bro.d s.n••,fr••hw.t.r .co.yst.m••r.divid.d into two
cat'Bgorie.,l.nt ic or .tand ing wat.r sy.tems,and lot ic or
run'ning w.ter sy.tem..~ll riv.r.,l.ke.,.nd wet l.nd.support
communities of .qu.tic org.ni.m..~••uch,th•••communities
are int.rr.l.ted .nd int.rd.pend.nt,forming n.twork.of
distinctly diff.r.nt h.bit.t.with r ••p.ct to flora .nd fauna,
••w.ll ••the .ource of .nergy Which drive.the biologic.l
.yst.m.Fr••hw.t.r .qu.tic communiti..d.riv.c.rbon .n.rgy
from t.rr••tri.l .ourc..(allochthonou.org.nic matt.r)or
through in.tr••m <.utochthonu.)productivity or •combination of
th....ourc...If one p.rt of the community i.di.rupt.d,
r.v.rb.ration.m.y be .xp.ri.nc.d throughout the .ntir.sy.t.m.
Aqu.tlc .y.t.m.h.v.b••n .ubdivided into .ubordin.t.
communiti •••nd are di.cu•••d in this s.ction.
B.nthic org.nism.
stro.m substr.t •••
.r.tho...••oci.t.d with l.ke bed••nd
Th •••organi.m.d.pend on the aV.ilability
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 P~GE 13
of suitab1.sub.trat.mat.ria1s for attachm.nt,n.t bUilding,
conc.a1m.nt,mov.m.nt,and burrowing.Str.am b.ntno.diff.rs
from that found in quiesc.nt waters in th.r ••p.ct that str.am
organi.m.po•••••a vari.ty of adaptation.for·With.tanding
stream curr.nts.
Th.b.nthic .tr.am community i ••Ktr.m.ly important to th.
h.a1th of th..ntir..y.t.m.Many of th•••organism.provide
food for oth.r population.within th.aquatic community in th.
form of inv.rt.brat.drift.Fish,in particular,ar.d.p.nd.nt
on insect larva.and adult in••ct.which originat.in the
benthie community.
Plankton ar.drifting organi.m.and can b••ith.r plants or
animals (phytoplankton and zooplankton).Som.p1ankt.r.may
actually hay.f ••b1.pow.rs of lOCOmotion and .in 1ak••may mill
around and mov.up and down in th.wat.r column in r ••pon••to
light int.n.ity.In str.am.,th.y ar.u.ua11y .ubJ.ct to
transport by th.wat.r curr.nt.
Phytoplankton ar.compo••d primarily of alga.which .Ki.t
singly or a.a col1.ction of on.-c.l1.d plant..In 1ak••,alga.
activ.1y grow only in th..uphotic zon..Zoop1ankt.rs f ••d
.ith.r on oth.r .p.ci ••of zooplankton or on alga..Plankton i.
an .Ktr.m.1y important food .0Qrc.for fi.h,••p.cia11y JQv.ni1.
fi.h.Phy.io10gical activit i ••o~zooplankton d.p.nd on wat.r
t.mp.ratur.,light,and oMy;.n cont.nt.
Phytoplankton prodQction i.important in many subarctic
1ak..and pond.,and ~rhap.in th.low.r r.ach••o~a f.w lar;.
riv.rs,production i.g.n.ra1ly low in arctic pond.and 1ak.s.
P.riphyton (attach.d alga.)ar.dominant in high-v.10city el.ar
water str••ms wh.r.light p.n.tration i.suffici.nt for
photosynth.sis,and th.y can also b.important in slow moving or
standing .~a110w wat.r.In c.rtain lotic habitats,the
evaluation of p.riphyton communiti..provid••an accurat.and
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/a~PAGE 14
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i~
"...
"
r
I
reliable indicator of water quality.Macrophytes (rooted
aquatic plants)are often abundant in shallow lakes and ponds,
in the littoral zone of de.p lakes,and along the edges of
quiescent rivers.Zooplankton diversity,biomass,and
production rates are low in arctic lakes and ponds but are often
significant in subarctic lakes.
Fish are the most highly studied component of the fresh-
water community.In Alaska,fish can be divided into resident
and anadromous species.Resident fish live their entire lives in
fresh water,often in the same water body.In many regions of
Alaska,resident specie.such as Arctic grayling migrate
upstream during spring to spawn,then return to d.eper water
downstream in the fall to overwinter.Anadromou.fish spawn and
hatch in fresh water,live the maJority of their adult lives in
saltwater and ret I.lrn to fresh water,usually th_ei r natal strea.m,
to spawn.The five species of Pacific salmon which inhabit
Ala15kawaters are the most obvious example.of anadromous fish.
Sev~ral anadromous salmon species utilize silt-laden glacial
rivers as migration corridors to reach clearwater tributary
spawning and rearing habitat.
Fish occupy a variety of niches within aquatic systems.
Somm,like the slimy sculpin live at the bottom of lakes and
sWi'l't-flowing stream.and feed primarily on in.ects.Trout and
gra~fling may hide under instream cover sueh as debris or log
Jam11,or overhanging streambanks,coming to the surf'ace to feed
on zooplankton or insects whieh have fallen into the water or
whi(:h have drif'ted down from upstream.The.e fish are primarily
sight-feeders.
Diet and habitat requirements of fish vary with speci.s and
lifu stage.For exampl.,adult salmon return from the sea to
the1r natal stream to spawn often not f.eding from the time they
ente,r fresh wat.r.Th.fish construct redds (spawning nests),
in the gravel of the streambed and deposit their eggs.Other
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0g/a~PAGE 1~
fish such as Arctic grayling and lake trout are broadcast
spawners.Th.pr.f.rr.d size of the gravel 1n which the redds
are construct.d vari.s with the speci.s.Salmon favor clear
water streams but,in Alaska,often use turbid rivers as
migratory corridors.In some cases,redds are dug in the turbid
streams,but the n.w1y hatch.d fish move to cl.arer backwat.r
sloughs or tributari ••to r.ar.This is the case with both the
Kenai and Susitn.riv.r••
Fish are oft.n u••d a."targ.t"organism.in s.tting wat.r
quality crit.ria.Th.crit.ria for acce~tab1e wat.r quality
.tandard.are u.ua11y d.t.rmin.d with bioa.says,.ith.r in ~i!Y
or 10 ~1tC2 using the r.l.vant wat.r .nd .~.ci.s.
Aquatic .y.t.ms ar••1so im~ort.nt to wat.rfowl,furb••r.rs,
and big g.m..Duck.,g••••,and .wan.fe.d and n ••t n.ar 1ak••
and w.t1and..Many .~.ci ••of wat.rfow1 d.~.nd on .m.rg.nt
aqu.tic v.get.tion for food.M.i1ard.,Canada g••••,.nd brant
.r..)(.M~l..of wat.rfowl which ~rim.rily con.ume ~lant••
S~.cie..uch a.m.rgan••r.f ••d on .ma11 fi.h .nd de~.nd on
th.ir ability to s ••th.ir ~r.y und.r wat.r.
B.av.r,mink,and riv.r ott.r..r.among the A1a.ka
furb••rers th.t inhabit ri~.ri.n .r....B••v.rs con.truct
10dg..in str.am cours..and w.t1.nd••nd f ••d on v.g.tation
along .tream bank..Ott.r.live along .tream bank••nd f ••d on
fi.h within .tream..Th.y .r.highly d.~.nd.nt on th.ir .bility
to •••th.ir ~r.y.
Moo..u..lowland ar••s in the .umm.r and f ••d on .m.rg.nt
v.get.tion in w.t1.nd••nd .10ng 1ak.and .tr••m m.rgin..Both
b1.ck and brown/grizzly b ••r.con.um..almon Which move into
Alaska riv.rs to .~....n in the .umm.r and lat.fall.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/8S PAGE 16
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2.:~.;:Mari ne
Variations in cOAstAl topography,geology,climate,surface
hydrology,and physical oceanographic factors i~fluence the
di9tribution and abundAnce of marine organisms along Alaska's
33,000 miles of tidal shoreline.The co.stal ecosystem has been
intensively studied in .i~geographic.l re~ions in Alaska
inc~ludingl (1)Arctic AlaskA,(2)the eering Sea coast,(3)
I
Kodiak Island,the Ala.ka Penin.ula,and the Aleutian Islands;
(4)Cook Inlet,(3)the northern Gulf of Ala.ka,and,(5)
southeastern AlaskA.Characteri.tic eco.y.tems that have not
been thoroughly .tudied by marine .cientist.h.ve been de.cribed
through information derived from similar habitats in other
regions.
The lower trophic level organi.m.in m.rine and e.tuarlne
waters of Alaska are compri.ed of two ;roupSI the producer.and
COr1I.umer..The primary producer.are the phytoplankton,
macrophytes,ice .lga.,and b.nthic microal;a..Low.r level
consum.r.includ.the zooplankton,ichthyoplankton,and
intertidal .nd sub-tidal inv.rt.brate..The degree of
prQ'ductivity .nd div.rsity among th ••e organism.v.ries
throughout Alaska's coa.tal w.ter..Important resource
organism..uch ••king cr.?,herring,halibut,salmon,and
whale.dep.nd either directly or indirectly on the lower lev.l
produc.rs and con.umer.1'01'"th.ir .urvival.
Phytopl.nkton undergo se••onal net incr••••••nd d.crea.es
in productivity,coincidental to ever changing levels of
sunlight,nutrient.,grazing pre••ure,wind mi~in;,and depth of
light penetration.Th.maJor phytoplankton groups are the
diatoms,dinofl.gell.te.,and naked flag.ll.te..Thes.
microscopic plant.collectively repre.ent the energy b.s.1'01'"
many high.r form.of m.rin.life such as fish,shellfish,
marine birds,and marine mammal..eenthic microal;ae are
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/8~PAGE 17
restricted to portions of the subtidal zone that receive
sufficient light for photosynthesis.
S.aw••ds and s.a ;r.....(macrophyt.s)are common along the
rocky shores of the int.rtidal zone and in shallow subtidal
ar.as of Ala.ka.S.aw••ds are primitive sp.ci.s that lack root
syst.m.and d.riv.th.ir nutri.nt••Hclusiv.ly from the water.
E.lgra..i.a common and import.nt marine macrophyt.that roots
in ••dim.nt in prot.cted bays,inl.ts,and lagoons along the
Alaska coa.t.E.lgra••communiti.s ar.oft.n highly productive
and s.rv.a.a maJor food .ourc.for wat.rfowl and as a nur.ery
and f ••ding ar.a for many marine vert.brate.and inv.rt.brat •••
Zooplankton ar.the primary con.um.rs in the p.lagic
ecosyst.m and s.rv.as a large pot.ntial .n.rgy pool _fo~~ish
and whal.s.Zooplankton ar.distribut.d in·al1 Alaska wat.rs
with productivity b.ing gr.at ••t in spring and .arly summ.r.
T.mp.ratur.and salinity have a maJor .influ.nc.on the
distribution of zooplankton,some pr.f.r .stuarin.water.,
wh.reas oth.r.pr.f.r the op.n wat.r environm.nt.Physical
factors such as light l.v.ls and s.a ic.aff.ct th.ir v.rtica1
distribution and productivity rat.s.Virtually all of Ala.ka's
comm.rcial1y-important sh.1lfi.h have a zooplanktonic larval
sta;.in th.ir 1if.history and sp.nd up to thr••months in the
n.ar-surfac.lay.rs f ••ding int.nsiv.ly on phytoplankton b.for.
s.ttling on the bottom to matur••
Th.b.ntho.i.compos.d of bottom dwelling or attached
inv.rt.br.t..found in the int.rtidal and subtidal zone of the
oc.an.Thi.important group may b.divid.d into org.nism.
living on the substrate surfac.(epifauna),and tho••liVing in
the sub.trat.(infauna).Th.distribution and richn.ss of the
subtidal b.nthos within a region is det.rmin.d by a numb.r of
factors inclUding s.dim.nt typ.,t.mp.ratur.,salinity,
pressure,available food,sp.ci.s comp.tition for space,and
larval settling succ.ss.Factors influ.ncing the distribution
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0g/e~PAGE 18
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of intertidal invertebrates are substrate availability,
competition,
Food is
mechan isms.
and ability to withstand surf and eHposure to air.
supplied to bottom invertebrates through several
A continuous flux of organic material tb the bottom
is provided by dead phytoplankton and zooplankton and the
remains of higher organisms.A second important source of
-
"""
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energy is provided by detritus .ntering the system through river
runoff and oc.an currents.
An obvious tr.nd among the b.nthos in Alaska is that
communities on the contin.ntal sh.lf are rich.r than those
beyond the shelf br.ak.This is probably due to the higher
primary productivity of n.arshor.wat.rs as compared to offshore
wat.rs,a.w.ll a.the high d.tritus input from river syst.ms.
Int.rtidal and .ubtidal b.nthic iriv.rtebrat.s serve ~everil
imp,ortant func-t ions.Th.y repr•••nt •maJor source of food for
shorebirds and wat.rfowl,a.w.ll a.a vari.ty of fish and
marine mammals.Du.to th.ir r.latively stationary nature,
int.rtidal and subtidal sp.ci ••ar.on.of the most .usc.ptible
gro'UI=IS of organisms to damage from w.ter-born.sediments.
Consequ.ntly,b.nthic organisms are useful indicators of changes
in water quality.
2.4 REFERENCES
Burbank.,D.C.,1974.Suspended sediment transport and deposi-
tion in ~la.kan Qoa.tal wat.rs with .p.Qial .Ml=lh ••is on
remote ••nsing by the ERTS-1 sat.llit..M.S.Th ••is,Univ.
of ~la.ka,Fairbank.,Alaska.222 PI=I.
Burl"ell,D.C.,1984.Seasonal turbidity l=Iatterns in in Boca de
Qu.dra and Sm.aton Say.Int.rim Rel=lort Pr.l=lar.d for U.S.
Borax and Ch.miQal Corp.,and PaQifiQ Co.st Molybd.num Co.
~4 1=11=1.
Campbell,P.,and S.Elliott,1975.Assessment of centrifuga-
tion and filtration a.m.thods for d.t.rmining low
concentrations of su.p.nd.d s.dim.nt in natural waters.
Fisheri ••and Marin.S.rvic.R••••rch and D.v.lopm.nt
Directorat.T.chnical R.port No.~4~,D.partment of the
Environm.nt,Winnip.g,Manitoba.19 pp.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0g/a~PAGE 19
Fischer,~.K.,and G.S.Karabashev,1977.~comparison of the
size distribution of suspended particles and their optical
properties.Pol.~rchs.Hydrobiol.,24 (suppl.),pp.109-
113.
Gibbs,R.J.,1974.Principles of studying suspended materials
in water.In:Suspended Solids in Water.Plenum Press,
New York,NY,pp.3-15.
McCarthy,J.C.,T.E.Pyle,and S.M.Griffin,1974.Light trans-
missivity,suspended sediments and the 1e;al definition of
turbidity.Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science,2,pp.
291-299.
Sharma,G.D.,1979.The ~laskan shelf;hydrographic,
sedimentary and geochemical environment.Springer-Verlag,
New York,NY.498 pp.
U.S.Coast Guard,197e.~n ecological survey in the eastern
CMukchi Sea:September-October 1970.WEBSEC-70,
Oceanographic Report No.~O (CG 373-~O).206 pp.
u.S.Coast Guard,1974.An ecological survey in the Beaufort
Seal Au;u~t-September;1971-1972.WEBSEC 71-72,
Oceanographic Report No.64 (Ce 373-64).268 pp.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/8S PAGE 20
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3.0 PARTICULATE CRITERIA
Existing particulates criteria for each state in the United
States and for Canadian provinces are summarized in~Sections 3.1
and 3.3,respectively.Information regarding the establishment
of water quality parameters and criteria for particulates by the
U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)is also summarized
and appears in Section 3.2.
Telephone contacts to personnel in each state were made to
determine particulates criteria currently used in regulations
and guidelines by other stat.s and in Canadian provinces and
territories.During the initial telephone contact,each
individual interviewed was apprised of the purpose of this study
and questioned concerning his/her agency's water quality
criteria for instream levels of particulates,specificafiy
t'..lrbidity,suspended solids,and settleable solids.Inquiries
war'e also made concerning recent or proposed changes to
regulations,protected uses of water bodies,availability of
separate standards for marine waters (where appropriate),and
the basis for any quantitative standards or limitations
idlmtified in pertinent regulations.Where particulate
standards existed,the interviewee was also questioned as to
recognized problems associated with compliance,field sampling,
or enforcement of the standards.A copy of pertinent
regulations was reque.ted for review from each agency •
3.1 STATES
Based on information received durin;telephone interviews
and the water quality standards and beneficial water use.
identified in individual state regulations,a summary of the
designated water uses and associated criteria for turbidity was
compiled for the ~O states and District of Columbia (Table
3-1).To the e>etent possible,water use categori.s are similar
to the Alaska criteria for ease of comparison.Where
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0g/a~PAGE 21
TABLE 3-1
TURBIDITY CRITERIA FOR UNITED STATES AND CANADA
Designated Water Use(l)Turbidity Criteria
A.B.D.E.C.M NTE (2)50 NTU above ambient
C
H
I
J
K
L
H
N
Arizona E.F
(Feb 85)
C
Territories.and Federal
~
Alabama
(Feb 81)
Alaska
(Apr 84)
Arkansas
v 84)
California
(Nov 83)
Canada (Provinces.
(Feb as)
Federal
Government
International
Joint CClIn.
(Creat Lakes)
Alberta
British Columbia
Manitoba
A
B
C
D
E
F
A.B.O-C
A-C
J-M
E,F
C
Unknown
Unknown
A
C
NTE 5 NTU above ambient when the>~atural turbidity
is SO NTU or lessj limit of 10'increase when
natural exceeds 50 NTU;maximum increase of 25 NTU
narrative
NTE 25 NTU above ambient for streams;NTE 5 NTU for
lakes
narrative
NTE 5 NTU above ambient when natural turbidity is
SO NTU or less;limit of 10'increase when ambient
exceeds 50 NTU.NTE 15 NTU increase;NTE 5 NTU over
ambient for lakes
NTE 10 NTU above ambient when natural turbidity is
SO NTU or less;limit of 20\increase when ambient
exceeds SO NTU.NTE SO NTU increasej NTE 5 NTU over
ambient for lakes
NTE 25 NTU above ambient;NTE 5 NTU over ambient
for lakes
NTE 2S NTU
narrative
narrative
NTE 25 NTU
NTE 25 NTU
compensation depth reduction limit of 10\;Secchi
disk depth reduction limit of 10'
same as M
NTE SO NTU in streams;NTE 25 NTU in lakes
NTE 10 NTU for cold water fishery in streams and
lakes
special standards for "unique"lIIaters as low as 3
>NTU change limit
***basin specific standards or ule claslification
NTE 10 NTU for trout or coolwater streams
***basin specific standards or ule classification
turbidity standards by basin Example:NTE 20\
increase where a.aient is less than 50 JTUj NTE 10
JTU increase where ambient il between 50-100 JTU;
NTE 10\increase where alllbient exceeds 100 JTU
narrative
***basin specific standards or ule classification
Govern.-nt)
NTE SO JTU•NTE 10\~rease in Secchi disk depth
NTE 25 JTU over ambient (objective only)
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as applicable
5 NTU (draft regulation)
NTE 10 JTU for cold water fisheries;NTE 25 JTU for
lIIarm water fisheries;narrative proposed as
replacement for numeric criteria in draft revisions
~
State
New Blrunswi ck
Newfoundland
Northnest
Te."d tori es
Nova Scotia
Ontario
Pri nce~Edward
Island
Quebec:
Saskatchewan
Yukon
",,;;,-YColorado"7 \(Jan 8:4)
/
.Connecticut
(Sep 80)
Delaware
(Jul 83)
District of Columbia
(Mar 84)
Flodda
(Feb 8.3)
Georgia
(Oct 81)
Hawaii
(Oct 8A.)
Idaho
(Oct 8:1)
111 inois
(Apr 8~.f)
Designated Water Use(l)
E.F
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
C
Unknown
A
E,F
Unknown
Unknown
A
A,E
B.0,F,C
H-N
A-C
H-N
A,E-C
A,O-C
A,E-C
B
A-C
A
C (special case)
A-C,K-N
A,B,E-C
A,B.O-(j
Turbidity Criteria
NTE10 "turbidity units"for cold water fisherhs;
NTE 25 "turbidity units"for warm water fi sheries;
draft revision proposes change to 50 JTU for both
uses
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as appli cabl e
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as applicable
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as applicable
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as applicable
NTE 10\increase in Secchi disk reading above
ambient
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as applicable
NTE 5 "turbidity units"(guideline only)
NTE 10\increase in nonfilterable residue or less
than 3 mg/1 absolute (draft regulation)
NTE 25 "turbidity units"over ambient (objective
only)
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as applicable
NTE 1.0 turbidity unit
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 10 JTU above ambient
NTE 10 JTU above ambient or more than 25 JTU total
narr;Secchi disk transparency mid-summer from 0-6
meters depth
***basin specific standards for lakes
NTE 10 NTU above ambient or 25 NTU total
NTE 150 NTU in tidal areas of stream basins
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 20 NTU above ambient
narrative
NTE 29 NTU above ambient;depth of compensation
point not reduced more than 10\from ambient
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative
NTE 1 turbidity unit
streams designated as wild or scenic shall have no
alteration of ambient water quality
***basin specific standards or use classification
str....:2-15 NTU,NTE 25 NTU
estuaries:1.5-3.0 NTU.NTE 5.0 NTU
embayments:0.~-3.0 NTU,NTE S.O NTU
oceanic waters:0.03-0.10 NTU,NTE 0.20 NTU
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative;also stream water quality requirements
for point source discharges outside the mixing
zone:NTE 5 NTU above ambient when background is SO
NTU or less;NTE 10\increase when background is
more than SO NTU,up t~a maximum increase of 25
NTU
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
.3
State
Indiana
(Mar 84)
Iowa
(Dec 83)
Kansas
(Sep a3)
Kentucky
(Mar 83)
Loui si ana
(Oct 84)
Maine
(Sept 79)
Maryland
(no date)
Massachusetts
(no date)
Michigan
(Jun 84)
,MipryesotaV(Feb 81)
Mississippi
(Jan 8S)
Missouri
MOntana
(Mar a2)
Nebraska
(Feb 83)
Nevada
(Nov 84)
New Hampshire
(May 84)
New Jersey
(Oct 84)
Designated Water Use(l)
A,B,D-C
A,E-C
A,B,E-C
A,O-C
H,J-N
E-C
A,E-H,L-N -
A,6-<::
A
E,C
F,C
A,E-C
Unknown
A
B,O-C
A,B,O-C
A,B,O-C
A
O-C
E-C
K-N (estuarine)
K-N (marine)
Turbidity Criteria
identified spawning,rearing,or imprinting areas
for salmonids NTE 10 JTU total;identified salmonid
migration routes NTE 25 JTU total
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 25 NTU above ambient from any point source
discharge
***basin specific standards or u~_classification
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
freshwater lakes,reservoirs,and oxbows which are
not naturally turbid and designated scenic streams
and outstanding resource waters NTE 2S NTU total;
other waters NTE 10\increase above ambient
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative;"great ponds"NLT 2 meters Secchi disk
transparency or as naturally occurs
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 150 NTU at any time or 50 NTU as a monthly
average
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative;for -public water supplies,no inCrease--
above ambient
narrative
***basin s ific s n ds 0 use classification
NTE 5 a "turbidity value'
NTE 10 lIS "turbidity value"
NTE 25 s "turbidity valu~
***draina specific s dards or use
cTassificatio
narrative;NTE 50 NTU above ambient in proposed
amendlllents
***drainage specific standards or use
classification
na,.rative
NTE ambient conditions
NTE 5-10 NTU above ambient
***dnfnage specific standards 01'use
classification
NTE 10\increase above lIIlIbi ent
***drainage specific standards or use
classification
none as general criteria;stream/reach specific
c,.fteria NTE 10-50 NTU.based on location
***d,..inage specific standards or use
classification
NTE 5 "turbidity units"
NTE 10 "turbidity units"in cold water fisheries
nor 25 "turbidity units"in warm water fisherfes
NTE 15 NTU for 30-day average;
NTE 50 NTU max.at any time
NTE 10 NTU for 30-day average;
NTE 30 NTU max.at any time
NTE 10 NTU
***basin specific standards or use classification
.14
-
-
New Mexico
(Feb 8.5)
New York
(Sep 71+)
North Car,:)l ina
(Jan 8:5)
North Dakl)ta
(Apr 8~5)
Ohio
Oklahoma
(1982)
Oregon
(Aug 8
'
f)
Pennsyl vard a
(Feb 8~.)
Rhode rs I alnd
(Dec 811,)
South Caroll ina
(Feb 851)
South Oakota
(Aug 84)
Tennessee
(no date)
Texas
Utah
(Oct 78)
Vermont
(Jan 85)
Designated Water Use(l)
E-C
I,K-N
A,E-C
K-M
Unknown
A,S,O-G
E-G
Unknown
A
A
C
E
B,D,F
K,H (high quality)
A,S.O-G
A,S.O-c
J-M
A
B
o
E-C
C(non-game)
A
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative
narrative
NTE SO NTU in streams other than trout waters;
NTE 10 NTU in streams,lakes.or'-l"eservoirs
designated as trout waters
NTE 25 NTU;if ambient exceeds this level,no
increase is allowed
narrative
narrative
NTE 50 NTU in warm water streams;
NTE 25 NTU in warm water lakes;
NTE 10 NTU in cold water streams.
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 10\increase over ambient
***basin specific standards or use classification
effluent standards only;do not attempt to control
in-stream water quality
***basin specific criteria for Delaware River
CcclInfssion
NTE 5 JTU;none of other than natural origin
NTE 10 JTU
NTE lS JTU
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
natural conditions maintained
NTE 10\above ambient
none
none
natural conditions maintained
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification;
also seasonal criteria
narrative
narrative
narrative
none;case by case determination
none;case by case determination
none
NTE 10 NTU above ambient for natural conditions
less than 100 NTU;NTE 113'increase when ambient
conditions exceed 100 NTU
NTE 15 NTU above ambient with provisions for case
by case determination
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 10 NTU or ambient,whichever is lower
NTE 10 NTU for cold water fish habitat;NTE 25 NTU
for warm water fish habitat
***basin specific standards or use classification;
~rOVision for seasonal crfteria for fish habitats
State
Virginia
(Oct 84)
Washington
(Jun 82)
West Virginia
(1983 )
Wisconsin
(NoY 79)
Wyoming
(Sep 83)
Designated Water Use(1)
A,E-G
A,E,C,K,M,N
B,0,C,J,L
A,B,e-c (lakes)
Unknown
A,B,e-c
A,B,e-c
Turbidity Criteria
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 5 NTU over ambient when background is 50 NTU or
less;NTE 10\increase when background is more than
50 NTU
NTE 10 NTU over ambient when background is 50 NTU
or less;NTE 20\increase when background is more
than 50 NTU.
NTE 5 NTU over ambient
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 10 NTU over ambient
nar:-ative
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 10/15 NTU increase over ambient,depending on
water class
Designated Water Uses Comparable to Alaska Categories
Designated Water Uses:
A
B
C
o
E
F
G
Designated Water Uses:
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
Fresh Water
Water Supply:drinking,culinary,food processing
Water Supply:agriculture,irrigation,stock watering
-Water Supply:aquaculture
Water Supply:industrial
Water Recreation:contact
Water Recreation:secondary
Crowth and Propagation of Fish,Shellfish,and Wildlife
Marine Water
Water Supply:aquaculture
Water Supply:seafOOd processing
Water Supply:industrial
Water Recreati on:contact
Water Recreation:secondary
Crowth and Propagation of Fish,Shellfish,and Wildlife
Harvesting for COnsllllPtion of Raw Mollusks or Other Raw Aquatics
(2)NTE •Not to EXceed
NLT •Not Less Than
ap~ll'~opriate,
prs!sented.
turbidity ~riteria for marine waters are also
r"",
Although many states identify beneficial or prdtected water
uses similar to those in the Alaska ~riteria,it is apparent
that water quality ~oncerns associated with parti~ulates are
approached differently by other state agencies.As a result of
interviews and review of individual state standards,it was
evident that turbidity and sediment ~oncerns differ among
agencie.because of:
(1)The presence of naturally turbid systems ~arrying high
sediment loads;
(2)Difficulties of addressing seasonal fluctuations in
particulate concentrations;
(3)AQuatic flora and fauna adapted to warm water systerns
versus ~old water ecosystems,
(4)Philosophical approach to turbidity control (instream
water quality standards versus control of point sour~.
effl uents),
(3)Lack of specific studies which document the threshold
for adverse impacts to aQuatic resources or water uses;
and,
(6)Lack of basin-specific information on the natural
occurrence of partiCUlate loads.
None of the water resource agencies contacted were able to
provide specific information to document the background
information for setting Quantitative criteria in their water
quality regulations.In g.neral,most respondents were unaware
of their state's basis for turbidity,suspended solids,or
settleable solids criteria e~cept in referenc.to Hgenerally
acclltpt.d"standards or the "R.d Book"<EPl=l 1975).West Virginia
~urrently has studies in progress on trout streams and heavily
industrialized waterways that will attempt to correlate
par1:iculate standards with identifiable impacts to biota.Idahcl
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/Se PAGE 27
is currently involved ~itn a "serious inJuryll task force ~hich
is attempting to define thresholds of impact and acceptable
levels of inJury to stream systems and biota.
Personnel in sev.ral stat.s acknowledg.d that the
implem.ntation of turbidity criteria was not aggressively
pursued b.caus.th.ir st.ndard.do not addr••s natural or
sea.onal turbidity and/or the diff.r.nc••b.tw••n co~d and warm
~ater aquatic .ystem..Some individuals int.rview.d felt that
the standards were unr••sonably low or did not have a scientific
basis.Other agenci.s focus their conc.rns on effluent
standard.for point .ourc.discharg..and b.st management
practices from non-point sourc.discharg••,.s••ntially avoiding
r.gul.tion of in.tr••m wat.r quality.
Approximat.ly .30 p.rc.nt of the st.t••·(17)only have
gen.ral narr.tiv.crit.ria d.fining turbidity limit..Th ••e
narr.tiv.crit.ri.r.ng.from g.n.r.1 "antid.grad.tion ll .t.t.-
ments to bro.d guid.lin.s th.t prohibit turbidity l.vels which
would imp.ct oth.r u••s.Th.r.maining 70 p.rc.nt (33 .t.t.s)
nave at l.a.t .ome prot.cted w.t.r us.s with qu.ntitative
crit.ria for in.tr••m turbidity.V.ryf.w st.t..have
established quantitative turbidity erit.ria for all water us.s.
Evalu.tion of 20 .tat..which h.ve qu.ntit.tiv.turbidity
crit.ria and cold-wat.r .y.tems .imil.r to Ala.ka r.v.al.d th.t
th.ir turbidity st.nd.rds for r.cr••tion .nd fi.h and wildlife
prop.gation .'1"'.num.ric.lly .qual to or,in mo.t e ••••,more
string.nt than Al ••k.criteria for the....me us.s.Th.
turbidity .tandard.for lak••are also eomparabl ••
Of the 22 .t.t••with m.rin.or ••tu.rine w.t.r.along th.ir
bord.rs,14 have sp.cific crit.ria for turbidity in marin.or
tidal wat.rs.Of th...14 .tat••,.ev.n .mploy quantitative
criteria.
REVIEW DRAFT g/Og/a~P~GE 28--
A summary of states with narrative or quantitative criteria
for instream wAter quality pertaining to suspe~ded a~d settle-
able solids is presented i~Table 3-2.None of the states have
qua~titative criteria for settleable solids leveltlj O~ly four
states other tha~Alaska,Nevada,New Jersey,South Dakota,a~d
We.t Virgi~ia.currently hAve numeric standArds for suspended
solids in the water column.Nevada employs specific limits for
some stre.m reaches.The eKisting or higher quality is to be
maintained where the natural suspe~ded solids conce~tration is
eq~.l to or le••than 1~mg/L.The limit for the protectio~of
all beneficial uses in the upper reaches of a watershed is 25
rng/IL.a~d eo mg/L in the lower reaches.New Jersey limits
suspended solids concentrations to 25 to 40 mg/L on specific
stri.ams while South DAkotA has A 30 mg/L MAKimum limit for
coldwater fisheries.West Virginia employs a 30 mg/L mAKi~um
suspended solids concentration in receiving WAters.Of ·the
rem.ining sta~es,17 have general narrative statements
addressing these pArameters.The balAnce of the states do not
con!lider suspended or settleAble solids in their general water
qUAlity criteria.HaWAii is the only state which has
est~blished standards for mAKimum allowable depth of deposition
for .ettleable solids.Alaska is the only state with standArds
add,~essing the accumulation of sediments as a maKimum percent by
wei~ht of spAwning bed gravels.
Most states nave appr-oAcned the problems of suspended and
set1~le.ble sol ids by regulAt ing the rnaM iml"Lm concentrat ion
allowable in effll"Lents dischar-g.d from point sOl"Lrces.Control
of non-point sOI"Lr-ces are generally addressed by best mAnagement
prac:tices or-sp.cial conditions attAched to proJect
al"Ltt,or i zat ions.
3.2 U.S.ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
This .ection summarizes information used by EPA to establish
wAtllr ql"LAlity pArameters and criteria for particulates.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/eSPAGE 2Cl
State
TABLE 3-2
SUSPENDED AND SETTLEABLE SOLIDS CRITERIA
FOR THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA
Suspended/Settleable Solids Criteria(1)
.....,
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
Cal ifornia
Canada (Provinces,Territories,and Federal
Federal Covernment
International Joint
Commission (Great Lakes)
Alberta
British Columbia
Manitoba
New Brunswi ck
Newfoundland
Northwest Territories
Nova Scotia
Ontario
Prince Edward Island
Quebec
Saskatchewan
Yukon
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Hawai i
none
narratives for most water uses
sprinkler irrigation:no particles 0.074 or coarser;NTE
200 mg/l for an extended period;fish,shellfish,&
wildlife:'accumulation of sediment 0.1 nun to 4.0 mm in
the gravel bed of spawning waters NTE 5'increase by
weight over natural conditions;in no case may sediments
in the 0.1 mm to 4.0 mm range exceed 30'by weight in the
gravel of spawning beds
none
none
narrative
Covernment)
narra.;regulations for effluents for some industrial
processing and mining (other than gold)are limits of 25
mg/l maximum monthly arithmetic mean
narrative
NTE to mg/l over amQient (objective only)
·rione
narrative (draft regulations)
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
NTE 10 mg/l over ambient (objective only)
none;proposed effluent standardt2~or stream classes
based on biological productivity
high biological importance -no suspended solids
effluent discharge
IIOd.rate biological illlpOl"tance -NTE tOO mg/l
suspended solids in effluent
low biological importance -NTE tOOO mg/l suspended
solid.unle••it i.tributary to a higher class
st.....(then it must meet 100 mg/l effluent
fotandard)
designated placer mining areas -NTE 1000 mg/l
su.p.nded solids unle••it is tributary to a higher
class stre..(then it must meet 100 lII9/1 effluent
standard)
narrative;also use effluent limitations and best
management practices
none
narrative;also use effluent limits
none
none
none
standards for maximum depth of deposition
-
__...:S::.;t:;:a:.,:t!.-
Idaho
r llinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusl!tts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshi re
New Jersey
New Mexico,
New York
North carol ina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Vi rginia
Washington
West Virgil,ia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Suspended/Settleable Solids Criteria(l)
narrative
none
narrative for salmonid waters
none
narrative
narrative for aquatic life waters
narrative
narrative
effluent limits on suspended solids in treated sewage
none
narrative
narrative;also effluent standard of 30 mg/l for treated
sewage
none
none
none
narrative
narrative;specific mg/1 limits for some stream reaches
none
narrative and 2S-~0 mg/l limits on specific streams
none
narrative
narrative
none
narrative
narrative
narrative
narrative
narrative
narrative
narrative and 30 mg/1 limit for coldwater fisheries
narrative
narrative
narrative
narrative
narrative
none
30 mg/1 maximum
narrative;also effluent limit of 30 mg/1
narrative;also effluent limit of 30 mg/l
(1 I
(2)
NTE •Not to Exceed
Sourcn:Department of Fisheries and Oceans.1983.A rationale for standards relating to
discharge of sediments into Yukon streams for placer mines.Environment Canada.New
Westminster.BritiSh Columbia.24 pp.
31
According to Keup (1983),there are eight reports of primary
interest to this subJect:the "Blu.Book"(NAS 1973),"Red
Book"(EPA 1976),"Gr.en Book"(Sorensen et a1.197.7),three EPA
fund.d proJects compl.ted in 1978 and 1979 (Iwamoto et ale 1976;
Farnworth et ala 1979,Muncy et ale 1979),and two current
reports by Camp,Or••••r &McK..(Georg.and Lehnig 1964;
Clarkson .t ale 198~).
The Blu.Book,or ~.1.~__QY.!11~__~~11.~1~_1~lg,presents
discussions of turbidity and sediment only in relation to
drinking wat.r and agricultural us.s of wat.r.R.commendations
regarding turbidity and susp.nded solids concentrations in wat.r
us.d for these purposes were not mad.,apparently because of the
lack of information regarding the effects of particulat.s.
Th.Red Book,or Q~.!1~~_~~lt.~i._!2~~~.tt~,established the
fir.t EPA crit~rion for .olid.(.u.pended,settleable)a~d
turbidity to protect fr.shwat.r fish and other aquatic life.
The criterion is."Settleable and suspended solids .hould not
reduce the depth of the compensation point for photosynthetic
activity by more then 10 percent from the seasonally established
norm for aquatic life."Thi.criterion,as well a.all others
in the Red Book,was reviewed by the American Fisheries Society
(Thurston et ale 1979),who state that the criterion is
difficult to apply under most conditions and impo.sible to apply
in others.According to the reviewer.,"it attempt.to make
solids and turbidity .ynonymou.,which they are not,and no
method i.propose for measl.lring the compen.ation point.II Oth.r
problem.noted by the reviewer.include.(1)The use of a
compensation point is meaningle••in shallow water bodies where
the phot ic zone eMtends to the bottom,and,(2)It is
unrealistic to eMpect adequate data to be available for all
points to determine a "seasonally established norm II for the
compen.ation point.The reviewers recommended that the
criterion be rewritten with solids and turbidity considered
separately.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/83 PAGE 3~
-
-
-
....
......
The Green Book by Sorensen et al.(1977)is a literature
review of the .ff.ct.of dissolved and su.pend.d solids on
freshwater biota.Included ar.the effects of suspended solids
on aquatic photosynth.tic systems,zooplankton and m.croinverte-
brates,salmonid fishes,oth.r fishes,aesth.tic pr.ference,and
public and industrial water supply.MaJor conclusions derived
from this review concerning the biological effects of suspended
solids include.(1)~cute effects on specific organisms were
difficult to demonstrate,(2)Susp.nded solids have significant
ef'ects on community dynamics due to turbiditYI (3)Suspended
solids may have significant effects on community succession,
con1munity stabi 1 ity,and fish avoidance react ion.;(4)Sediments
may serve as a r ••ervoir of toxic chemicals;and,(~)Relatively
hi'lh su.pended .olids were needed to cau.e behavioral reactions
(20,000 mg/L)or death (200,000 mg/L.)in fi.h over the short
Of the thre.EP~funded proJect.completed in 1978 and 1979,
Iwamoto et al.(1978)is the most applicable to this .tudy since
it presents an extensive literature review empha.izing
frll'.hwater .almonid habitats.Farnworth et al.(1979)review.d
literature d.aling with impacts of .ediment,nitrog.n,and
phc1sphorus on aquat ic biota in order to .ugg••t future re••arch
and'manag.m.nt .chemes for fr.shwat.r .yst.ms.Muncy et al.
(1979)r.vi.wed lit.ratur.regarding the effects of su.p.nd.d
.olids and s.diment on the reproduction and early life of
warmwater fish.s.Th.ir review cite.lit.ratur.that provide•
•vid.nce of detrimental eff.ct.of .ediment on reproductive
b.havior,.mbryonic d.v.lopment,larval d.v.lopment,and
Juvenil •••
The Camp,Dr••••r &McK.e r.ports ar.the mo.t rec.nt EP~
fund.d lit.ratur.r.view..!wCQ1Q1t~_.nQ_§2l1Q§by a.orge and
Lehnig (1984)summarizes recent literature pertaining to the
impact.of turbidity and sedim.nt on primary production and on
the surVival,growth,and propagation of zooplankton,
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/8e PAGE 3a
mac~oinverteb~ates,and fish.Nume~ical data from several key
investigations are presented including results from bioassay
studies,state water quality standards,and Alaska and Canada
plac.r mining studi.s.In addition,the ~eport examin.s
Canadian water qu.lity obJectiv.s for turbidity,supporting
ration.le,guid.line.for s.tting turbidity and s.dim.nt
stand.rds,.nd recommend.d l.vel.for the protection of a
vari.ty of w.ter use.ir.Canada.
Th.~~g~212~i~__~••!.__!2~__3~.~.ng.g __321!g.__g~iI.~!~by
Cl.~kson .t .1.(19SS)di.cu......v.r.l f.ctor.th.t are
important to the d.v.lopm.nt of.w.t.r qu.lity crit.rion for
su.pend.d solid./turbidity for the proteetion of .quatic biot ••
Th...factor.includ.r.gion.l,physiographic,.nd ••••on.l
consid.ration.,and r.l.ted hydrologic ph.nom.n..The natural
solids loading to •wat.rbody will v.ry 'rom .it.to .i~.,
d.pending upon physiographic f.ctor.(including slop.,soil
typ.,and type of ground cover).nd upon r.inf.ll .nd runoff.
Hence,s.asonal and r.gion.l crit.ri.n ••d to b.d.v.lop.d that
take into account the .ignific.nc.of natur.l .nd oth.r nonpoint
source loadings.W.t.r qu.lity crit.ri.should b.d.v.lop.d for
susp.nd.d .olids in the wat.r column .s w.ll as for ••ttl.d
s.dim.nt,and th...crit.ria n ••d to .ddr...the compl.x
.itu.tion of toxic..orb.d to .usp.nd.d .nd ••ttl.d .olids.
Additionally,the .ff.ct.of .ust.in.d .xpo.ur.to .u.p.nd.d
solids v.r.us short-t.rm storm-r.lat.d pul •••n ••d to b.qu.nti-
fi.d.~lthou;h th.r.port do..not r.comm.nd crit.ri.to
prot.ct .qu.tic 1if.,it do....t.blish •fr.m.work for
consid.r.tion of r.gion.l,••••on.l,.nd biologic.l f.ctor ••
3.3 CANADIAN PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES
Th.Canadian f.d.r.l gov.rnm.nt,through the office.of
Environment C.n.da .nd the C.n.di.n Council of R••ource and
Environm.nt Minist.rs (CCREM),••t.blishes guid.lin..and
obJ.ctiv.s for w.t.r qu.lity p.r.m.t.r.for the provinces and
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS PAGE 34
-
-
-
-i
te~ritories.They also prepare guidelines and r.gulations which
address specific activities Ce.g.,M.tal Mining Liquid Effluent
Regulations and Guidelines;Potato Processing Plant Liquid
Effluent Regulation.and Guidelin••,Fi.h Proc.ssing Operations
Liquid Effluent Guidelines;Pulp and Paper Effluent
Regulation.).Th.CCAEM Ta.k Force on Wat.r Quality Guid.lines
ha..prepared an In~.nt2l:~__2!__~At.l:__QY.A!lt~__!i!::l1g.!ln.!!__~ng
QQ~.~tl~~~__l~§~which contain.a compilation of guid.lines and
obJectives currently used in Canada (CCREM 1985).From these
guidelines,the gov.rnm.nt.of the provinc.s and t.rritorie.
dev.lop specific water quality crit.ria.
The current .tandard.for turbidity in Canadian province.
anel t.rritorie.app.ar in Tabl.3-1.In addition to provincial
r.~ulations,the f.deral gov.rnment ha•••tablish.d .tandards
foy'certain wat.r u ••s and has promulgated .tandard.for
boundary wat.rs with the Unit.d Stat..(Int.rnational Joint
Commis.ion--Gr.at Lak••).Only Manitoba and Ontario have
dev.lop.d .nforc.abl.regUlation.for .om.water u....The
r.N.aining provincial gov.rnm.nt.only have obJ.ctiv.s,
gUid.lin.s,or draft r.gulation.at this tim..Sritish
Columbia,N.w Brun.wick,N.wfoundland,Northw••t T.rritori.s,
Nova Scotia,Prine.Edward I.land,and the Yukon T.rritory us.
th.1 guid.l in.s of oth.r ag.nci..on a ca..by ca••basi ••
Quantitative turbidity criteria for recr.ation and for fi.h and
wildlife propagation are comparabl.to Ala.ka crit.ria for th •••
sam.wat.r u••••
Wat.r quality .tandard.for suspend.d and ••ttl.abl.solids
in Canadian provine..and t.rritori..app.ar in Tabl.3-2.
Th.'r.ar.no r.gulat ion.for wat.r col urnn .tandard.curr.nt ly in
effect.Quantitativ.crit.ria for Alb.rta and Sa.katch.wan are
obJective.only.Th.Yukon T.rritory has propos.d .ffluent
standards for su.p.nd.d and ••ttl.able solid.ba••d on classes
of biological productiVity of the r.c.iving water.
REVIEW CRAFT 9/09/a~PAGE!S
3.4 REFERENCES
CCREM,1965.I~v.~tory of water quality guid.li~es and
obJectives 1964.Prepared by Canadia~Cou~cil ~Resource,
a~d Environment Mi~isters Task Force on Water Quality Guide-
lines,Ottawa.90 pp.+Table.
Clarkson,C.C.,D.E.Lehnig,S.V.Plante,R.S.Taylor,and W.M.
Williams,1ge~.Hydrologic basis for suspended solids
criteria.Prepared for Enviro~mental Protection Agency by
Camp,Dresser &McKee,Annandale,VA.
-
EPA,1976.Quality criteria for
Protection Agency,Washington,D.C.
water.
2~3 pp.
Environmental
Farnworth,E.G.,M.C.Nichols,C.N.Van~,L.G.Wolfson,R.W.
Bosserma~,P.R.He~drix,F.B.Golley,and J.L.Cooley,1979.
Impacts of sediments and nutrients on biota in surface
waters of the United States.EPA-600/3-79-10~,
Environmental Protection Agency,Washington,D.C.,Athens,
GA.333 pp.
George,T.S.,and D.E.Lehnig,1964.Turbidity and solids.
Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency by Camp,
Dresser &McKee,Annandale,VA._
Iwamoto,R.M.,E.O.Salo,M.A.MadeJ,and R.L.McComas,1976.
Sediment and water quality:a review of'the literature
including a sugge.ted approach for water quality criteria
with summary of workshop and conclusions and recommendations
by E.O.Salo and R.L Rullfson.EPA-Sl0/S-7e-046,
Environmental Protection Agency,Region X,Seattle,WA.
-
-
Keup,L.E.,1983.
Environmental
Communication
Inc.on May S.
Criteria and Standards DivisiQn,U.S.
Protection Agency,Washington,D.C.,Personal
to Larry Peterson,L.A.Peterson &Associates,
Muncy,R.J.,G.J.Atchison,R.V.Bulkley,B.W.Menzel,L.G.
Perry,and R.C.Summerfelt,lS7S.Effects of suspe~ded
solids and sediment on reproduction and early life of warm-
water fishe..a review.EPA-600/3-7S-042.Environme~tal
Protection Agency,Corvallis,OR.
NAS,1973.Water quality criteria 1972.EPA Ecol.Res.Series
EPA-R3-73-033,Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency
by National Academy of Science.,National Academy of
Engineering,Washington,D.C.~S4 pp.
Sorensen,D.L.,M.M.McCarthy,E.J.Middlebrooks,and D.B
Porcella,1S77.Suspended and dissolved solids ef'fects on
freshwater biotal a review.EPA-600/3-77-042,Corvallis
Environmental Research Laboratory,Office of Research and
Oevelopment,Environmental Protection Agency,Corvallis,
OR.64 pp.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/e5 PAGE ~
-
---
....
......
Thl.lrston,R.V.,R.C.Russo,C.M.Fetterol f,.Jr.,T.A.Edsall,
Y.M.Barber,.Jr.(eds.),1979.A review of the EPA Red
Book~quality criteria for water.Water Quality Section,
~m.rican Fisheries Society,Bethesda,MD.313 PP •
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/a~PAGE 3'
4.0 ADEQUACY AND SCIENTIFIC MERIT OF ALASKA CRITERIA
This section summarizes Alaska criteria for water su~ply,
recreation,and protection of biota for both fresh and marine
waters;summarizes scientifically documented levels of
tl"lrt:l1dity,suspended solids,settleable solids,and fine
particles in streambeds that have demonstrated effects on
various water uses;and,presents suggested criterla from the
lit en~at urea
4.1 ALASKA CRITERIA
The purpose of this section is t~describe protected water
uses for both fresh and marine water,and existing turbidity.and
sediment criteria for the various protected 1.lses.8.efo--.re
describing the protected water uses and particulates criteria,
however,four points.are made to enhance the reader's under-
standing of the standards.First,the standards apply only to
human activities which result in alterations to waters within
the state.In this context,the standards constitute the level
of degradation which may not be exceeded in a water body.
Second,sediment refers to particulates in the water column as
well as particulates that settle to the ~ottom.Sediment 1n the
water column may be measured as total suspended solids or
settleable solids (Easton 1985).Third,the methods of analysis
used to determine water quality are in accordance with 2~~ng~~~
!!!@~b.2Q.§__fQl::__~t1!!LE21i!mln!!~iQn_!2f_~!!t@~_!!n!;L~e§~@~sUn:(APHA 1 9aO)
and ~~~n!2g~__!2l::__~t1.mis!!1__en~1~.i~__2f__~!!~~l::__!!ng_~s§~~~(EPA
1979).This requirement insures that accepted methods are used
for measuring turbidity,total suspended solids,and settleable
solids.Fourth,if a w.ter is classified for more than one use,
the most stringent w.ter Quality criteri.of all the included
uses applies.All waters in Alaska except the lower Chena River
and Nol~n Creek and all its tribut~ries,c~cludinQ ACMe Crg~K.
are classified for all uses.Therefore,the most stringent
criteria ~pplie5 to all waters except tMoze noted above.The
REVIEW Dr;AFT V1Q9/85 PAGE 3.
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criteria for protection of drinking
rec::reat ion are tne most stringent fol'"
necessarily the most stringent for
pal~amet.rs.
water sources and contact
particulates,but are not
all otner water quality
Existing turbidity and sediment standards for the protection
of identified water uses in both fresn and marine waters appeal'"
bel~ow CADEC 1985)I
FRESH WATER
1.WATER SUPPLY.DRINKING,CULINARY,AND FOOD PROCESSING
Iy~~1g1!~:Snall not exceed 5 NTU above natural conditions
when the natural turbidity is 50 NTU or l.ss,and not nave
more than 10 percent increase in turbidity wnen the naturAl
condition is more th~n.50 NTU,not to exceed a maximu~
increase of 25 NTU.
§.a1m.n!1 No increase in concentrations of sediment,
including settleable solids,above natural conditions.
2.WATER SUPPLY.AGRICULTURE,INCLUDING IRRIGATION AND STOCK
WATERING
Ig~~igi!~:Shall not cause detrimental effects on indicated
~.aim~n!1 For sprinkler irrigation,water shall be free of
particles of 0.074 mm or coars.r.For irrigation or water
spreading,snall not exceed 200 mglL for an extended period
of time.
3.WATER SUPPLY.AQUACULTURE
!y~gig1i~1 Shall not exceed 25 NTU above natural condition
level.For all lake waters,shall not exce.d 5 NTU over
natural conditions.
§§a1m.n!1 No imposed loads that will interfere with estab-
lisned water supply treatment levels.
4.WATER SUPPLY:INDUSTRIAL
IYr~ig1i~:Shall not cause detrimental .ffects on estab-
lished water supply treatment levels.
REVIEW DRAFT '/49/85 PAGE ~
3~glmHnlf No imposed loads that will interfere with estab-
liahed water supply treatment levels.
5.WATER RECREATION:CONTACT RECREATION
I~r~lgl!~:Shall not exceed S NTU above natural conditions
when the natural turbidity is 50 NTU or lesa,and not have
more than 10 percent increase in turbidity when the natural
condition is more than 50 NTU,not to exceed a maximum
increase of 15 NTU.Shall not eHceed 5 NTU over the natural
condition for all lake waters.
§~gim~nt:No increase in concentrations of sediment,
including settleable solids,above natural conditions.
G.WATER RECREATION:SECONDARY RECREATION
I~r~lg11~1 Shall not exceed 10 NTU over natural conditions
when natural turbidity is 50 NTU or less,and not have more
than 20 percent increase in turbidity when the natural
condition is more than'50 NTU,not to eHceed a maximum
increase of 50 NTU.For all lake waters turbidity shall not
exceed 5 NTU over natural conditions.
e.gim.nt=Shall not pose hazards to incidental human
contact or cause interference with the use.
7.GROWTH AND pROPAGATION OF FISH,SHELLFISH,AND OTHER AQUATIC
LIFE
IYr~lg11~=Shall not eHceed 23 NTU above natural condition
level.For all lake waters,shall not exceed 3 NTU over
natural conditions.
§.g1m.nll The percent accumulation of fine sediment in the
range of 0.1 mm to 4.0 mm in the gravel bed of waters
utilized by anadramous or resident fish for spawning may not
be increased more than 5 percent by weight over natural
condition <as shown from grain size accumulation graph).
In no case may the 0.1 mm to 4.0 mm fine sediment range in
the gravel bed of waters utilized by anadramous or resident
fish for spawning exceed a maximum of 30 percent by weight
(as shown from grain size accumulatio!"l graph).In all other
surface waters no sediment loads (suspended or deposited)
which can cause adver••effects on aquatic a!"limal or plant
life,their reproduction,or habitat.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE~
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MARINE WATER
1.WATER SUPPLY:AQUACULTURE
I~r~igi!~:Shall not eHce.d 23 NTU.
§~gim~n!:No imposed loads that will interfere with estab-
lished water supply tr.atment levels.
WATER SUPPLY:SE~FOOD PROCESSING
I~r~igi!~:Shall not int.rfere with disinfection.
§.gim!lD!1 Below normally d.tectabl.amounts.
WATER SUPPLY:INDUSTRIAL
I~r~!g!!~:Shall not cause detrimental effects on estab-
lish.d levels of water supply treatm.nt.
§.g1m.oi:No impos.d loads that will interf.r.with ••tab-
lished water supply treatment levels.
4.WATER RECREATION:CONTACT RECREATION
I~r~ig!!~:Shall not.~c••d 2~~TU~
§.sim!ln!:No m.asureabl.incr••••in conc.ntration above
natural condition••
5.WATER RECREATION:SECONDARY RECREATION
I.!=u:a.!gi!~:Shall not .Hc••d 2~NTU.-§.gim.D!1 Shall not po••hazards to incid.ntal human
contact or cau••interfer.nc.with the us••-,5.GROWTH AND PROPAGATION OF FISH,SHEL.L.FISH,AND OTHER AQUATIC
LIFE
I~r~!gi~~:Shall not r.duc.the depth of the comp.nsation
point for photosynth.tic activity by more than 10 percent.
In addition,shall not r.duc.the ma~imum S.cchi disk d.pth
by more than 10 p.rc.nt.
§~gim~D!:No measureable increase in concentrations above
natural conditions.
7.HARVESTING FOR CONSUMPTION OF RAW MOL.L.USKS OR OTHER RAW
AQUATIC LIFE
I~r~igi1~:Shall not reduce the d.pth of the compensation
point for photosynth.tic activity by more than 10 percent.
REVIEW DRAFT ,1_9/8:5 PAGE-41
In addition,shall not reduce the maximum Secchi disk depth
by more than 10 percent.
§~g1m~n~:Not applicable.
4.2 DEMONSTRATED EFFECTS OF PARTICULATES
4.2.1 Water Supply
The effects of particulates on water supply summarized in
this section include information pertaining to both fresh and
marine waters.Fresh wat.r us.s include drinking,culinary,and
food processing;agriculture;a~uaculture;and industrial.
Marine uses include a~uaculture,seafood processing,and indus-
trial.The effects of particulates on these various water uses
are ~uantified in this section where possible.
The extent ~o which suspended solids can be tolerated .in
water supplies varies widely.Solids in water used for
drinking,culinary,and food processing can support growth of
harmful microorganisms and reduce the effectiveness of chlorina-
tion,resulting in health hazards.For most water supplies,
high levels of suspended solids are obJectionable for aesthetic
reasons and can interfere with treatment processes and chemical
and biological tests.Suspended solids may also transport
nutrients and toxic substance.,such as pesticides,herbicides,
and certain metals.
The amount of partiCUlate.allowable in raw water supplies
depends on the type and degree of treatment used to produce
finished water.Soren.en et al.(1977)note that an excellent
source of water supply,re~uiring only disinfection as
treatment,would have a turbidity range of 0 to 10 units.A
good source of water supply,requiring usual treatment such as
filtration and disinfection would have a turbidity range of 10
to 250 units.Waters with turbidities over 250 units are poor
sources of water supply re~uiring special or auxiliary treatment
REVIEW DRAFT 9/49/83 PAGE4~
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and disinfection.The ability of common water treatment
processes (i •••,coagulation,s.dim.ntation,filtration,and
chlorination)to remove suspend.d matter to achieve water with
acceptably low turbidity is a function of the compo~ition of the
material as well as its concentration (EPA 1976).The type of
plankton,clay,or .arth particl.s,their siz_,and .lectrical
charges,influ.nc.coagulation more than the number of turbidity
units (NAS 1973).For .~ampl.,a wat.r with 30 turbidity units
may coagulate more rapidly than on.with ~to 10 units and water
with 30 turbidity unit..om.tim..may b.more difficult to
coagulate than wat.r with 100 unit.(NAS 1973).
Although the Ala.ka crit.ria for drin~ing wat.r r.f.r to a ~
NTlJ incr....in turbidity above background in raw water,the
foHowing information p.rtaining to turbidity l.vels -in fini.hed
drinking wat.r is provid.d to giv.th.reade~a f ••ling for ~he
importanc.of low turbidity l.vel..It should b.not.d that raw
wa1 ••r at a low tl,lY"'bidity 1.v.l i.the .ame a.fini.hed drinkir,!;
wat.r with respect to the following information.Sruvold
(H~7~),reporting the re.ult.of a conSl,lmer acceptance surv.y of
finish.d tap water conduct.d by Harris,notes that 11 p.rc.nt of
tho r.spond.nt.Judged ~turbidity unit.to be acceptable for
drinking wat.r.This wat.r also had 1~color unit.and a
th'....hold odor nl,lmb.r of 3.For drinking wat.r,~unit.of
turbidity b.come obJectionable to a con.id.rable numb.r of
p.c)pl.,and many people tl,lrn to alternate .l,lppl i ••which may be
l.tl••af..Symon.and Hoff (197:;)di.cu••the r.lationship
b.t:w.en part iculate.in water and the pr.s.nc.of di ••a.e-
cau.ing organi.m..Low l.vel.of particl,llat.s int.rf.re with
d itd,"f.ct ion and can prev.nt maintenance of an .ffect iva
dil,inf.ctant agent C••g.,chlorine)throughout the distribl,ltion
.yst.m.Indication.ar.that bact.ria and virus..can b.
prot.ct.d by c.rtain kind.of particl ••from inactivation by
chlorin..Inorganic particl ••can cal,l••turbidity and probably
have no b.arfng on the pot.ntial prot.ction of pathogens.Small
organic particl.s,how.v.r,may prot.ct pathog."s.Therefore,
REVIEW DRAFT ~/49/8:;pAGE~1
in evaluating water supplies,the nature of the particles in the
water should be taken into account.Hence,if only disinfection
is applied,the raw water source should be limited to low levels
of particulates.George and Lehnig (1984)note that a level of
5 turbidity units should not be eHceeded for drinking water.
EP~(1976)notes that finished drinking water should have a
ma)(imum limit of 1 turbidity unit where the water enters the
distribution system.
Agricultural uses of water containing suspended solids may
be adversely affected in many ways.Deposition of suspended
sediments reduce.the capacity of irrigation structures and
systems and decrease reservoir storage capacity (King et ale.
1978).Oeposition on land can produce cru.ts that innibit water
infiltration and plant emergence,impede.soil aeration,and can
contribute to salinity j:iroblems by hindering .leaching of saUn.
soils (King et al.1978).High colloidal content in water used
for sprinkler irrigation may re.ult in deposition of films on
leaf surface.that may reduce photosyntnetic activity and,
therefore,growth.The film.may also affect marketability of
leafy vegetable crop••uch a.lettuce (NAS 1973).
Quality requirements regarding tne amount of particulates
vary among different indu.trial uses.For eHample,rayon
manufacture require.water with only 0.3 turbidity units,
wherea.water u.ed for cooling can have up to ~O turbidity units
(McGauhey 1968).Although industrial cooling water can tolerate
relatively high level.of .u.pended solids without .ignificant
problems,modern high pre••ure boiler.require water that is
Virtually free of all impurities (HaeM 1983).The quality
requirement.eve,...vary within some industries,.uch a.the pI-lIp
and paper industry.Different processes within this industry
require different levels of turbidity.The groundwood process
is the least sen.itive to partiCUlates and can tolerate up to SO
turbidity units,the kraft process up to 25 units,the soda and
....
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r
I
sulfite process up to 15 units,And light paper production
tol.r&t ••up to 3 turbidity units (McGauhay 1968).
Crit.ria .stabli.h.d for evaluating and id.ntifying water
treatment n ••ds for fish hatch.rie.by Sigma Resource
ConsultAnt.(1979)includ.limits on susp.nd.d .olids.Th.
suggest.d limit for .usp.nd.d .olids for incubating .gg.is 3
m~/L and for r.aring and holding the limit is Z3 mg/L in the
al:ls.nc.of oth.r pollutants.
Contact r.cr.ation r.f.rs to activiti.s wh.r.th.re is
dir.ct and intimate contact with wat.r and includ.s wading,
.wimming,diving,wat.r skiing,surfing,And any oth.r intimat.
cQlntact with wat.r dir.ct ly as.ociat.d with .hor.l,in.
ac~tivities.S.condary r.cr.ation r.f.,....to activiti ••where
w&t.r 1.1..i.incid.ntal,accid~ntal,or visual,and include.
fishing,boating,camping,hunting,hiking,and vacationing.
Th.eff.ct.of particulat.s on contact and ••condary r.cr.ation
summarized in this s.ction includ.information p.rtaining to
both fr••h and marin.wat.rs.
Wat.r quality is rar.ly d.fin.d by the public in t.rm.of
cM:.mistry,physics,0""bact.,...iology b.cau••publ ic l3.rc.pt ions
of'qual ity ar.attun.d to the ••n...(Wolman 1974).uch as
sight.Th.public p.rc.iv..wat.r quality in t.rms such a$
alga.,foam,and turbidity.Contact and ••condary r.cr.ational
us,es of wat.r vary wid.ly with r ••p.ct to the amount of
13.lrt iculat..that ar.acc.ptabl..Wat.r contact u••s such a.
wt1iding,swimming,and diving r.quir.cl.ar to mod.rat.ly clear
w.,t.r for .af.ty.Th.1•••turbid the wat.r the mol".d ••i r.able
it b.com..for .wimming and oth.r wat.r contact sport.(EPA
1$176).McGauh.y (1968)not.s thatth.not ic.abl.thr.shold is
to turbidity units and the limiting thr.shold i.50 units for
wat.r contact r.cr.ation.Th.guid.lin.s for Canadian
REVIEW OR~FT 9/49/83 PAGE4~
~I
recreational·w.ater Cluali ty (National Health and Welfare 1983)
note that the ma>4imum limit for-turbidity is suggested as 50
tur-bidity units and the water should be sufficie!'tly clear so
that a a.cchi disk is visible at a minimum of 1.a m.ters (4 ~
fe.t).
suitable
These obJ.ctives insure
for-contact r.cr.ation,
the protection of waters
including wading,swimming,
diving,wat.r skiing,and surfing.
Fishermen tend not to fish in areas of turbid water because
game fish..are not found th.r.in as great abundance as in
clear-waters (Bartsch 1960).FiShing success is r-.duced Where
turbidity is greater than a~ppm (Phillips 1971)to 30 JTU
(Grundy 1976).Recording to Townsend (1983),one of the most
popular r.cr.ation.1 activiti.s on the Ch.t.nik.River is sport
fishing for Arctic grayling.He not.s that numerous·complaints
from the public ...er.r.c.iv.d .bout mUddy w.ter conditions·in
the Ch.tanika dr.inage in 1979,the fir-st ••••on of increased
placer mining .ctivity in this drain.ge.Town ••nd stat ••that
fisherm.n probably r.fr.ined frOM fishing bee.us.of turbid
conditions.H..lso not.s th.t in 1977 .nd 1978 the Ch.atanika
was the ••cond mo.t popular waterbody for .port fi.hing in the
Interior but it f.ll to ••v.nth plac.in 1979.
Boating,canoeing,and kayaking ar••nJoy.d in ~la.ka in a
variety of cl ••r and turbid syst.ms.There is really no upp.r
limit to the .mount of turbidity for th •••activiti.s.For
.~ample,riv.r bo.ting (for pl.asur..nd tr.n.portation)i.
popular on the Tanan••nd Yukon riv.r.and k.y.king .nd rafting
are popul.r on the Nanana Riv.r,.11 .1"".turbid .ystems.
~ccording to McGauhey (196&),the notic.ab1e thr.shold i.20
turbidity unit.for bo.ting and a.sth.tic us.s but "no l.vel
tisJ lik.1y to b.found in .urf.c.wat.rs Cth.tJ would impede
tth.seJ u.eC.J."That i.,high turbidity l.v.ls do not
elimin.te boating .nd ••sth.tic u....How.v.r,giv.n a choice,
mo.t people pr.f.r clear water conditions for the.e uses.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/8:5 PAGE Iff.
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4.,~.3 Biota
Scientific data describe
exc.ssive concentrations of
aquatic organisms.In g.n.r.l,
many ways in which turbidity and
sedim.nt may advers.ly affeet
th••••ffeet.inelud••
-(1)Direet actions whieh .ith.r kill or r.duc.growth rate
.nd r ••ist.nc.to dis••••'
(2)Prevention of the successful development of eggs and/or
larv••,
(3)Modifie.tion of natur.l mov.m.nts and migr.tion,.nd,
(4)R.duction in the abund.ne.of av.il.bl.food it.ms.
A .ub.t.nti.l amount of inform.tion .xi.t.regarding tn.
gen.r.l .ff.et.of .u.p.nd.d solids,••ttl ••bl..olids,
tU~bidity,.nd the .ecumul.tion-of ~in••in .pawning gr.v.l on
f'rlt.hw.t.r aqu.tie organi.ms.A l.rg.p.re.nt.g.of the
publi.h.d lit.r.tur.summ.riz..the r ••ults of inv.stig.tions
undertaken by oth.r .uthors,.nd r.l.tiv.ly f.w pr•••nt original
d.t.th.t qu.ntify the l.v.l.whieh e.u••d.l.t.rious .ff.ets.
Fut'th.rmor.,m.ny of the fr.qu.nt ly cit.d publ ie.t ions .ddr••s
th...ff.cts of p.rt ieul.t..on org.nism.not found in Al ••ka
wat:ers.Diffieulti...ris.in d.riving eonelusions about the
.f1~.ets of p.rt ieul.t ••on sp.ci fie org.nisms •••r.sult of the
wid.r.ng.of tol.r.ne..mong diff.r.nt .p.ei ••,among
individu.l.of diff.r.nt .g...nd .t.g••of d.v.lopm.nt,.nd
.mcmg individu.l.of the ••m..p.ei..which h.v••d.pt.d to
dl1r f.r.nt n.tural eondition..For .x.mpl.,••lmonid .gg
inc:ub.tion is .dv.r••ly .ffect.d by suspttnd.d sol ids
eone.ntr.tion.g,..••t.,..th.n 3 mg/L.,but .om••dult ••lmonids are
not:adv.rs.ly .ff.et.d by short-t.rm .)Cposur.to eone.ntrat ions
gr...t.r th.n 100,000 mg/L..Th.r.i ••wid.rang.of .ff.cts on
inclividl.lals,th.ir .'1.cla.s,.nd h.bit.t over a wid.r.n;e of
pat-ticulat.types and l.v.ls.Furth.,..more,the various unit.of
REVIEW DRAFT Q/19/Se PAGE~?
m.asu~e and methods of measuring tu~bidity and suspended matter
make it difficult to com~a~e ~esult••
Pa~ticulates nave di~.ct and indi~ect effects on aquatic
biota.Di~ect effacts include anatomical and ~hysiological
influence.on the o~g.ni.ms themselves,whe~ea.indi~ect .ffects
involve im~acts sucn .s a ~eduction in ~~ey .~ecies o~habitat
alte~ation.~dditionally.the biological effect.of
pa~ticulates a~e int.~active in that a change in natu~al levels
may affect the structure of an enti~e aquatic community,as
o~~osed to only one functional g~ou~of o~;anisms.
Data f~om ea~ly field studi..indicate that it is often
difficult toas.e.s the effects of suspended .olids independent
of facto~s such as so~b.d toxic metals and ~esticide.,biochemi-
cal oxygen demand,and nut~ient content.·Consequently,~he
obJective of more recent studies has been to identify the
biological effects of ine~t p.~ticulate material,similar in
size and com~o.ition to those found in natural wat.~..Another
~~oblem with ea~ly studies 1s that inve.tigato~s used a va~iety
of unit.fo~turbidity.Hence,there are a va~iety of units,
p~m,mg/L,JTU,FTU,NTU (not directly t~an.lated one to
anothe~),making it a~~.a~that there a~e inconsistencies in the
~e~o~ted data.The actual units ~epo~ted in the lite~atu~e
a~pea~in the following discussion of the .ffects of
pa~ticulates on biota.
Pa~ticulate.,especially turbidity,are con.ide~ed to have a
delete~iou..ffect on plant communities within wate~bodies.Fe....
Quantitative results a~e reported in the literature.Bell
(1973)~e~orted that algal-ba.ed food production for Juvenile
.almonids wa.reduced at turbidities above 2~JTU.In G~.at
Britain,Nuttall and Bilby (1973)stated that rooted aquatic
vegetation wa.absent at stations where sus~ended solids level.
exceeded 2000 ppm in a river polluted with china-clay wastes.
Reed et al.(1983>found in ex~erimental ponds in No~th
REVIEW DR~FT Cf/Q9/8~PAGE 48
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Carolina,that a reduction of turbidity from 12 to 6 NTU allowed
submerged plants to grow in deeper water areas because of the
corresponding increase in light at depth.In Va-Va Lake,NWT,
phy'toplanktol"l product ivity was lowest in the r-egion where
turbidity and suspended solids were highest (McCart at al.
1980).Van Nieuwel"lhuyse (1983)observed a strong correlation
betl",een incident photosynthet ically act ive rad iat ion (PAR)and
gro~s productivity which leAd to development of A model by Van
Nieuwenhuyse (LaPerriere 1983)to predict algal productivity at
different turbidity levels.
Benthic orgAnisms And other invertebrAtes are also adversely
af'llcted by part iculates.GAmmon (1970)rel=Jorted a 23 percent
red!"&ction in mAcroinvertebrAte populAtions downstreAm from A
1 i milst one quarry where sedime",t lOAds were less than 40 mg'lL.
PopI!"&lat ion reduct io"'s of..40 percent were·",oted in stretches -of
the river wh.re the sediment lOAd WAS 80 to 120 mg/L And,i",
are,as where 120 mg/L.WAS exceeded,the macroinvertebrAte
pop'i.llation reduction WAS 60 perctl",t.Sedime",t which settled out
CAused A reduction of 40 percent in populAtion density
reg,lrd less of suspe"'ded sed iment conce",trAt ion.Invertebrate
drift increased immediAtely when introductions of 160 mg/L
sediment were mAde to the streAm.
Wilber (1983),citi",g Herbert et Al.<1961>,reported that
mac'r'oinvertebrAte populAt ic:ms Are reduced At turbidity levels of
'::61 to 390 ppm A",d thAt de",sity is reduced At 1000 to 6000 ppm.
Redli.lced numbers were reported for turbidities of 40 to 200 JTU
(Sot'e",sen et al.1977).In McCArt et Al.(1980),a discernible
ef'.ct on the species composition And relAtive Abundance of
zool~lankto",was noted in the silty south end of VA-Va Lake,
NWT.Species diversity,equitAbility,And tAxonomic diversity
appli!ared to be negat ively correlAted to si ltat ion.Mortal ity of
Q!.e!l!:li!.sp.occurred at 8a ppm suspended sol ids accord i n!iil to
e:IFI~C (1965).
REVIEW DRAFT q 109/8:5 PAGE I.joq
the
adult
Bell
McCart et 41.<1SS0)also discussed tne effects of siltation
on various ~ish species within Va-Va Lake,including two species
of sculpin.,lake trout,northern pike,trout-perc~,lake chub,
inconnu Cshee~ish)and several other white~ish species.The
study focused on the distribution o~the sp.cies in the lake.
They concluded that lake trout and slimy sculpin w.r.
characteristic s~ecies o~cl.arwater conditions,whereas the
trout-~erch and s~oonhead scul~in ap~eared in turbid ~arts of
the lake.Many s~.cie.which w.r.tolerant o~turbid conditions
~r.~.rred to ~e.d in the clearwater end o~the lake.These
species includ.d north.rn ~ike and hum~back and broad whitefish.
In laboratory tests,the torrent sculpin ap~.ared to be
~airly tol.rant o~susp.nded s.diments,and no e~~ect on ~eeding
behavior was evident at level.ranging ~rorn °to 1250 mg!L
CElru.ven and Rose 1S81)..McLeay et al..(1983)conduct-ed
laboratory t ••t.on Arctic gray~ing and re~orted that,when
acclimated to 15 degre..C,they survived a 4-day .x~osure to
sediment su.~en.ion.o~more than 250,000 mg/L and a 16-day
.xpo.ure to 50,000 mg/L.Brayling which were acclimated to ~
degree.C survived 4 day.in .us~en.ions o~le.s than 10,000
mg/L.Sus~en.ions gr.at.r than 10,000 mg/L cau••d grayling to
surface.Although gill histologies a~p.ar.d normal in the fish
held ~or 4 day.,acut ••tre••re.ponse••uch a.elevat.d and/or
varied blood gluco..l.v.l.,w.r.noted.Gill hyp.rtrophy and
hy~erpla.ia w.re r.ported for grayling ca~tur.d in the fi.ld in
wat.r with low .usp.nd.d .olid.and then h.ld in water with
.usp.nded solid.l.vel.of .~proximately 1210 mg/L and 3~mg/L.
It wa.concluded that grayling .ubJ.cted to short-t.rm subl.thal
amounts of su.p.nded .olid.can .xhibit various r ••~onse.
including acut ••tr••••
r.lativ.ly large body o~literature exists d.aling with
.ff.cts of particulat.s on trout and salmon.Th ••ffects on
fish,Juv.nile.,and .mbryo.are consid.red s.parately.
(1973)report.that r.latively large ~uantiti••(~OO to
REVIEW DRAFT ~/Q9/e5 PAGE So
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.....
1000 ppm)of s.diment load can be ca~~ied in a st~.am without
any appa~.nt d.t~im.nt to adult salmon and t~out fo~sho~t
periods of tim..Conc.nt~ations of 4000 ppm can cause salmon to
cease inst~eam movements,howev.~.H.~be~t.t ale (1961)
concluded that b~own t~out populations in the ~ive~.Fal and Pa~
in Co~nwall w.~e ~.duc.d in a~...having .u.p.nded s.diment
conc.nt~ation.of 1000 ppm but w.~.unaff.ct.d at 60 ppm.
Reductions in the standing c~op of b~ook t~out in a B~itish
Columbia st~.am app.a~.d to b.the ~.sult of dec~eased spawning
and d.st~uction of hiding plac••due to .iltation (S.unde~s and
Smith 196~).Bachmann (19~8)~.v.al.d that cutth~oat t~out
c.....f ••d in;at 3:5 ppm .usp.nd.d sol ids and that cutth~oat may
abandon ~edd.if .ilt i.p~.s.nt.Rainbow t~out exhibit.d the
following ~••pon•••to va~yin;amount.of .u.p.nd.d .olid..(1)
~O ppm--~.duc.d g~owth,(2)90 ppm--20 p.~c.nt mo~tality in 2 to
6 months;(3)100 to 270 ppm--fin.~ot,(4)200 ppm--~O p.~c~nt
mo~tality in 16 w••ks,(~)1000 to 2:500 ppm--l00 p.~c.nt
mortality in 20 d.y.,(6)1000 ppm--20 p.~c.nt mo~tality in 37
days;(7)42~0 ppm--~O p.~c.nt mo~t.lity in 28 day.;and,(a)
160,000 ppm--l00 p.~c.nt mo~tality in 1 day.
R••ult.of acut.(4 day.o~1•••).xpo.u~.to .u.p.nd.d
s.diments indicat.th.t Juv.nil..almonid..xhibit ••asonal
chang.s in th.i~tol.~anc.to .u.p.nd.d ••dim.nt.(Noggl.
1978).Bio••••y.conduct.d in .umm.~p~oduc.d L.C~O'.l.s.than
1:500 mg/L.,while .utumn bio••••y.show.d L.C:50'.in .xc•••of
30,000 mg/L..Th.tol.~anc.of wild coho ••lmon to .u.p.nd.d
solid.w..high.~than hatch.~y p~oduc.d cohos,appa~.ntly
because of p~io~.xpo.u~.to .u.p.nd.d ••dim.nt ••
L.ang.~(1980)~.po~t.d ~.duc.d f ••ding among .almonids at
tu~biditi..g~••t.~than 2:5 JTU.B~ook t~out .xhibit.d
inc~eas.d v.ntil.to~y ~••pon..(a st~•••~.action)at 231 NTU
clay in wat.~(Ca~l.on 1984).Pacific .almon .u~viv.d 3 to 4
weeks in 300 to 7~0 ppm .u.pend.d .olids and avoided mUddy
wate~.du~ing mig~ation.according to the lit.~atu~.~.view by
Wi 1 b.~(1983).
REVIEW DRRFT 9/G9/8:5 PRGESI
The effects of particulates on salmonid Juveniles and eggs
have been studied more extensively than those on adults.In
laboratory
of 70 to
tests,Bisson and Bilby (1982)found that turbidities
100 NTU caused reduced feeding among coho Juveniles.
Crouse et al.(1 SSl)found that 26 to 31 percent sediment in
laboratory stream gravels increased mortality among emerging
coho fry.Noggle (197S)found that f.eding by coho Juveniles
was reduced at 100 mg/L and ceased at concentrations greater
than 200 mg/L.Mortality (LC50)occurred at 1198 mg/L in August
and at 35,000 mglL suspended solids in November indicating
perhaps a seasonal tolerance
affect of increased maturity
of Juvenile coho salmon or the
of individuals.NCASI (1'364b)
conducted a literature review pertaining to the effects of
sediments on salmon habitat.It was discovered that the time
necessary for coho fry.to emerge from the gravel in'wh·ich.they
were hatched increased from 10 to 47 d".ys when the amount··of
fine.(less than 3.327 mm in diameter)was increased from 36.6
to 42.3 percent
sediment levels
(Koski 1966).
increased from 27 to 51 percent.Coho biomass
decreased 65 percent when sediment smaller than 0.6 mm increased
from 20 to 31 percent as a result of road construction (Burns
1'372).Juvenile coho productivity was reduced from 8.S grams
per square meter to 5.0 grams per square meter as sediment
embeddedness was increased from 0 to 100 percent in a laboratory
stream (Crouse et al.1961,NC~SI 1964a).Sigler et al.(1964)
reported that coho and steelh.ad fry showed a reduction in
growth at 25 NTU turbidity.-
Work by Herbert and Merkens <1961>indicated that -suspensions of 30 ppm kaolin and diatomaceous earth caused
negligible damage to Juveni Ie rainbow trout ove,..a 6 mCt1"lth -pe,..iod in laboratory tests.Some mortality occurred at 90 ppm
and more than half the trout died at 270 ppm and 810 ppm.Fish
e~po.ed to 30 to 90 ppm suspended solids exhibited normal gills,
but those .~posed to concentrations of 270 to 810 ppm displayed
thickening or.fusing of gill lamellae.Caudal fin damage was
REVIEW DRAFT 9/4'3/85 PAGESa -
-
r
also evident after exposure for 37 days to 270 ppm suspended
solids.
Salmon eggs are u.ually laid in depre.sion.excavated in the
gravel of stream bottoms and then covered over with more
gravel.Development of the .gg.d.p.nds on wat.r floWing
through the grav.l,bringing oxygen to the eggs and removing
metabolic products.Wh.n grav.l int.rstic.s are covered or
clogged with fin.material,succe••ful developm.nt of the eggs
is impair.d.BJornn.t al.(1'377)reported r.duced survival of
salmon eggs in an Idaho .tream when there was 20 to 30 percent
sand in the gravel.Incr.as.d mortality of brook trout eggs in
laboratory .treams was not.d by Hausl.and Cobl.(1976)wh.n
there was more than 20 p.rc.nt fin••in grav.l.A literature
review by Iwamoto et al.(1978)rev.aled that coho .ggs .uffered
increased mortality when the fin.s content of'gravel was grea~:er
than 15 percent.Th.same was true of'.te.lh.ad .ggs wh.n the
fine.~ont.nt was great.r than 20 p.rcent.The .iz.of bottom
material in str.ams utilized for .pawning by pink .almon varies
con.id.rably.According to McN.il and Ahnell (1964),escap.ment
was very high when the p.rcentag.of solid.pa••ing through a
O.833-mm .ieve wa.about ~p.rcent,medium to high at 10
percent,and low to fair at about 20 perc.nt.
BJornn (1969)r.ported that chinook fry had difficulty
during .merg.nc.wh.n .and CO.2S mm)in the gr.vel w.s incr.a.ed
20 to 40 p.rc.nt.~ort.lity of chinook .mbryos approach.d 30
perc.nt .s •r ••ult of 30 to 40 p.rcent ••nd in the gravel.
Langer (1980)r.port.d .n incr••••in ste.lh••d fry mortality
when gr.v.ls cont.in.d more th.n 10 p.rc.nt ••dim.nt..Survival
of st ••lh ••d d.clin.d to 3.3 perc.nt when fin••edim.nt (6.4 mm)
r.aic:h.d 39.4 perc.nt in grav.l (NCASI 1984b).Approximat.ly 18
perc.nt survival was achi.v.d with 70 p.rc.nt 1 to 3 mm .edim.nt
(Phillips et al.1975).nd 10 p.rc.nt .urvival occurred wh.n
0.85 mm sediment r ••ch.d 19.5 p.rc.nt (Tappel and BJornn 1983)
in grav.l.Only 6 p.rc.nt .urviv.l occurr.d when th.re was 50
REVIEW DRAFT 9/Q9/85 PAGE S!
percent fine sediment (9.3 rom)present CTappel and BJornn
19S3).Steelhead fry survival decreased from 49 to 52 percent
to 3 to 9 percent when 20 percent
introduced in the gravel (NCASI 19S4b).
declined by S5 percent when sediment
fines (0.23 rom)were
Steelhead populations
smaller than O.S rom
increased from eO.6 percent to 34.2 percent after road
construction (Burns 1972).
Rainbow trout alevins and eggs showed reduced survival of 1
to 1.3 percent for every 1 percent increase in O.S mm fines irl
gravel (NCASI 1984a)•Ph ill ips (1971>reported a 37 percent
dec:rease in the population of Juvenile rainbow trout in 20 days
in an area 1 1/2 miles downstream from a gold dredge where the .....
suspended sediment conc:entration in the water ranged from 1000
to 2500 ppm.
H.usle .nd Cobl~(1976)reported that emergence time for
brook trout embryos was increased and their survival decreased
when 2.0 mm sed iment in gravel greater th.n 20 percent.ChlJm
salmon eggs eHhibited a decrease in survival of 1.25 percent for
every 1 percent increase in sand (Koski 1975).For coho eggs,
the ratio was 3.1 percent decrease in survival for every 1
percent increase in sand (Cederholm et ale 1990),Sockeye
salmon eggs showed a 40 perc:ent decrease in survival when fines
of less than 0.336 em were introduced into gravel.The survival
of chinook eggs decreased from 88 to 18 percent when 39 percent
fines (6.4 mm)were in the gravel.Coho eggs showed a reduc:ed
survival from 96 to a percent with a 0 to 70 percent increase in
fine (1 to 3 mm)sediment (Phillips et ale 1975).
In laboratory tests,Phi 11 ips et al.(197S)found that the
survival of coho eggs correlated negatively with the addition of
sand to the substrate with the following results.There was 96
percent survival in the control mi~ture,sa perc:ent survival in
10 percent sand,64 percent survival in 20 percent sand,38
percent survival in 30 percent sand,20 percent survival in 40
REVIEW DRAFT 9/49/85 pAGES4
~
I
r
percent sand,aa percent survival in ~O percent sand,and S to
10 percent survival in 60 to 70 percent sand.Steelhead eggs
showed a similar response;survival was reduced from 99 to lS
percent when sand was increased to 70 percent.
In other studi.s,Sh.lton and Pollack (19GG)found that 15
percent of chinook salmon eggs survived when 15 to 30 percent of
the gravel voids w.re filled with s.diment in laboratory
streams.Tagart (1976)observed that survival of coho eggs in
the Cl.arwat.r Riv.r in Wa.hington was negatively correlated
with the p.rcent of "poor"(fines less than 0.S5 mm in diameter)
grav.l pr••ent in the .tream.In Great Britain,Turn".nny and
Williams (19S0)found that rainbow trout eggs suffered 9S to 100
p.rc.nt mortality in 2 to 24S1 mg/L susp.nded solids where the
permeability of the grav.l was :5 to 74 cm/hr and dissolved
oxyg.n in ~h.w.ter w••2.4 to 7.S mg/L.·At .~sp.nd.d .edime~t
conc.ntration.of 3 to lS10 mg/L,where the p.rmeability was 7
to 2950·cmlhr .nd dissolved oxyg.n"was J.S to e.G mg/L,.urvival
of the eggs rang.d from 24 to 9S percent.Witzel and MacCrimmon
(19S1)found that only 1 perc.nt of the rainbow .ggs survived
when the grav.l was 2 mm in diam.t.r but that 7G percent
survival w••achi.v.d when the grav.l diam.t.r w.s 2G.S mm.
The main conc.rn with r.g.rd to the "rotection of aquatic
fauna from l.thal .ediment conc.ntrations is the amount of
solid.in su.".n.ion that c.n pot.ntially ••ttl.out (settl.able
solids).s flow d.cr.....(Duckrow .nd Everh.rt 1971).It is
the ••••il.,immobile form.in or on the str.ambed which are the
most susceptible to b.ing .moth.r.d.S.dimentation of the
stream sub.trat.,p.rticul.rly the grav.l u ••d for .p.wning,
produc..signific.nt d.trim.nt.l .ffect.on .almonid r ••ourc.s
(Iwamoto .t al.1975).Iw.moto et ale <197S)not.that there are
substantial d.ta d.scribing the d.let.rious .ffects of particles
of si:..l ••s th.n 0.S50 mm in diam.t.r when they exceed
approximately 20 p.rc.nt of the ·tot.l.Th.y also note that
sedim.nts ranging b.twe.n 0.1 and 3.3 mm appear to cause the
mo.t .ignificant impact.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/49/aS PAGE 5S
Sediment deposited on the streambed sur~ace or within the
gravel can reduce the .xchange of water between the stream and
the gravel (Cooper 1965).Three factors affect ~he magnitude
and direction of wat.r interchange in spawning beds:(1)The
surface profile of the streambed;(2)depth of the streambed;
and (3).treambed permeability.Water .xchange occurs in stream
gravels a.either downwelling or upw.lling.Downwelling is
pr.domin.nt in conv.x str.amb.d surfaces,wher.as upwelling
occurs where the streambed is concave.Furthermore,increased
stream gravel p.rmeability induc.s downwelling,whereas
decreased permeability induc.s upwelling (Vaux 1968).
Substantial r.ductions in flow through the grav.l may result
-
....
from a reduction in the size of particles in the gravel bed IIIJIiI@
(Cooper 196~)•Perm.ability m.y b.incr••••d by r.moving fin.
materi.l from the stream grav.ls (McNeil and ~hnell 1964)such
as during flood •v.nts that wash fines out 0'the grav.l •
Th.intrusion of fines into .tr••m gravels is a complicated
and not fully und.rstood proc•••(aeschta and Jackson 1979).
Presently there is little known about the m.chanisms and rat.s
of s.dim.nt interch.nge betw.en the water column and the inter--
stitial .nvironment (Carling 1984).Sediment intru.ion involves
the transport and deposition of p.rticl ••into grav.l voids at
the .urface,and the settling of particles into deep.r gravel
voids under the influence of gr.vity,as.ist.d by turbulent
pulses at the gr.vel surfac.(Se.eht.and Jack.on 1979).Sinc.
th.re i.o~ten an exchange of flow between a stre.m and the
gravel bed of a str••m,it is logical to expect that su.p.nd.d
s.diment.might be carried into the gravel and deposited .v.n if
th.y are not deposit.d on the str••mbed.While conducting
bedlo.d experiments with gravel,Einstein (1968)noticed that
murky water gr.dually cle.r.d up at low bedload rates,and
postulat.d that the depo.ition of suspended silt particles must
occur in the por.s o~the gr.v.l b.d.SUbse~u.nt experim.nts
showed that the d.po~ition rate of su.pend.d silt particl.s
begin to fill the por••of the grav.l ~rom the bottom up.The
concentration of .ilt ranging from 3.~to 30 microns decre~sed
REVIEW DRAFT 91Q9/S:S PAGE S'
l'
I
r
exponentially.downstr-eam as sediment was deposited in the stream
gravels.As a result of these experiments,Einstein (1'36B>
concluded that the deposition of silt is primarily a function of
the sediment concentration close to the sediment-watlfr interface
and that hydraulic controls are of secondary importance.
Carling (1964)notes a similar experiment in which low concen-
trations of silty clay <less than 300 mg/L)decreased
exponentially downstream although high concentrations decreased
logarithmically.
A series of experiments conducted by Beschta and Jackson
(1979)demonstrate that flow conditions,as indexed by Froude
numbers,significantly influenced the degree of gravel intrusion
by sand.Other flow indicators such as shear velocity and
Reynold's number did not sigl"lificantly affect the amount of
intrUsion.At low F~oUd~numbers,O.~mm sand qUiCk~~
established a sand "seal"withi'fl the upper :5 ern of the gravel.
O'flce the sa'fld seal had formed and the intergravel spaces had
filled with fines,the downward movem.nt of additio'flal sediment
was prevented a'fld the i'fltrusion process stopped.In comparison
with 0.:5 mm sand,the intrusio'fl of 0.2 mm sand was more
extensive 5uggesti'flg that particle size is an important variable
affecting the intrusio'fl of stable gravels.Instead of forming a
sand seal in the upper gravels,the finer sands generally
migrated dow'fl through the test gravels by gravity a'fld began to
fill tnem from the bottom up.The amOU'flt of i'fltrusion of 0.2 mm
sand d.creased as the Froud.'flumb.r incr••••d from 0.6 to 1.1.
These ob••rvatio'fl.support the findings of Einstei'fl (1'368>that
intrusio'fl by fin.sediment.fills stream grav.ls from the bottom
up.
!Ex;leriments were cO'flducted by Cooper (1963)using 0.5 to 74
micron silt in concentrations of 200 a'fld 2000 ppm to determine
the rate a'fld mag'flitude of fin.sediment deposition.Data show
that stream gravels act as a filter il"l removil"'lQ sl.\spended
sediments from the water flowing through the gravel.The rate
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE 5'7
of silt accumulation in the gravel varied in proportion to the
flow through the gravel.
Carling (1984)found that porous gravels could physically
entrap particles in the dead zones on the lee side of gravel
grains and prevent resuspension.In base level flow conditions
and low concentrations of sediment,the grain size of particles
settling onto the gravel bed is similar to particle.filling the
gravel void spaces.For all concentrations,the deposition rate
was strongly linearly correlated with the suspended sediment
concentration.Results indicate that open-work gravels will
rapidly become silted even with water containing low concentra-
tions of suspended solids.
Thus,the amount of silt and.larger particles trans~ortedin
suspension may have a pronounced affect on the natural qual~ty
and composition of gravel substrates in streams.However,
McNeil and ~hnell (1964)report that fines in the gravel can be
locally removed by salmon during spawning.Nevertheless,
additional sediment deposition and infiltration after spawning
may reduce the rate and magnitude of water e~change in spawning
gravels,to the detriment of developing eggs.
Although it is well documented that silt .and larger
particles in suspension may fill streambed gravels,the effects
of clay-sized and other non-settleable particles on streambed
embeddedne.s are not reported in the literature reviewed for
this proJect.
In summary,numerous field and laboratory investigations
have documented lethal and sub-lethal effects of suspended and
deposited sediments on freshwater aquatic organisms.These
effects are summarized in Tables 4-1 through 4-4.Most of the
numerical data appearing in these tables pertain to salmon ids
and their habitat.The impacts of a wide range of sediment and
ttJrbidity levels have been documented for all stages of salmonid
REVIEW DRAFT q/Q9/8~PAGE 58
-
-
TABLE 4-3
~reCTS OF SUSPENDED SDL~DS ~ND TuRBiDITY ON 8AL~CNID SU~V:VAL AND ~aniAL:TY
Qrljal'll.§!L-._~ature ana Extent ,:>f_Effe£~Level -:>r Cone.Q!:!ratlOn Comment 5____________~ef§r~£!________
Grayling ~orta1ity 250,000 illg/L 4 days 5~5penced solids MeLea!'et al.1'383
Mort ali ty 50,000 mgiL :6 days Susper,ced solics MeLeay et a1.~~J:i~..._"_W
Survived 10,000 lIglL 5 cays Suswenaed solids !'!e;'eay at al.1'383
No rnortali ty S50 to 8200 NTU 9 days T'Jroidity SillllllOns 1'384
No mortality aeo to 6600 mg/L '3 days Total solids Sill'olllOn5 1984
RaHico..,Trout (20":nortali ty '30 ppDl 2-6 fllOnt hs Diatomaceous earth Heroert and MerKer.s
.-:'361
20';illortali ty 1000 ppm 37 days Cellulose fiber EIFAC 1'365
50"!!lort ali t y 200 ppll 16 weeKS Spruce fiber ~~r3ert and Richards
1'363
50:(illortal i ty 4250 ppll 28 days Suspenaed gypsum Herbert and Wakeford
1962
Greater than 5~Greater than 1-6 months Suspended kaolin &Herbert and ~erkens
iIDrtality 270 pOM diatoaacE!Ous earth 1961
No Illortality 30 ;JPM 2-£months Suspended kaolin!,ierbel"t ind i"Ierkens
diatomaceous earth 1961 .
1OC~IIOrtal i ty .160,000 'ppm 1 day Suspenced solids EIFAC 1'365
S8-100~egg mortality 2 to 2481 lIlJ/L Suspended solids Turnoenny and ~llll~S
1580
24-9B~egg raortality 3 to IBIO mg/L Suspended solids Turnpenny and ~illiams
1980
~ortality occurred 1000 to 2500 PPI 20 days Suspenaed solids Campbell 1'354
No mortal i ty 50 and 100 PPIII B IIlOnths Coal-washery waste Herbert and Ricnards
1,63
No nlOrtality 200 POI 9-10 months Coal-washery Wiste Herbert and Ricnards
1S63
No mortal i ty 553pplII 4 Neeks Suspended gypsu.Herbert and Wakeford
1'362
Cone Salroor,50%1II0rtali ty 1200 in August 4 days Suspended solids lIloggle ISiS
35,000 PP'I in
Novlllber
Chilli Sa.llllOn egg survival decreased by Increased by 1~Suspended solids Langer 1380
5Slo
r
rmcaL~EOUS ~r'd:TS OF SETTLED SCUDS AND FINES eN SAU,ONIDS
:>i r.K Sal mor,~ow escapement success Abollt 20';0.,833 m:a
I!edlunJ escacment success About 1~0.833 !IIII
high escaper.~nt success About 5%0.833 rGlII
1:-:11'1;:j Salmon Fry emergence tiue Increased from (3.327 fillR
increased 37 to 4~
Emergence success decreased Increased from Fines
27 to 51"
Juvenile productivity Increased fl'Olll {2.0 mm Emc~dedne5s
decreased 44"o to 10C%
Bi OllIaSS decreased 65%Increased from (0.8 mAl
20 to 31~
Ci'llnoo)(Salmon Swrgera impaired Ir.creased from Sand
20 to 4~
BrOOK 7r.out E:llbryo emergence time rncreased from <2 mill sand
1rcreasSll o to }20,,"
ateeI~,ead Population Cecl'!asea oy Increased frolll O.B :II/lI
TrOll';as,;21 to 34'"
BiOllliss decrea5eo by ~'"'%Increased frOID 0.8 filii
20 to 31t.
Saimonids Deleterious effects Greater than 20l <0.850 IIIlI
Most siqnificant impact Not stated Between 0.1
and 3.3 IlIIlI
~~Neil and ~,nell :;£4
~~Neil and Annel::954
Mc~~i:and AMnel:~36~
Koski 1966
NCASi 19840
Crouse at al.1981
Burns 1972
~ausle a~c Coble 1976
Burns 1'372
Iwamoto at al.1973
lwaAl0to at al.197B
.....
EFFECiS OF SETTLED SOL!DS AND FI~ES ON SAw~GNID ~O~iHLrTi AND SURVIVAL
Src-oK ~r'·'J\lt
S..l;;;.:,n
c.'1um Salmon
Survival to emergence
Egg survlval cecreased
Egg survival oecreased
Greater tnan 20~
20 to 3~range
Each 1%increase
2 J1D1 sand
Fines
Sand
In gravel
Milusle and Ccule :975
BJornn et al.~374
:{oski 1'375
1.25%.
Ci'i inoo!<Sal:~n Egg survival decreased
from 54 to 18~
~bryo fBertalit!
aooroac:'led 50%
up to 85%~rtality
Coi"J Salmon E;g survival decr'eased
frc.m 96 to 8%
Egg surVl val decreased
Increased from 6.4 31
2B to 3'3%
30 to 40~Sand
15 to 30%of Silt
gravel V010S
Increased from 1 to 3 IlIl1
o to 70'/.
Each i%increase Sana
Pi lIed gravel
Yoids
NCASI 19840
Shelton and Poi lack
1'365
Phillios et ill.1375
Cedernolm et al.:380
3.1~
Egg SUNl val decreased
fl"OOl SEt to 10%
E;g survival averaged
22.1~
Increased from
o to 70r.
Sand
0.85 rilII
;J~illips et al 1375
Tagart 1'376
Tappel and S.jal'nn 1383
C~cet"~(,:~1 ::a:.:"380
Cecerhv:m =t a~••:cO
Kos~.i 1%5
NCASI lS84b
PhilliJS et al.1975
NCASI 1984a
NCASI 1984a
Witzel and ~4cCri"D~n
1381
Iwamoto et al.1978
Phillips et al.1975
:waw~to et al.1978
Crouse et al.:sa:
In gravel
In ~ravel
In gravel
In gravel
O.25 r,l~1 L fles
6.4 IlIII fines
;;to 26.5 •
1 to 3 lllIlI
finES
0.085 JlIlI
fines
'3.5!l!lll finesIncreasedto50~
Increased to 20%
Each 1%increase 0.6 IIIl1l fines
Increased to
1'3.5%
Not stated
Each 1%increase 6.4 IIlIl\fines
Breater than 20~Fines
Increased to 70%Sand
Increased to
39.4~
Increased to 70~
Greater than 1~%Fines
Increased froll Fines
25 to 31:t
27 to 51%fines 3.327 II1II
Egg mortality increasec
Fry mortality increased
Egg mortality averaged
27.1%
Egg survival decreased
L 1 to 1.~
Egg survlval decreased
by 0.8"
Egg survival ranged
frOD!1 to 76%
Egg mortality increased
Egg survlval aecreased
fma 99 to 18%
Egg survival decreased
to 3.~
Egg survival decreased
to 18"
qg surv i val decreased
to 10%
~g survival decreased
to 6"
Egg survival aecreased
frolJ1 52 to 3-~
~,.an egg surVival was 17.7"Exceecea 20%0.35 ',UA
~;g survlval cecreasec 3.4%~ac~1%lncrease 0.85 mm
Steelheaa
7rout
7ABLi:4-4
MISCELl..0....EOUS EF~CTS OF SUSPEN:JED SCl.i::lS AND TURBID!TY c.~AGUAT1C 3IQ7A
Crc~~~~TI_______~atufe and Extent of Effects Level Qr Cone.Duratl~~Com~nt~________1~fg~ence,"------
Salmc1nl.ds 1n
general
Cease instream movements
No aocarent detriment
~educed feeding
;Jroouction reQuce<i
4(K)Q ppm
500 to 1000 JODI
Greater than as
liTU
Greater than 25
JTU
Sedinlent load
Seaiment load
Turbidity
Turbidity
Bell 1'3i3
Bell 1973
L~nger 1360
NCASI 19840
-
Sane~ainbow Trout Proouction increased 35%
Slight effect on gro"th
!'edllced by 85%Alexander and nansen
1983
Coal washery ~ste Herbert and Richards
Reduced growth rate 270 ppm 4.5 months Suspended matter herbert anc "erkens
1'361
so PPII 8 months Wood fiber
1000 to 2000 ppm 20 days Suscenoed solids
Her~rt and ~erKens
1961
ner~rt and ~er~ens
1961
;J:,illios et al.:Si5
Herbert and Merkens
1961
Herbert aT~Mer kens
1'361
Diat~macec,us earth Herbert and ~rkens57days270PpIII
30 ~PIII l{aolin &2 IIIOnths Suspended solids
aiatozaceous earth
30 to 90 PIllA >5 months Suscenaea solids
kaal in &ciat 0-
IIaceous earttl
270 and BI0 PPI }S IIOnths Sus!Jended solidsGillthickeningorfusing
Juvenile copulatlon
decreased 57~
~I'lllal gills
~~rmal gill histology
No slgn of dlsease
Caudal fin disease
Steelhead
Trout
Cono SallilOn
Algal 3aseo
PrrJcl!C~ivlty
R'~Qtea iJlar,t;;
'3'l:lmer;ec
Piants
Some fin dlsease
Avoidance
neduced growth
Displacement
Avoidance
Feeding reduced
Feeding reduced
Feeclng ceased
RedUced grOlllth
Avoldance by Juveniles
Displacement
Recucec
Absem
are"~~:ee:er water
200 PCII
}167 NTU
2S NTl!
40 to SO N'fU
}167 NT'Ll
100 !lg/L
70 to 100 NTU
200 ilIg/L
2S~
70 NTl.!
4V to 50 NTh
25 NTU
>2000 OOID
!{e!lllCeC frolfl 12
to 0 :·;TU
[)to :~OO iliU
8 IlIOnths Wood Fiber
Turbidlty
TuriJidity
Turbldity
Turbidity
Suspended sol ids
Turbidity
SusperiGed sol ias
7ljroldi ty
it!1'~idi ty
Tt!rOlcity
Turtmllty
China clay ~s:es
T'!rt:lic~';y
1951
Her~ert and ~erkens
1%1
Sigler et al.1984
Sigler et a1.1984
Sigler et al.1'384
Sigler et ai.1984
Noggle 1~7e
~labaster 1972;Sykora
et a!.:372
Noggle mB
Sigler et !l.1384
Bisson and Bilby 1982
Sigler 1381
Bell 1973
Nut~all a~d B:~JV
Reec et al.:?E.3
ianNieuwe~huysc :;83
TABLE 4-4 Continued
~ISCELLANEOUS EFrECTS OF SUSPENDED SEDI~ENT w~D TURBIDITY eN AQLATIC BIG7A
CC;i1li~.t~";Befere!!£~_
Benthic Pooulation reduced by 25~
Inverteorates Population reduced by 40%
~oDulat ions reduced by 60~
Pooulatlon reduced to 25%
Bottom fauna absent
Populatlon numbers reduced
Density reduced to W:
Abunaance unaffected
~~lncrease in drift
'30%increase in dri ft
Reduced abundance
Torrent 3cul~in Impaired Feeding
Grayling c:levated blood ~lucose,
reduced leucocrit
Gi 11 hypertropny and
hyperolasia
SNam to surface
NorNal iill histologies
Moderate gill tissue casage
Ex~ensive gill daeage
Limited food intake
Lillii ted food intake
Cutthroat
Trout
BrOOK Trout
~opulation ur~ffected
Reauced abundance
De!'lSlty reduced by 86"
Production increased by 41%
Cease FeeQlng
Increased ventilatory
l"9Sponse
Harllful effects
40 Mg/L
80 to 120 lIg/L
)120 IIIg/L
261 to 390 ppll
250 ppm
40 to 200 JiU
1000 to 6000 JTU -
60 ppM
40 Il1g/L tncrease -
80 mg/L increase -
o to }225(l NTU
o to 1250 IDg/L
10,000 .g/l 4 days
34 and 1210 mq/L ---
}l 0,000 rng/L
.170 IIIg/L 4 days
1205 mg/L 2 days
1388 mg/L 4 days
1150 to 4825 NTU 6 days
1340 to 6280 6 days
Ig/L
60 POll
1000 PPII
1000 to 6000 pp.---
Reduced by 86"
3S PpIII
231 NTU
S2 to 102 PplI
Suspended so 1i as Gai~ri:r:.n 1370
Susoendea sol ids Gammon :5iO
Susoended solids GaflllROn 1970
Susoerlded soluis SQrensen et al.:377
Susoended solias EiFAC 1%5
Turbidi ty Sorensen et al.iS77
Suscended solids Heroert et al.1561
Susllenoed solids Heroert et ai.1561
Susper~ed solids GalllfllOn :370
Suspended sol ids Galll/llon :370
TiJrbidity i..a;:erriere et al.198:3
Susllended soliDS Brusven and Rose 1381
Suspended solids .'lfcLeay ~t al.1983
Susper~ed solids )!cL.eay et al.1983
Suspended sol ids i'IIcLeay et al.1983
Total sol ids SiAlIDOns 1984
Total solids Siil'olIIOns 1984
Total solios Simmons 1984
Turbidity Sii/llllOns 1984
Total SOllds Simmons 1964
Suspended solids Herbert et al.1'361
Suspended sol ics Herbert et al.1961
Suspended soltds EIFAC 1365
Sand Alexancer and Hansen
1983
Suspended solids BachllaTln 1958
Clay Car 1son 1984
Kaolinite and E!FAC 1%5
IIOntmori lionite
development including eggs and embryos,alevins,fry,Juveniles,
and adult fish.Furthermore,quantitative analyses have been
performed to determine the effects of sediment on feeding,
growth,productivity,biomass,abundance,anatomy~physiology,
arid behav ior.Nonetheless,a number of data gaps ex i st wi th
regard to threshold levels having a specific .ffect on a
particular species.
The above discussion demonstrates that particulates have
detrimental effects on freshwater aquatic biota.
(1)Turbidity reduces the amount of light available for
green plant growth and photosynthesis within water
bodies,can inhibit instream movements of fish,and
may inhibit the ability of fish to see their prey.
(~)Turbidity and sett1ed solids can cause reductions in
invertebrate populations and can cause an increase in
invertebrate drift.
(3)Ability of fish to withstand various concentrations of
settled and/or suspended solids depends on their life
stage.Adult fish can withstand relatively high concen-
trations of suspended solids for limited amounts of time
without suffering mortality,although other physiologi-
cal effects such as fin and gill damage and stress
reactions may result.
(4)Survival of fish eggs and Juveniles may be significantly
reduced by settled solids in spawning and rearing areas.
(S)Settled solids have direct effects on aquatic biota and
habitat by smothering fish eggs,alevins,and inverte-
brates,reducing intergravel flow,and by coating
aquatic vegetation,thus reducing the potential for
photosynthesis.
(6)Solids in suspension can cause invertebrate drift,cause
fish to avoid previously usable habitat,prevent fish
from seeing their prey,and cause physical damage,such
as gill irritation,to fish.
REVIEW DRAFT ~/QS/a5 PAGE'~
,~.
(7)Silt ~nd larger particles in the water column can fill
open-work gravels .ven when the concentration of
suspended solids in the water is low.
The biological effects of inorganic suspended solids on
marine communities are complex and extremely difficult to
quantify.The effects on zooplankton and higher aquatic
organisms are more difficult to evaluate than the effects on
phytoplankton (Brehmer 1965)•With the exception of a few
commercially important species,little is known about the
effects of turbid ity and suspended material on marine
I';'"'i rlvert ebrat.s (Stern and Stickle 1978)•Different species of
-
marine organisms are affected to different degrees by the same
concentrations of turbidity~causing sediments (Loosanoff 196~,
Moor~e 1977;McFarland and Peddicord 1980).Many species of
-marine ~hellfish and finfish are sensitive to incre.ses in
suspended solids,which undoubtedly have an inJurious effect on
the estuarine community as a whole (Brehmer 1965).Filter
feeders and early-life stages of estuarine fish are more
sensitive to suspended sediments than bottom dwelling organisms
and adult fish (Sherk et al.1975).As filter feeders,bivalves
are particularly susceptible to the meChanical or abrasive
action of suspended sediments (Cairns 1967;Moore 1977).Other
filt8r-feeding invertebrates at risk from inorganicsusp.nsions
include mollusks,certain crustaceans,sponges,ascidians,and
emetl.!.2!i~!(Moore 1977).
The effects of particulates on marine biota are divided into
discussions of plankton,egg development and hatching success,
larva.survival and development,and adult survival.This is
followed by a discussion of feeding and growth and finally
d i stri but ion.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/QS/85 PAGE6S
Carbon assimilation rates by four species of phytoplankton
were si;nificantly reduced by the light attenuating properties
of fine silicon dioxide suspensions.A concentration of 1000
mg/L caused a ~O to 90 percent reduction in carbon uptake among
the four species tested.A concentration of 2500 Mg/~caused an
eo percent reduction in one of the species tested (Sherk et ala
1 S7G)•
The presence of an open-ocean turbidity plume in the North
Equatorial Pacific,having an average suspended sediment concen-
tration of 440 ug/L,reduced primary productivity by 40 percent
over the entire euphotic zone.However,because particulate
concentrations return to ambient within a few days,it is
believed that species composition changes would not take place
(Oztur;ut et al.1981).The results of two sets ·of plankton
tows indicated there was no maJor.deerease in the abundance.of..
neustonic macrozooplankton or sufficient amounts of particulates
ingested to cause alteration in their chemical composition at
turbidity concentrations of less than 1 mg/L.
The relationship between gastropod eg;s and suspended solids
concentrations 1s discussed in a literature reView by Stern and
Stickle (1978).One s.pecies of planorbid snail showed normal
egg development at 190 to 3&0 ppm,while another species
experienced high mortality at the same concentrations.A third
species did not lay eggs in the 360 ppm water but did so in
water containing 190 ppm suspended solids.
Loosanoff and Oavis (1963)report that silt is considerably
more harmful to oyster eggs than to clam eggs.at
concentrations of 2~0 mg/L silt,only 73 percent of oyster eggs
survived,while more than 9~percent of clam eggs developed
normally.Practically all clam eggs developed in concentrations
of SOO mg/~silt,while only 31 percent of oyster eg;s survived.
In a 1000 mg/L suspension of kaolin and Fuller's earth,on the
other hand,practically all oyster sggs developed normally,
REVIEW DRAFT C1 /~9/aS PAGE '"
-
-
-
-
~',
.~
whi le only 37 to
showed that the
eggs decreased
earth increased--
,....
57 percent of clam eggs survived.Davis (1960)
normal development of clam (Y~n~§m~r£~n~r1~1
as concentrations of clay,chalk,and FUller's
up to 4000 mg/L.The same was true for silt
concentrations exceeding 750 mg/L.Furthermore,no clam eggs
developed normally in silt concentrations of 3000 or 4000 mg/L.
In a subsequent paper,Davis and Hidu (1969),report that 18S
mg/L silt,3000 mg/L kaolin,or 4000 mg/L Fuller's earth
significantly reduced the normal development of American oyster
eggs.Oyster eggs were not,however,affected by 4000 mg/L
silicon dioxide"regardless of the particle size.These
findings suggest that the composition,as well as the concentra-
tion of different sediments may be critical to the normal
development of bivalve eggs.
Auld and.Schubel (1976)note that suspended sediment concen-
trations up to 1000 mg/L did not significantly affect the
hatching success of a variety of non-salmonid anadromous and
et a1.(19S1>report that herring eggs are unaffected by
suspended silt.They note that the embryonic development of
herring is unaffected by either short-term exposure to 500 mg/L,
or long-term exposure to 5 to 300 mg/L suspended silt.
The same concentrations did,however,reduce
-
estlJarine fish.
the hatching success of white perch and striped bass.Kiorboe
With respect to larval survival and development,
experimental results indicate that suspended sediment concentra-
tiolns of 500 mg/l..significantly reduced the survival of striped
bass and white perch larvae,whereas short-term exp9sure to 100
mg/L reduced the survival of American shad larvae (Auld and
Schubel 1978).As in the ca.e of clam and oyster eggs,
Loo!sanoff and Davis (1963)found si lt to be more harmful to
larvae growth was markedly decreased,while
to clam larvae.At a concentration of 750
1000 mg/L silt.Moreover,clam
in 3000 to 4000 mg/L silt.In
oyster larvae than
mg/l silt,oyster
clam larvae grew normally in
larvae survived for 12 days
REVIEW DRAFT 9109/85 PAGE '7
cont rast to si 1 t,1000 mg/L kaol in caused tot al mort al it yin
clam larvae in 12 days,while the growth of oyster larvae was
I"l0t affected by 1000 mg/L.Io<aol in.5i 1 icon dioxide part icles
ranging from 5 to 50 microns had little effect o~·the survival
of either clam Or American oyster larvae.The smallest
p.rticles «5 microns)had the greatest .ffect on the larvae of
both species.Growth of American oyster larvae decreased
progressively as the size of silicon dioxide particles decreased
(Davis and Hidu 1969).From these studies,it was concluded
that bivalve larvae grew faster in low concentrations of
suspended solids than in clear se.water (Davis and Hidu 1969).
With respect to adult survival,McFarland and Peddicord
(19BO)observed a wide range of sensitivities to suspended
kaolin among the 16 marine species they studied.Eight species
exhibited less than 10 percent mortality after exposure to ~OO
giL suspended sediment.Several other species were found to be
rnore sensit ive.Th.200-hr LC~O for the mu •••l !!1!..~~li!~!:nl@n!:!...
was 96 giL.Two speci.s of tunic.te.were relatively tolerant
of suspended .olid.with.12-day LC~O of 100 gIL.The 200-hr
L.eSO for the spot-tailed sand shrimp was ~O giL.The 400-hr
LC30 for the same species was 40 gIL indicating a high tolerance
to suspended clay.The euryhaline grass shrimp was even less
sensitive to suspended kaolin.Th.Dung.ness crab,~§ns~r
m~Ql§t@!:,was found to be more sensitive than any of the shrimp
species,with a 200-hr LeSO of 32 gIL.The amphipod,
eni"~QAmmA!:Y"~~Df.c~i~2!Y.,demon.trated an intermediate
sensitivity to suspended sediment with a 100-hr LeSO of 78 giL.
The kaolin conc.ntration which cau.ed SO percent mortality in
the polychaete ~••D~b.~~YSSAn~.was 48 gIL in 200 hours.The
English sole,e.r2abrY~y.1yly.,experienced no mortalities in
10 days at a concentration of 10 gIL 01'"less.However,80
percent mortality occurred after 10 days at 117 gIL..The shiner
perch,~.!.§~,gr.,g§1!h was the most sensitive species tested with
only one fish alive after 26 hotirs in 14 giL suspended kaolin
(McFarland and Peddicord 1960).In a similar pUblication,
REVIEW DRRFT <J 109/65 PAGE "8
-
""'"
-
...
-
,.,..
-
-
.....
-
Peddicord (1980)states that marine and estuarine invertebrates
were able to tolerate continuous exposure to suspensions of
kaolin and bentonite in the grams/liter range for several days
to several weeks without substantial mortality.Fi~h tolerated
similar concentrations for similar periods under similar
conclitions.Even at high temperatures and low dissolved oxygen
concentrations,most invertebrates tolerated continuous exposure
to 60 gIL suspended bentonite for several days before mortality
occurred.An exception is noted for Juvenile Dungeness crabs
which were affected to a greater degree by kaolin suspensions
than other species.Moore (1977)notes an experiment in which
shrimp (gr~!!.El.2!!sp.)survived immersion for 14 days in a clay
suspension of 3000 mg/L..In another experiment,grsnS2!!;r~!!.Elg!!
survived red mud suspensions up to 33 gIL for 72 hours,but were
heavily coated on the gills.Experiments using seed scallops
showed elevated respira~iQn rates at-kaolin concentrat~ons-o~
250 to 1000 mg/L..Adult bivalves (BrS2gg;I~n 1rrsg12!!~)also
showed higher respiration rates at ~OO and 1000 mg/L kaolin.
The bivalve ~~~~r§n~r1~survived for only 11 days at 1220 mglL
suspended mud and 1~days at 1~20 mg/L.chalk (Moore 1977)~In
their literature review,Stern and Stickle (1978)report that
suspended sediment concentrations from 4 to 32 gIL can be
detrimental to oysters.Furthermore,they note that scallop and
quahlog (clam)reproduction may be impaired by high
concentrations of suspended solids.
Pedd icord et al.(197~)note several invest i gat ions in wh ich
deposited sediments increased the mortality rate of bottom
dwelling marine invertebrates.Oysters (gr.~~Q3Ir••~1ra1!!1;s)
suffered ~7 percent mortality where they were covered with 2 to
15 cm of sediment near a dredge spoil site.This compared to 17
percent mortality in the same oyster bed where little
sedimentation had occurred.Cumaceans and harpacticoid copeoods
were killed by deposition of 15 cm of sediment.The same amount
of deposition reduced the number of large bivalves by 50
percent..I n ex per i ment s cond uct ed by Ped d i cc,rd et a 1.(1'375),
REVIEW DRAFT 9/119/85 PAGE ""
the rnc.rt ali ty
60 percent
of mussels <~~§~~11~)was 10 percent under 4 cm
under 6 and 8 cm of sediment deposited on the
Static bioassays conducted by Sherk et a1.(1'375)
established the lethal concentration of Fuller's earth on a
variety of non-salmonid estuarine fish.Species were classified
as tolerant 010 g/L.),sensitive <1.0 to 10 gIL),or highly
sensitive «1.0 g/L.),based on a ~4-hour L.el0.L.ethal
concentrations ranged from o.~a to 24.~gIL.,depending on the
species.E~posure to SUblethal concentrations of Fuller's earth
significantly increased the hematocrit value,hemoglobin concen-
tration,and erythrocyte numbers among the species tested.
With respect to feeding and growth,Johnston and Wild ish
<1'380)conducted an lnvestigation to determine if increa~~d
levels of suspended sediment reduced the feeding rate of larval
herring~Larvae fed in water containing 4 and a mg/L.consumed
the same quantity of zooplankters as those fed in clear water.
However,larvae fed at 20 mg/L consumed significantly fewer %00-
plankters than did the controls.They concluded that decreased
light intensity at the lower sediment concentrations (4 and e
mg/L),is not sufficient to depress larval feeding rates.At
greater suspended sediment conce~tratio~s <20 mg/L),light
intensity and visibility of prey are reduced sufficiently to
cause depressed feeding rate..Brehmer (196~)reports that the
f.eding activity·of certain filter-feeding shellfish is
inhibited by high suspended solids levels.An eKample is noted
by Moore (1977)in which the filtration rate of a mollusk
<~r.~1gylA sp.)was significantly reduced as turbidity increased
from 140 to 200 mg/L.Likewise,Johnson (1971)found that the
filtration rate.of~.fQ~n1~.t~decreased as natural suspended
solids levels increased from 2 to 250 mg/L.H.also found that
the filtration rate decreased significantly as the concentration
of silt,~uller's earth,and kaolin was increased up to 6 giL
under experimental conditions.It is interesting to note the
REVIEW DRAFT q/Q3/85 PAGE 70
-
-
~I
.....
.....
-
.....
difference between natural and e~perimental sediment
concentrations which produced the same reported effect.The
presence of 0 to SOO mg/L suspended kaolin reduced the filtering
rate of the scallop el~~2e~~t~n mea~lleni£~~and~the mahogany
quahog a~~ti£~i~lengi£~(Peddicord at al.197~>.
In the lower sediment concentration range,Kiorboe at al.
(19,80)indicate that the blue mussel r1~til~~~9.~li~is well
adapted to feeding in silt suspensions up to SS mg/L,and even
benefits from concentrations up to a~mg/L.Furthermore,Stern
and Stickle (1978>cite a report in which the pumping rate of ~.
~~~ii~was not reduced by bentonite suspensions of 1000 mg/L.
In an e~periment conducted by Loosanoff and Tommers (1948>,as
little as 100 mg/L silt significantly reduced the water pumping
rate and shell movements of adult oysters.At concentr~ations of
3000 to 4000 mg/L the Rumpin;rate was reduced by 94 percen~~
In another eHperiment,oysters failed to resume normal pumping
rates or shell movements after bein;subJected to water
containing 1000 to 4000 mg/L suspended sediment for 48 hours
(Loosanoff 1961).It as apparent that suspended sediments
adversely affect adult oysters by damaging their gills and
palps.Furthermore,it was apparent that oysters and clams feed
most effectively in relatively clean water.In contrast,Stern
and Stickle (1978>cite a report which stat..that oyster
feeding rates were not impaired by 100 to 700 ppm of suspended
mud.
The ingestion rate of two calanoid copepods was
significantly reduced during exposure to a 2~0 mg/L mixture of
Fuller's earth,fine silicon dio~id.,and river silt (Sherk et
a1.197~;1976>.At a concentration of 300 mg/L river silt,the
ingestion rate was reduced by 77.3 percent (Sherk et al.1976)•
The distribution of marine organisms may be affected oy
turbid conditions.Resulting from an investigation of the
filtration and shell growth rate of the filter feeding gastropod
REVIEW DRAFT Q/49/S:S PAGE 11
~.f2~ni~~~~,Johnson (1971)suggests that sustained high
turbidity levels May have a liMiting effect on its distribution.
Moore (1977)notes that an inshore cephalopod,~~lia~n~~l~
Qr:.~y.ia,pr~eferred intermediate tl.lrbidities (70 t<::.90 percent
light transmission)and was limited seaward by higher
turbidities.
Several anadromous salmonid investigations perfo~med in
fresh water are cited in the marine literature.The results of
such studies apply to both fresh water and marine systems and
are presented above in Tables 4-1 through 4-4.The quantitative
effects of suspended solids and turbidity on marine plankton and
macroinvertebrates are summari:ed in Table.4-5 and 4-6.
The above discussion demonstrates that particulates may.have
detrimental .effects on marine biota.These effects ~re
summarized below.
(1)The biological .ffects of particulates on marine biota
are similar to the effects on freshwater aquatic biota.
Particulates in the water column reduce the amount of
light available for photosynthesis,can inhibit move-
ments of fish,and may inhibit the ability of fish and
other sight-f.eders to see their prey.Filter feeders,
which are p«rticularly susceptible to the mechanical or
abrasive action of suspended sediments,and early-life
stages of estuarine fish are more sensitive to suspended
sediments than bottom dwelling organisms and adult fish.
(2)Much of the marine literature refers to the effects
caus.d by clay,silt,chalk,Fuller's earth,and kaolin.
It appears that the composition and/or particle size,as
well as the concentration of different sediments may be
critical to predicting the effects of particles on
Marine organisms.
(3)The difference between natural and experimental sediMent
concentrations producing the same reported effect should
REVIEW CRAFT q /Q9/SS PAGE 7'-
-
-
-
-
-
~EVIEW DRAFT '3/09/35 PAGE 1'3
iAEL:~-5 Continued
SURVIVAL AND ~RT~LITY OF ~RINE ORG~rSMS
CrOil!:!!.2:!!____Nature and Extent of Effect Leve~or Co~_Durae ion COllllllent aeference
TIJnicates (2)51)~llIortali ty 100.000 rnglL.12 oays Suspenceri clay McFarlane and
Pedaicord 19M
Hrncniood 50'!'IIOrtali ty 55,COQ iIIg/L 2.00 ;,ours SusoeJ1dea \(aol in PeCldicord et al.1'.175
SO%IOrtali t y 78,000 mg/L tOO hours SuspeYll1ed clay McFarland ana
Peddicord 1380
20~ilIortali ty 35,000 mq/L 200 hours Susoended kaol iT,Pella icord et a 1.1975
curYhaline 20';iDOrt ality 77,000 IIIg/L 200 hours Suspended kaolin Peddicora at al.1'375
Grass Sh rli~O
Soot-talled 50';lIIOf'tall ty ~O.OOO iIlg/L 200 hours Suspended ciay I'tcF ar land aT,d
Sa no ShrilllD Peddicord 1980
Shnmp Survived clay concentrations 3000 mg/L 1~days Suspendea clay JIloore 1977
(~anllQ!1 so,)SurVlvea red mud Up to 33,000 !IIg/L 72 hours Suspended clay Moore 1977
:"obster IJo IIIOrtal i ty SO,OOO fdg/L Suspended kaolin Stern and Stickle
1978
No I'IIOrtality 1600 ppll Turbidity Stern and Stickle
I'37B'
Jungeness 50';IDOrt aii ty 32,000 mg/L 200 hours Suspenced'clay :o!c:Farland and'
Crac Peddicord lSBO
Estuarine Ito slJbstantlal IlOrtality Uo to 60,000 mg/L Several days SusDended Kaolin and PeddIcord :960
Invertebrates bentonite
REVIEw DRAFT 3/09/85 ~GE:7'*
TABLE 4-6
~iSCELLANEOU5 EFFEC7S ON MARINE ORGANISMS
HraerlCan Clyster >22%decrease in normal egg
developllent
Itlrmal egg development
Reduced average pumping
rate!:ly 57%
Reduced average pu.ping
rate by 94%
Fai led to resUlM!IlOMlal
functions
fristers No effect on feeding
--
-
'I'
I
Seed Scallops
Clams
Q'Jahog
i"'~lilJsk
(Cre:Hliula sp.)
:'Iussel
(~tilllS sp.)
Phytoalankton
Priraary
Drocllchon
Zooplankto'n
Calanaid
Cope pods
Cephalopod
5astrocod
Hernng
Elevated respiration rate
No eggs developed normally
Decreased development
Ceased feeding
Reduced filtration rate
Filtration rate
slgnlficanily reauced
Well adaoted to silt cone.
Benefits frot!silt cone.
Inereased respiration rates
No reduction in pumping
rates
Production reduced to 40%
Carbon assimilation
decreased by S0-9~
Carbon assi.ilation
decreased !:Iy 80%
Reduced by SQ1.
No significant decrease in
abundance
Ingestion rate reduced ~
Ingestion rate reduced
si gnficantl y
Preferred interEdiate
turbidities
Decreased filtration rate
Decreased shell growth rate
~iltration rate decreased
~l:Iryenic development
unaffected cy continuous
eXPOSllre
Larval feeaing signifi-
cantly reduced
188-4000 rng/L
To 1000-2000 mg/L
100 fIlglL
3000-4000 IIg/L
1000-4000 Illg/L 48 hours
100-700 PPII
250-1000 IIIg/L
3000-4000 IlIg/L
Up to 4000 IIIg/L
1000 JTU avera~e S days
o to 500 .g/L
Increased frOlI
140-200 IIQ/l
Up to 55 IIlg/L
Up to 2S Ig/l
S00-10OO IIg/L 7-14 days
1000 IIlQ/L
0.440 IIglL TeMtlOrary
1000 .g/L
41-43 JTU average
1 lIg/L TlIIPOI"ary
SOO lIIg/L
2SO IIglL
70-90~light
transmission
rncreased fl'Oll
2 to 250 IIIg/L
rncreasea frOlll
80 to 1560 ilIg/l
:;0 to 6000 IIlg/L
Up ~o 300 mgi~~ong-term
20 lng/I.
RE~J:2.J DRAF7 S/09/.95 ~HGE 75
Suspended silt
~ixed suspensions
Silt
Silt
Silt suspenslons
Suspended sol ids
Kaolin suspensions
Silt susoensions
~ixed suspenslons
Turbidity
Suspended ~aolin
5us~ed solids
Silt
Silt
Kaolin suspensions
Bentonite
Suspensions
Mining plWlle
Si licon diollide
suspension
Silicon dioxide
suspension
TlJrbidity
Mining plume
Suspended si 1t
Mixed susoension
Natural seailllent
~iKed sus~ension
~ixed susoension
Suspended 5 i 1t
Suscenced salias
Davis and Hidu 1~69
Davis and Hidu 1969
Loosanoff and TOIImers
1948
Loosar:off and iommers
1948
Loosanoff 1361
Stern and Stickle
1978
!'loere 1977
Davis 1960
Davis 1960
Stern and Stickle
1978
Peodicord eLai.1'375
Moore 1977
Kiorboe et ai,1980
Kiorboe et al.1980
Moore 1977
Stern and Stickle
1978
Ozturgut et ai.1981
Sherk et al.1976
Sherk et al.1'376
Stern and Stickle
1978
Ozturgut et al.1981
Sherk et aI.1376
Sher~et al.1975;
1976
JI100re 1977
Johnson 1971
;Qi'mson :371
fj,~r'X'E er.a",1'38:
•':-0":·....\JL.
--------~-
be noted.Laboratory experiments often do not duplicate
natural conditions or reflect natural levels of organism
tolerance to turbidity and suspended material.
4.3 SUGGESTED CRITERIA FROM THE LITERATURE
Various authors suggest different criteria for the
prctection of water used for supply,recreation,and biota.
This section presents these suggested criteria.It should be
noted that there is general agreement on the criteria for water
supply and recreation,but the criteria for the protection of
aquatic biota are varied.
4.3.1 Water Supply
For drinking water,·-the raw water source should be limi1;ed
to 5 turbidity units if only disinfection is applied (George and
Lehnig 1984).Higher levels of particulates are acceptable if
the source water is adequately treated (coagulation,
sedimentation,filtration)prior to chlorination or other means
of disinfection.EPA (1976)notes that finished drinking water
should have a maximum limit of 1 turbidity unit where the water
enters the distribution system.
.....
-
The water quality
industrial uses.At
water with only 0.3
cooling can have up
Other industrial u•••
this range.
criteria for particulates varies among
one extreme,rayon manufacture requires
turbidity units,whereas water used for
to ~O turbidity units (McGauhey 1968>.
r.quir.maximum turbidity levels within
Criteria established for .valuating and identifying water
treatment needs for fish hatcheries by Sigma Resource
Consultants (1979)include limit.on suspended solids.The
suggested limit for suspended solids for incubating eggs is 3
REVIEW DRAFT q/Q9/a~PAGE""
-
-
.-
-
..-
-
mt/L.and for rearing and holding the limit is 25 mg/L in the
absence of other pollutants.
4.3.2 Recreation
The noticeable threshold for water contact recreation is 10
turbidity units,and the limiting threshold is 50 units
(Mc6auhey 1968).The suggested maximum turbidity limit for
Canaldian contact recreational water quality is 50 turbidity
units and the minimum Secchi disk visibility depth is 1.2 meters
(National Health and Welfare 1983).Fishing success is reduced
wheY'e turbidity is greater than 23 (Philli;:3s 1971)to 30 NTU
(Grundy 1975).According to McGauhey (19S8),the noticeable
threshold for boating and aesthetic uses is 20 turbidity units.
However,there is no evidence that boating and aesthetic uses
are precluded at higher turbidities.
4.3.3 Siota
Sugested particulate.criteria from the literature are
divided into two categories in the following discussion:(1)
Criteria for sediment in the water column (suspended solids and
turbidity),and,(2)Criteria for sediment deposited on the
substrate (settleable solids and substrate measurements).
General suspended sediment criteria were initially proposed
by Ellis (1937,1944)with respect to light penetration and
aquatic life.For the restoration of streams,Ellis (1937)
sug~est.d th.silt load should not reduce the light intensity at
5 meters by more than one millionth of its intensity at the
surf'ace.Ellis (1944)restated this criterion for the
prevention of direct damage to the gills and delicate exposed
structures of fish,mollusks,and insects.For the protection
of fish,Berger (1977)suggests that turbidity shall not average
REVIEW DRAFT Q/49/Se PAGE'~
more than 27 times the natural level during any e-hour period,
or more than 9 times the natural level during any 96-hour
period,or more than 3 times the natural level during any 30-day
period.These suspended sediment standards shall apply during
construction activities and for 2 years after they have ceased.
Berger's criteria ~or turbidity and macroinvertebrates during
the post-construction period were stated as follows.In the
year that .tarts 12 m~nths after completion of a construction
activity,turbidity should not exceed one-half of the levels
recommended above and the Shannon Diversity Index for
cottom-living aquatic macroinvertebrate.shall not be changed
more than 25 percent from the natural value as a result of
finely-divided solids.
The first definite suspended solids criteria for ·fresh water
were proposed by the European Inland Fisheries Advis~ry
Commission (EIFAC)~n 1965.According to the commission,there
is no evidence that suspended solids levels less than 2S ppm
have any harmful effects on fish;suspended solids in the range
of 25 to 80 ppm will maintain good to moderate fisheries;eo to
400 ppm suspended sol ids are unli kely to support good freshwater
fisheries;and,at best only poor fisheries are present in
waters containing greater than 400 ppm suspended solids.These
tentative criteria proposed by EIFAC were based on a survey of
existing literature,and were presented as a basis for
discussions of criteria necessary ~or the maintenance of
~reshwater ~ish.They are by ~ar the most frequently cited
criteria.Not all authors,however,indicate if they simply
concur with the Criteria .ugge.ted by EIFAC or are suggesting
identical criteria based on conclusion.derived independently.
Those who suggest Or state criteria similar to EIFAC include
Sammon (1970),Alabaster (1972),eell (1973),NAS (1973),
Sorensen et al.(1977),Alabaster and Lloyd (1982),Wilber
(1983),and Seorge and Lehnig (1984).In addition,Van
Nieuwenhuyse (1~83)and Simmo~s (1984)suggest turbidity
criteria levels CNTU)similar to the EIFAC criteria for
suspended solids (ppm).
REVIEW DRAFT '/Q'3/85 PAGE 79
-
-
-
..
--
....
In their.review of the EPI=I Red Book,Thurston et ala (1979)
support a limit of 100 mg/L of suspended solids to prevent the
mortality of fresh and marine organisms.However,one of the
r'evtewer's felt that 100 mg/L is too restrictive and t-hat concen-
trations could be much higher without causing adverse effects.
These values are higher than those suggested by EIFI=IC (1965)to
maintain a good fishery,but do not account for the sublethal
effects discussed by several authors and presented in this
litelrature review.Thurston et a1.(1979)state that no
universal agreement exists as to the level of turbidity to be
allowed.~erbert and Richards (1963)note that there is a
fairly distinct separation at 100 mg/L,between rivers
containing fish and those devoid of fish,thus supporting the
recc)mmendation of Thurston et al.(1979)regarding lethal
conc:entrat ions •
The most conservative recommended turbidity standard is 25
NTU above natural conditions in streams and ~NTU above natural
conditions in lakes for moderate protection,and 5 NTU in both
lakes and streams for a high level of protection (Lloyd 1985).
With regard to inCUbating eggs,Sigma Resource Consultants
(1979)propose an acceptable limit of 3 mg/L suspended solids
and 25 mg/L would be acceptable for fish rearing and holding in
the absence of other pollutants.
OFO (1983)has proposed sediment discharge standards,as
opposed to receiving water standards,for five different classes
of streams.For str.ams which are important as salmon and trout
spawning habitat (1=1 classifications),the recommended sediment
standard is a mg/L.Streams which are rearing areas for salmon
and trout (B crassifications)and those which prOVide habitat
for grayling,whitefish,and burbot (C classifications)would
have a discharge limit of 100 mg/L.In streams having low or no
use by any of the above fish except as migration routes,the
recommended standard is 100 or 1000 mg/L.The same is true for
all streams having a reduced biological capacity due to past
placer minlng activities (X classification).
REVIEW ORI=IFT q/~9/8~PI=IGE 79
Sherk etal.(1975)state 'chat the use of lethal conc&l"ltra-
tiona (LC30)to establish suspended solids criteria ignores
biologically significant sublethal effects on estuarine
organisms.Therefore,in establishing criteria for the
protection of estuarine organisms,the sublethal effects of
suspended sediment On the most sensitive biological components
(important species and life stages)must be considered.
Adequate knowledge of local conditions,such as life-history
stages,sediment types,sediment concentrations,species,
duration of e~posure,and habitat preference,is required.
Tarzwell (19~7)states that it is not possible to establish
numerical criteria for settleable solids Which are applicable
over wide areas.The criteria should be established to protect
environmental conditions but will vary from stream to stream,
depending on local concditions.With regard to deposited
sediment,EIF~C (196S)concluded that spawning grounds for
salmon and trout should be kept as free as possible from finely
divided solids.BJornn et ale (1974)suggested that the amount
of sediments that should be allowed to enter a stream before
detrimental effects will occur on the aquatic habitat will
depend on the amount of fines already contained within the
stream channel.The amount that can enter the stream is the
difference between the pre.ent level and the allowable,plus the
amount transported.BJornn et al.(1977)state that fine
sediment should not be allowed to fill pools or fully embed the
larger substrate rocks,to avoid reducing the salmonid
production capacity.They advocate using the percentage of fine
sediment in selected riffle are.s as the primary inde~for
monitoring fine sediment deposition in streams.Along these
same lines,llNamoto et al.(1918)indicate that the best
alternative appears to b.the establishment of criteria which
limits the percentage of fines i~the streambed,and suggest a
limit of 10 to ZO percent for sediment less than 0.65 mm in
REVIEW PR~FT q/Q9/8~P~GE So
-
-
-
....,
-
diameter.1n an earlier report,Ellis (1944)thought that fine
sediment should be controlled to the extent that it does not
blanket the bottom to a depth of more than one-quarter of an
inch.
Van Nieuwenhuyse (963)and Simmons (1984)propose a
protection in receiving waters.Simmons
further and suggests settleable solids levels
for a moderate level,and )0.2 mIlL for
protection.
settleable solids standard of (0.1 mIlL
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for a high level of
(1984)goes a step
of 0.1 to 0.2 mIlL
a low level of
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r
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manganese nodule mining on the environment:results from
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in:R.A.Geyer (ed.>,Marine Environmental Pollution,2:
Dumping and Mining,Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co.,New
York,NY.574 pp.
Peddicord,R.K.,1'380.Direct effects of suspended sediments on
aquatic organisms.in:R.A.Baker (ed.>,Contaminants and
Sediments,Vol.1,Ann Arbor Science PUblishers,Inc.,Ann
Arbor,MI.pp.~Ol-S36.
Peddicord,R.K.,V.A.McFarland,D.P.Belfiori,and T.E.Byrd,
1975.Effects of suspended solids on San Francisco Bay
organisms.Report to U.S.Army Engineer District,San
Francisco,Dredge Disposal StUdy,AppendiH G.
Phillips,R.W.,1971.Effects of sediments on the gravel
enviroment and fish production.In:Proc.of Symp.Forest
Land Uses and Stream Erosion,Oregon State University.
Phillips,R.W.,R.C.Lantz,E.W.Claire,and J.R.Moring,1975.
Some effects of gravel miHtures on emergence of coho salmon
and steelhead fry.Trans.Amer.Fish.Soc.,104(3):461-466.
Reed,J.P.,J.M.Miller,D.G.Pence,and B.Schaich,1983.The
effects of low level turbidity on fish and their habitat.
Water Resources Research Institute Report No.190,Univ.of
North Carolina.40 pp.
REVIEW DRAFT q/Q9/85 PAGE'1
Symorls,J.M.,and J.C.Hoff,1975.Rat ionale fol'"tUl"'bidity
maximum contaMinant level.Pl"'esented at Thil"'d Watel'"
Quality Technology Confel"'ence,Amel"'ican Watel'"WOl"'ks Associa-
tion,Atlanta,Geol"'gia,Decembel'"8-10,1975,Watel'"Supply
Reseal"'ch Division,Envi l"'orlment a 1 Pl"'otectiol"l Agency,
Cincinnati,OH.18 pp.
Tagart,J.V.,1976.The survival fl"'om egg deposit ion to
emergence of coho salmon in the Cleal"'water Rivel"',Jeffel"'son
County,Washington.M.S.Thesis,Univel"'sity of Washington,
Seattle,WA.as pp.+Appendices.
Tappel,P.O.,and T.C.BJol"'nn,1983.A new method of relating
size of spawning gl"'avel to salmonid embryo size.North
American Journal F'isheries Management,(3):123-135.
Tal"'zwell,C.M.,1957.Water Quality cl"'itel"'ia fol'"aquatic life.
In:Biological Pl"'oblems in Water Pollution,Tl"'ansaction of
the 1956 Seminal"'.Robel"'t A.Taft Sanital"'Y Engineering
Centel"',Cincinnati,OH.pp.246-272.
Thul"'ston,R.V.,R.C.Russo,C.M.Fettel"'hoff,Jl"'.,T.A."Edsall,Y.
M.Sarbel"',Jl"'.,(eds.),1979.A reyiew of the EPA Red Sool-,n
quality cl"'itel"'ia fol'"water.Wat~r Quality Section,Ame~ic~n
Fishel"'ies Society,Bethesda,~O.313 pp.
Townsend,A.H.,1983.Sport fishing--placer mining:Chatanika
Rivel"'.Memo to B.Baker,Directol"',Habitat Division,Alaska
Dept.of Fish and aame,gated Feb.2.3 pp.+Appendices.
Turnpenny,A.W.H.,and R.Williams,1960.Effects of sedimenta-
tion on the gl"'avels of an industl"'ial l"'ivel'"system.Joul"'nal
Fish Biology,17:681-693.
Van Nieuwenhuyse,E.E.,1983.The effects of placer mining on
the pl"'imal"'y productivity of intel"'iol'"Alaska stl"'eams.M.S.
Thesis,University of Alaska,Fairbanks,Alaska.120 pp.
Wilber,C.G.,1983.Turbidity in the aquatic environment,an
environmental factor in fresh and oceanic waters.Charles
C.Thomas,Publishel"',Spl"'ingfield,IL.133 pp.
Witzel,L.D.,and H.R.MacCrimmon,1981.Role of gravel
suostl"'ate on OVA sUl"'vi"al and alevin emel"'gel"lce of rainbow
trout,3~lmg ~.1r9D.r1.Canadian Joul"'nal of Zoology,Vol.
5~,pp.629-636.
-
Wolman,M.G.,1974.Stl"'eam standards.
Watel'"Pol1ution Control Federation,
dead or hiding?
46 (3):431-437.
Journal
REVIEW DRAFT '/09/85 PAGE S'
,~
Rosenthal,H.,1971.Effects of "red mud"on embryos al"ld larvae
of the herring CIYa~~b~r~nB~~.Helgolander wiss.
Meeres'..ll"lters,(22):366-376.
Sal.Il"Jders,J.W.,and M.W.SrJlith,1965.Charlges in stt~am popl.lla-
tion of trout associated with increased silt.Journal Fish.
Res.Board Canada,22(2):395-404.
Shelton,J.M.,and R.D.Pollack,1966.Siltat ion and egg
survival in incubation channels.Trans.Amer.Fish.Soc.,
95 (2):18:::0189.
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suspended and deposited sediments on estuarine environments.
In=L..E.Cronin (ed.),Estuarine Research,Vol.II,Geol';:Jgy
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salmon.PhD.Dissertation,University of Idaho,Moscow,
10.lS8 pp.
Sigler,J.W.,T.C.BJornn,and F.H.Everset,1984.Effects of
chronic turbidity on density and growth of steelheads and
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Sigma Resource Consultants,1979.Summary of water quality
criteria for salmonid hatcheries.O.pt.of Fish.ries and
Dcear/s.
Simmons,R.C.,1984.Effects of placer mining sedimentation on
Arctic grayling on int.rior Alaska.M.S.Thesis,University
of Alaska,Fairbank.,Alaska.75 pp.
Sorensen,O.L..,M.M.McCarthy,E.J.Middlebrooks,and 0.8.
Porc.lla,1977.Susp.nd.d and dissolv.d solids eff.cts on
freshwater biota:a r.vi.w.Corvallis En....ironmental
Research L.aboratory,Offic.of R.s.arch and O.velopm.nt,
En....ironm.ntal Prot.ction Ag.ncy,Cor....allis,OR.65 pp.
Stern,E.M.,and W.B.St ickle,1978.Effects of turbidity al"ld
suspended mat.rial in aquatic .nvironm.nts.Dredged
Material Res.arch Program,Technical Report 0-78-21,
Environmental L.aboratory,U.S.Army Enginner Waterways
Experiment Station,Vicksburg,MS.117 pp.
Sykora,S.L..,E.J.Smith,and M.Synak,1972.Effect of lime
neutralized iron hydroxide suspensions on Juvenile bro~k
trout.Water R.search,(6):935-950.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE 8S
-5.0 POTENTIAL USE OF OTHER PARAMETERS
This section presents a discussion of potential alternatives
to the parameters currently used by Alaska ~or defining
particulates criteria for the various protected water uses.
Parameters currently employed include turbidity,total suspended
solids,settleable solids,and the percentage accumulation of
fine particles in the substrate.This discussion is divi~ed
into water column measurements and substrate measurements.The
settleable solids test,although a water column measurement,is
discussed with substrate measurements because settleable solids
frequently become part of the substrate.A discussion of the
r-elationship between turbidity and suspended solids appears
before the discussion of water column and substrate
Tl1eas l.lrernent s.
5.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TURBIDITY AND SUSPENDED SOLIDS
The accepted technique for measuring suspended solids (APHA
1985)is time consuming,costly,and normally performed in a
laboratory.Due to these constraints,many field investigators
have used turbidity as an indirect measurement of the concentra-
tlon of suspended solids.In order to adequately assess the
potential for a relationship,if one exists,one must understand
the principles of turbidity and suspended solids measurement,be
familiar with the various methods of measurement and analysis,
an~be aware of the potential variability inherent in each of
these methods.
In simple terms,turbidity may be interpreted as a measure
of the relative clarity of water (Hach et ala 1984).However,
t~rbidity is not ••precisely defined as dissolved oxygen,pH,
alkalinity or many other water quality parameters.It must be
recognized that turbidity,like color,is a visual or optical
property.Consequently,the word meanS different things to
different people.Pickering (1976)notes that turbidity should
REVIEW DRAFT 3/03/25 P~GE qo
-I
""""
-
-
~,
~.
,~
.....
rII
i
be treated as a non-quantitative term similar to the term
"Wall"'mtn,"in the respect that one measures temperat1.lre and not
warmth.
With respect to measuring particulates,turbidity has
received the most attention.Some water quality experts believe
that the turbidity measurement is subJect to great uncertainty
and variability as a unit of measurement.This belief primarily
originates from a number of studies related to placer mining
where exceedingly high levels of turbidity have been measured.
Turbidity measurements are less precise at high levels •
Attempts to quantify turbidity have led to the development
of several methods,instruments,standards,and units of
measure.Consequently,there is a gr~at deal of confus~on over
wh i I:h met hods,i nst rument's,st andards,and un it s of measure are
the most appropriate.McCluney (1975)has summarized the
various definitions of turbidity.These include the intensity
of light transmitted (unscattered)through the sample,ratio of
the intensity of light scattered by a sample to the intensity of
the light source,the amount of light scattered and absorbed
rather than transmitted in straight lines through the sample,
and a reduction in transparency of a sample due to the presence
of particulate matter.Turbidity has also been defined as the
amount of suspended matter,in ppm,as ascertained by optical
obslarvat ion,and in terms of different measurement techniques
(e.g.,Jackson Candle and nephelometric turbidity).The units
of measure for turbidity have included mg/L,ppm,Jackson
turl:lidity units (JTU),formazin turbidity units (FTU),and
nephelometric turbidity units (NTU).aecause of the variety of
different methods,instruments,standards,and units of measure,
many of the supposed equivalent measurements presented in the
literature are actually expressions of different properties of
natl.lral water (McCarthy et al.1974).Today,however~,mos'~
investigators use nephelometers and report results in NTU rather
than the older units.Hence,recent data are more comparable.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/65 PAGE q,
Comparability of turbidity measurements may not only be
affected by the numerous ways of measuring it,but may also be
influenced by the variability among instruments (Beschta 1980).
Even among nephelometers,there is a variety 6f different
physical designs.This situation makes it difficult to compare
turbidity levels.Even using the same standard suspension for
calibr~ating different instruments does not insure that tl.lrbidity
values will be the same.Pickering (1976)reports that
different types of instruments were calibrated with the same
formazin standard and then used to measure various natural water
samples.This resulted in a variety of turbidity values for
the san,e sample.
The only means for reducing the confusion surrounding
turbidity measurements is to standardize the definition of
turbidity and th~instrum~nt design specifications.This has
been accomplished according to §~~OQ~~g_~~t~2Q~(APHA 1985)and
.'
the EPR (1983)methods manual.§t90g~~Q_M~thQg§is Jointly
published by the American Water Works Association,a drinking
water group,the Water Pollution Control Federation,a waste and
sewage group,and the American Public Health Association,a
public health group.The EPA methods manual is used by many
among these groups as well as scientists interested in streams,
lakes,wetlands,estuaries,and coastal areas.Hence,much of
the confusion could,and should,be avoided by adhering to the
definition of turbidity and instrument design specified by APHA
(1985)•
APHA (1985)defines turbidity as an expression of the
C'Ijt ical property that eauses 1 i!iilht to be scattered and absorbed
rather than transmitted in straight line.through the samples.
Turbidity in water is cau.ed by suspended matter,suen as clay,
silt,finely divided organic and inorganic matter,soluble
colored organic compounds,and plankton and other micro$copic
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE q~
-
-
-
--
According.to APHA (1995),the standard instrument for
measuring low turbidities is the nephelometer,for which a
formazin polymer is used as the standard reference suspension.
The 1 igh'~source is a t'Jngsten-fi lameYlt lamp operated at a color
temperature between 2,200 and 3,000 K,where the angle of light
acceptance by the detector is 90 degrees plus or minus 30
degrees.The distance traversed by incident light and scattered
light withln the sample tube is not to exceed 10 cm.Turbidity
measurements less than 40 NTU can be read directly from the
instrument.Turbidities above 40 NTU need to be diluted with
turbidity-free water until turbidity falls between 30 and 40
NTU.
The precision and accuracy of nephelometric turbidity
measurements are highest at lower levels,the leve1s at which
c:r'it:eria are curreYltly set.This s.tatement is supported by t'='e
proper reporting of significant figures according to APHA
(19E~5),wh i ch is:
Turbidity R.nge
_____t:iIY _
0-1.0
1-10
10-40
40-100
100-400
400-1000
)1000
Report to the
_t:i!Ult:t!.t_t:iIY _
0.05
o.1
1
:5
10
30
100
-
.....
There are fewer direct methods for measuring total suspended
solids than there are for turbidity.Hence,there is less
variability in suspeYld8d solids determinations.Total suspended
solids represent the m.terial retained on a standard
glass-fiber filter after a well-mixed sample is filtered,theYl
dried at It)3 to 103 degre••C <APHA 1965).Some investigators
have inappropriately used 0.45 micron filters.Some marine
scientists have used centrifugation for conceYltrating suspended
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/83 PAGE q3
particulates-followed by drying and weighing.However,this
method is imprecise for dilute waters having less than 10 mg/L
suspended solids (Campbell and Elliott 1975).
A MaJor source of variability in both turbidity and total
suspended solids measurements is obtaining a sample that is
representative of the water being sampled.It is difficult to
collect representative samples for suspended solids and
turbidity.Many investigators simply collect grab samples,
which mayor may not be representative of the stream water being
$ampled.This depends on the amount of variability in the
sampled stream.In determining the suitability of the water for
various uses,it is essential that a sample represent the total
or average discharge,as opposed to an isolated cell of water.
Hence,some investigators obtain composite samples ove~~i~e-by
manually collecting graQ samples acros~a cross-section or.by
the use of automatic samplers.Automatic samplers,however,are
usually set to sample only one location at a cross-section and
may not collect all particle sizes.Composite samples can be
time-weighted by combining equal volumes of individual samples
at a specified time interval,or discharge-weighted where the
volume of each individual sample is proportional to the stream
discharge.Each type of composite can result in different
report~d particulates levels.
The difficulty in obtaining representative and reliable
particulates data from automatic samplers has been documented
for rnunicip.l wastewater tre.tment plants.Reed (1977)r"eported
the results of Harris and Keffer who note that the suspended
solids data for a raw municipal wastewater treatm.~t stream,
monitored conclJrrently with more than one commercial automatic:
sampler,can vary by as Mucn as 300 percent depending on the
type of automatic sampler used.
The most reliable suspended solids data are those collected
using depth-integrated samplers.These samplers are lowered at
REVIEW DR~FT 9/09/85 PAGE q4
-
-
lI!'fffl.
a uniform rate with water being admitted throughout the vertical
profile.The number of verticals collected across a stream
depends on the accuracy being sought and on the the variation of
sediment concentrations across the stream.Variability
typically increases as the concentration of sediment increases.
Another source of variability in turbidity and suspended
solids analyses occurs in the analytical process.Subsampling a
relatively small sample for analysis is difficult when the
particulates concentration is moderate to high,and when the
particle size is equivalent to sm~ll sand or lar~er.This
situation arises when rel~tively l~rge sample.(typically 250 ml
to 1 liter)are collected in the field but the volume required
for turbidity and total suspended solids analyses is small.
Turbidity requires about 25 ml and suspended solids requires a
few to lOOml or more depending on·the ~oncentration qf
particulates.Consequently,the analyst must thoroughly mix the
sample and then obtain a representative subsample by decanting,
pipetting,or other appropriate means.This process is
exceedingly difficult and is a source of significant variability
among samples containing high particulates concentrations and/or
samples containing sand-sized particles.Sand settles too fast
to enable an analyst to obtain a representative subsample.
Assessment of the relationship between turbidity and total
suspended solids must consider the sources of variability
discussed above:(1)Variability in the turbidity analysis;(2)
variability in the suspended solids analysis,(3)sample
variability;and (4)subsample variability.These sources
produce variability in the relationship between turbidity and
suspended solids.Many authors (Black and Hannah 1965;Duckrow
and Everhart 1971;Peterson 1973;McGirr 1974;Carlson 1976;
Pickering 1S76;Stern and Stickle 1978;Langer 1980;McCart at
al.1S80;LaPerriere 1983,Wi Iber 1983;13e,:;.rge and Lehni;1984;
Hach et al.1984)recognize that turbidity is not necessarily a
good quantitative indicator of the concentration of suspended
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGEQS
solids becaase of the inconsistent correlation ~etween these
parameters.Table 5-1 and Figure 5-1 present numerous
correlations,both linear and logarithmic,between_turbidity and
suspended solids concentrations reported by Many authors.This
information clearly demonstrates that there is no single
equation relating these two parameters.Furthermore,most of
the authors listed in Table 5-1 failed to consider percentage
error.Kunkle and Comer (1971:reported a percentage error for
their correlation ranging from -69 to +333 percent.Rllen
(1979)studied a turbidimeter to determine its accuracy in
predicting suspended sediment concentrations.His results
showed maximum errors of -184 percent at one gaging station,
+261 percent at another,and average prediction errors of 31 and
25 percent.Allen attributed the poor correlation to changes in
the particle-size distribution of the sediment.
Turbidity,an optical property,must be rscogni:ed as being
entirely different from a weight concentration of suspended
matter.This occurs because the si%e,shape,and refractive
index of suspended particles which influence turbidity measure-
ments are not directly related to the concentration and specific
Qravity of the suspended matter.Particle size and particle
si~e distribution are two key factors required in comparing
suspended solids measurements to the actual turbidity present in
a sample (Booth 1974).Mc:Carthyet a1.(1974)fOI.lnd that the
$~me FTU readin;could be obtained from a given concentration of
kaolinite and twice that concentration of calciUM
montmorillonite.They concluded that bec~use twice as Much
material is in suspension,the resulting siltation problem would
be significantly greater for a calcium montmorillonite discharge
than for a kaolinite discharge.
The majority of turbidity is due to the scatter::.ng of llght
by particles having diameters less than about 10 microns (Klng
et ....1.1378).AlthCJI.lgh tt.lt-bidity 1S often t.msl.lita~le f':I\'-
determinlng suspended solids concentrations,findi~gs indicate
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE~'
....
-
TAELE 5-1
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN TUR8IDITY AND
SUSPENDED SOLIDS CONCENTRATIONS
bQ£~riibmi£_~Qrr§!siiQn§__B2 --B§f§r§DS§___________~Qi§
f""'"<TSS)0.84TED=3.20 0.77 Weagle 1'384 1
TBD =6.00 (TSS)O.631 0.80 R&M 1'385 2....TBD =1.78 (TSS)0.863 0.87 R&M 1'385 3
TED =0.44 <TSS)0.858 0.83 Lloyd 1'385 4
TED =0.185(TSS)0.'3'38 0.'32 Lloyd 1'385 5
TED =1.103(TSS)0.'368 O.'32 L l.:-yd 1'385 6
TeO ..13.49 (TSS)O.68 0.8'3 R&M 1'382 7.-I <TBD)1.32TSS=5.32 0.82 Kunkle and C,:.mer 1'371 8
TSS .-3.92 <T8D)1.41 0.89 .Kur'Jkle and Con,er 1971 '3
..-TSS 2 <-TBD>1.25 King et al.1'378 lOa=
TSS =4 .;:.(TBD)1.09 Kirlg et aL 1'378 lOb.""-
TSS =2.34 (TBD)1.0 0.88 Kirlg at ale 1'378 10c
TSS =0.63 (TBD)1.19 0.'35 Kirlg at a 1.1978 10d
TSS =21.1 <TBD>0.7 King at al.1'378 10e
bin§~~t:_~Qt:t:!!l~tiQn~_____
TED =15.65 +0.861 (TSS)0.4'3 R&M 1'385 11
TBD =8.69 +0.'304(TSS)0.873'3 Toland 1'383 12
TEiD •O.18 +0.41 (TSS)0.47 Peterson 1973 13
T80 =8.78 +0.26 (TSS)0.42 Peterson 1973 14
Tao:
TSSI
Turbidity,NTU
Total Suspended Solids,mg/~
1•Cort~elat ion applied to placer mining effl ueY'lt samples.
'::l Glacier Fork,tributary to Eklt.ltna ~ake,Rlaska--30 to 40....
/?""percent of the basin is covered by glacier-s.!...East Fork,tributary to Eklt.ltr'Ja Lake,Alaska--S to 10...:..
pet'cent of the basin is covered by glaciers.
4.Data provided by USGS for 22'3 samples of Alaska streams,
many of which are glacial or glaclally influenced.
CJ7
TABLE 5-1 Continued
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN TURBIDITY ~ND
SUSPENDED SOLIDS CONCENTRATIONS
-5.Clted Peratrovicn,Nottingham &Drage,Inc.data from the
Susitna River,Alaska.
6.Data for 27S samples collected from unmined and pl£cer mined
streams in interior Alaska by the Alaska Department of Fish
and Game and Toland (1983).
7.Data from settling coluMn tests performed on Alaska placer
mining sluice box discharges.
8.The correlation represents 2 years of data collected from an
agricultural area.The percentage error ranged from -69 to
+333 percent and the high percentage err~rs generally were
associated with the low turbidities (less than SOO mg/L
sed iment.
9.The correlation represents the first year of data for the
above equat ion.
10.Correlations from other authors presented by King et al.
(1978)for drainage from sandy to silty,silt loam,fine
silt loam,and fine silt plus clay soils in agricultural
areas (10a-l0e correspond to e~uations in Figure 5-1).
11.Five combined Eklutna Lake,Alaska sample stations.
12.Chatanika River,Alaska.The correlation appears to hold up
to about 250 mg/L and NTU.Above this range,the curve
flattens showing higher suspended solids values in relation
to turbidity.Other variable.appear to affect this corre-
lation so that uniform application cannot be assured.
13.Co~r.lation for data collected from the Chatanika Rive~,
Alaska in 1970 and 1971 when placer mining had no measur.-
able affect on water quality.
14.Correlation for data collected from Goldstream C~eek,
Alaska 1n 1970 and 1971.
-
1 j -jR,1 J 1 1 J i }J )~J
....Tt:!II0J::l 1::_"1....-.L,.,v~.....~-..L
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN TURBIDITY ANS SUSPENDED SOLIDS CONCENTRATIONS
10050
TURBIDITY (NTU)
, i i 7.1001 iii •II I 1
I/)
o
:Jo
I/)
050Wo
Z
~
CI)
::l
CI)
...J
~o
~
-...J......o
E-
10010
TURBIDITY (NTU)
lOOt iii ii'L»A I I>·,> ,i)l',J
-...J......
0
E-
CI)
0
:J
0
I/)
o 10W
0
Z...a W
0--0 CI)
::l
I/)
...J
~
0
~
Note:See Table 5-1 for references to the various equations.
that a co~~elation may
sediments (Allen 1979).
sed i rnel"Lt s i ;:e5.
be useful in cases involving fine
Turbidimeters respond less to larger
Tt.lt'c id 1 ty rneasurerl1ents y 1 e Id t"esu 1 t s that are ~"cll.\gh 1 y
proportional to the aMount of suspended material only under
certain circumstances.TurCldity instrumentation relies on
optical properties of particulates such as their shape,
refractive index,particle size distribution,particle
concentration,and the absorption spectra (McCluney 1975).
Hence,turbidity is proportional to mass or volume concentration
only when all other parameters are constant.HoweYe~,the
sediment in natural waters exhibit considerable variability in
these parameters,which makes the establishment of the desired
relationship difficult.This variability in natural .water
5everely rest~ict~the usefulness of using turbidity for routine
measurement of the amount of suspended materlal (McCluney 1975).
Although turbidity and suspended sediment concentration are
n.:lt synonyrnol.ls,they are t"elated in selme instal"lces,and
turbidity can be used to help define the level of sediment
concentration (Ritter and Ott 1974).Within c.rt~in size and
concentration ranges,and with certain types of suspended
mate~"ial,it is possible to estimate sediment concentrations
based on turbidity (Pickering 1976).Hence,any predictive
relationships between the.e parameter.must be developed on a
drainage basin basis (Kunkle and Comer 1971;Beschta 1980;
Seschta et ala 1981).Once a correlation bet~een turbidity and
suspended solids has been established for a given ~ater body,
one parameter can be used to give an estimate of the other,
although each of the measurements has independent significance
(McGirr 1'374).Truhlar (1976)found a good cor~'e,lat ic,rl be'tweel"l
daily mean discharge-weighted turbidity and daily mean
discharge-weighted sU3pended solids concentration.This
approach considers the variability in particulat~s
concen~rations ~ith discharge.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/03/85 PAGE ~o
-
,~
....
-
Based o~the above information,it is clear that there is no
one consistent correlation between turbidity and suspended
solids concentrations.However,these parameters may be
correlated under certain circumstances.Conseq~~ntly,using
turbidity to predict suspended solids concentrations may be
useful but the investigator needs to recognize all the potential
variables,calculate the correlation including periodic updates,
and calculate the percentage error associated with the
correlation.In addition to treating the data collectively,
regression analyses should include calculations of coefficients
of determination and confidence limits for data in the low,
medium,and high ranges.
Since the relationship between turbidity and suspended
solids concentration is dependent on local geological and hydro-
lC'9 ical characterist ics,-any c.orrel at ion between th~.se
parameters needs to consider drainage,season,and discharge.
There are natural and man-made sources of particulates that
improve the correlation between these parameters,such as
glacial streams and placer mining.Particle sizes and shapes
and particle-size distributions from these sources probably
exhibit less variability than in natural clear water systems.
WATER COLUMN MEASUREMENTS
Particulate levels in water have been measured by numerous
direct and indirect techniqu.s.Direct measurements of the
number or weight of particle.include total suspended solids,
microscopic analysis,electronmicroprobe analysis,use of a
Coulter counter,X-ray methods,and radioactive absorption.The
most widely accepted technique,the total suspended solids test
described above in Section ~.1,involves filtering a known
volUMe of water through a glass-fiber filter followed by drying
and weighing.Centrifugation has been used to concentrate
samples followed by drying and weighing,but ther~are
disadvantages to this technique.One dis~dvantage occurs when
REVIEW DR~FT ~/O~/e5 PAGE IOj
fine-grained_sediment has organic material associated with it.
Some organic material can have a density close to that of water,
making it very difficult to separate (Gibbs 1974).Another
dis~dvantage is that centrifuging is not good for'dilute water
having less than about 10 mg/L suspended solids (Campbell and
~lliott 1975),Radioactive absorption has been used because the
absorption of radiation is proportional to the mass present and
therefore directly measures the concentration of suspended
sedU1erit (Gibbs 1974).However,this method is impractical
because of its expense.Microscopic analysis and the Coulter
counter rely on counting the number of particles present,both
of which are time consuming.Additionally,conversion of the
number of particles to weight per unit volume requires
assessment of particle size and specific gravity.
Electronmicroprobe analysis and X-ray methods require expensive
equJ.pment arid a relatively high level of I!xpertJ.se.Ther~efor'e,
,~f the direct methods for measuring particulates in the water
column,the graVimetric method for total suspended solids as
described by APHA (196~)is the most acceptable.This is the
method specified in the Alaska water quality standards (ADEC
1965)•
Measurements related to light penetration may,under certain
Circumstances,be an indicatiQn of the conce~tration of
particulates.These measurements include turbidity (described
above in Section 5.1)and transmissivity,Qr its inverse,light
extinction.Microspectrophotometry,Secchi disk depths,and
remote sensing using color infrared photography are also
indirect measurement techniQues.
These optical methods rely on absorption and/or scattering.
Nephelometric turbidity measures the scattering of light by
suspended particles,whereas the beam transmittance meter
measures the attenuation of light by scatterlng and absorption.
The Secchi disk is a simple kind of irradiance meter which is
:e5$precise tharl other i""ldH~ect methOd».Ad<::l1tl.onally,'.l''SE'I::;Jf'
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGEJO~
"""
-
-
-
'"'
I~
the Secchi disk is inapplicable in shallow,clear to moderately
turbid areas.Measures of light penetration,such as
compensation point,light extinction coefficient,wave length
analysis,and transmissivity have been related to primary
production.Furthermore,extrapolations have been made from
these measures to other effects of particulates on aquatic
b i ot a.
A chief concern in estimating suspended solids
concentrations in water by remote sensing is obtaining adequate
ground truth data (Shelley 1976).Two aspects that must be
considered in obtaining ground truth data are timing actual
sample collection with the remote sensor pass,and standardi%ing
sampling equipment and techniques.It appears that remote
sensing is less precise than nephelometric turbidity
rneasiurement s.
Although no single optical measurement technique stands out
as being the most accurate and precise,the nephelometric
turbidity measurement as defined by APHA (1985)is the most
acceptable indirect technique for measuring particulates for a
number of reasons.First,the instrument specifications are
well defined,leading to improved accuracy and precision.
Second,turbidity is more Widely accepted than many of the other
indirect methods.Third,tur~idity measurements have been
applied to mAny different WAter uses including water supply,
recreation,and the protection of aquatic biota.Fourth,
turbidity levels mAy b.highly corr.lated with total suspended
solids concentrations under certain circumstances.Therefore,
nephelometric turbidity meAsurements are the most applicable
indirect measurement technique for particulates.The existing
Alaska water quality standards (AOEC 1985)specify that
turbidity measurements are to be performed in accordance with
APHI=I (1 98S)•
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/aS PAGE 103
5.3 SUBSTRATE MEASUREMENTS
The Measu~ement of settleable solids is typically a
volumetric test that measu~es the volume of matertal that will
settle under quiescent conditions in one hour.An Imhoff cone
is filled to the 1-1iter mark with a thoroughly mixed sample and
allowed to settle for 45 minutes.The sample is gently stirred
along the sides of tho cone with a rod Or by spinning,and
allowed to settle 15 additional minutes (APHA 1985).The volume
I~f settle.ble matter in the cone is recorded as milliliters per
liter (mIlL).A gravimetric technique for settleable solids can
be employed.However,this technique is time consuming and
employs all the equipment required in the suspended solids
test.The volumetric test can be performed easily in the
field.Hence,it is the recommended procedure for settle~ble
solids.
Substrate conditions in spawning areas are typically
dete~mined by measuring the ~.rcentage of va~ious particle
sizes,the pe~m.ability of gravels,or the dissolved o~yg.n
concentration in the gravel.The most widely used and accepted
technique is measuring the percentage of various particle sizes.
This technique is specified by the Alaska water quality
standa~ds (ADEC 1985).
The volume of fine.in sub.trate sample.i.determined by
first securing a sample using a substrate sampler such as a
corer or dredge.The sample is then subJected to grain si:e
a~alysis.~ike other sam~ling techniques,different samplers
have advantage.and disadvantage.when sampling differ8nt 9i%e
bed material.To minimize loss of fine-grained sediment,the
Alaska water quality standards specify that i a technique for
freeze sampling streambed sediments be followed.A major
disadvantage of th15 technique is that It requi~es addition~l
and heavy equipment,making it difficult to use inremote
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0'3/SS PAGE 104
-
areas.Furthermore,variability is relatively high with this
technique,as it is with other substrate sampling devices.
Measurements of bedload,.lthough technically valid,are too
c.:,mpl icated as a criterion (Iwamoto et a1.1 '378>'Iwamoto et
a1.(1'378)sl.Aggest that it may be possible to relate suspended
solids in the water column to the bedload by the use of sediment
The use of suspended solids as the basis for-t-ati.ng curves.
ct-iteria may hold promise if difficulties with
-
-
-
estimation,prediction,and determination of the relationship
with streambed sediments,and long-and short-term effects on
aquatic biota are clarified to the extent that reproducible
results are obtainable.However,until this is accomplished,
the accepted technique of freeze core sampling to determine the
percentage of various particle sizes in streambed sediments is
rec~)mmeY'lded•
5.4 REFERENCES
ADEC,1'385.Water quality standards.Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation,Juneau,Alaska.
Allen,P.B.,1'379.Turbidimeter measurement of suspended
sediment.U.S.Department of Agriculture,Science and
Education Administration,Agricultural Research Results,
ARR-S-4,New Orleans,LA.S pp.
APHA,1985.Standard methods of the examination of water and
wastewater.American Public Health Association,Washington,
D.C.la68 pp.
Beschta,R.L.,1'380.Turbidity and suspended sediment relation-
ships.In:Proe.Symp.on Watershed Management '60,Boise,
ID.pp.271-282.
Seschta,R.L.,S.J.O'Leary,R.E.Edwards,and K.D.Knoop,1'361.
Sediment and organic matter transport in Oregon coast range
streams.Water Resourees Res.arch Institute,Oregon State
University,Corvallis,OR.67 pp.
Slack,A.P.,and S.A.Hannah,1'365.Measurement of low
turbidities.Journal American Water Works Association,Vol.
57,pp.'301-'316.
REVIEW DRAFT '3/09/65 PAGE lOS
Eloo;:.th,R.L.,1'374.Intercomparison of the Jacj.r.5cln Cal"ldle
turbidity measurement and several instrumental techniques.
In=Proceedings of National Oceanographi~Instrumentation
Center Workshop held at Washington,D.C.on May 6-6,1'374.
National Oceanographlc Instrl.lmentation Cel"lter,W.i'-shington,
D.C.pp.101-106.
Campbell,P.,and S.Elliott,1975.Assessment of centrifuga-
tion and filtration as methods for determining low
concentrations of suspended sediment in natural w~ters.
Fisheries and Marine Service Research and Development
Directorate Technical Report No.545,Department of the
Environment,Winnipeg,Manitoba.19 pp.
Carlson,E.J.,1376.Control of turbidity at construction
sites.In:Proceedings of the Third Inter-Agency
Sedimentation Conference 1976.Prepared by Sedimentation
Committee Water Resources Council,Denver,CO.pp.2-180--
a-1S0.
Duckrow,R.M.,and W.H.Everhart,1371.Turbidity measurement.
Trans.Amer.Fish.Soe.,100(4):6S2-690.
EPA,1383.Methods for chemical analysis of wat~r and wastes.
EPA-600/4-79-020 Revised March 1963,Environmental
Protection Agency,Cincinnati,OH.
George,T.S.,and D.E.Lehni;,1984.Turbidity and solidS.
Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency by Camp,
Dresser &McKee,Annandale,VA.
-
-
Gibbs,R.J.,1974.
in water.In:
New YClri-l.,NY.
Principles of studying suspended materials
Suspended Solids in Water,Plenum Press,
pp.3-1:5.
Hach,C.C.,R.D.Vanaus,and J.M Heer,1984.Understanding
turbidity measurement.TeehnicalInformation Series--Sook-
let No.11,First Edition,HaeM Chemical Company,~oveland,
CO.10 pp.
Iwamoto,R.N.,E.O.Salo,M.A.MadeJ,and R.~.McComas,1'378.
Sediment and water qualityl a review of tne literature
including a suggested approach for water quality criteria.
Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency,EPA 910/'3-78-
048 by Fisheries R.search Institute,College of Fisheries,
University of Washington,Seattle,WA.4&pp.+Appendices.
King,L.S.,D.L.Bassett,and J.M.Ebeling,1'378.Sigrlificance
of turbidity for quality assessment of agricultural runoff
and irrigation return flow.Agricultural Engineering Dept.,
Washlngton State University,PUllman,WA.36 pp.+Appen.
REVIEW DRAFT S/09/SS PAGE ~6
"""
Kl.lnk,le,S.H.,_and G.H.Comer,1'371.Estimating sl.lspended
sediment concentrations in streams by turbidity measure-
ments.Journal Soil and Water Conservation,26(1):16-20.
Larlflet~,o.E.,1'380.Effects ,';)f sedimentat i,';)n .';)r.salrl1QrJid stt~eam
life.Paper presented at the Technical Workshop on
Suspended Solids in the Aquatic Environment,June 17-16,
Whitehorse,YT,Environmental Protection Service,Vancouver,
BC.20 pp.
LaPerrriere,J.D.,1'363.Statement on the state of Alaska'$
water quality standard for turbidity.Unpublished report,
University of Alaska,Fairbanks,Alaska.5 pp.
Lloyd,D.S.,1'365.Turbidity in freshwater habitats of Alaska:
a review of published and unpUblished literature relevant to
the use of turbidity as a water quality standard.Report
No.6S-1,Alaska Dept.of Fish and Game,Juneau,Alaska.
101 pp.
McCa~t~t,P.J.,P.M.R.Green,D.W.Mayhoc1d,and P.T.P.Tsui,
1'360.Environmental studies No.13 effects of siltation on
the ecology of Ya-Ya Lake,N.W.T.Prepared for Minist~r of
Indian ~nd Northern Affairs by ~quatic Environments,
Limited,Calgary,Alberta.266 pp.
McCa,rthy,J.C.,To E.Pyle,and G.M.Griffin,1'374.Light trans-
missivity,suspended sediments and the legal definition of
turbidity.Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science,2:2'31-29'3.
McCluney,W.R.,1'375.Radiometry of water turbidity measure-
ments.Journal Water Pollution Control Federation,47(2):
252-266.
McGirr,D.J.,1974.Interlaboratory quality control study
number 10 turbidity and filterable and nonfilterable
residue.Report Series No.37,Inland Waters Directorate,
Erlvironment Canada,Burlington,Ontario.10 pp.
Peterrsorl,L.A.,1973.An invest igat ion .';)f selected physical imd
chemical characteristics of two subarctic streams.M.S.
Thesis,University of Alaska,Fairbanks,Alaska.laS pp.
Pick.erirlg,R.J.,1'376.Measurement of "turbidity"and related
characterist ie.of natural waters.Open-Fi le Repe:,rt 76-153,
U.S.Geological Survey.13 pp.
R&·M,1'382.Placer mining wastewater settling pc'nd dem.:.rlstrati,=,n
proJect.Prepared for State of Alaska,Department of
Erwir'::Jnmerltal Conservation by R&M C,:,nsultants,Inc.,
Fairbanks,Alaska.60 pp.+Appendices.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/aS PAGE JO?
R&M,1'385.Glacial lake physical lirnnolclgy studies:EldlJtnCi\
l.ake,Alaska.Prepa~~ed for Alaska Power A'Jthority by R&M
Consultants,Inc.,Anchorage,Alaska.
Reed,G.D.,1'377.EvaltJatb::.n .;:If the stal"ldat~d sampling techrliql.te
for suspended solids.EPA 907/9-77-001,Surveillance and
Analysis Division,Technical Support Branch,Field Investi-
gations Section,Environmental Protection Agency,Region
VI I.4'3 pp.-+-Append i)(.
Ritter,J.R.,and A.N.Ott,1'374.Measurement of turbidity by
the U.S.Geological Survey.[n:Proceedings of National
Oceanographic Instrumentation Center ~orkshop held at
Washington,D.C.on May S-8,1'374.National Oceanographic
Instrumentation Center,Washington,D.C.pp.23-30.
Shelley,P.E.,1'376.Sediment measurements in estuaries and
coastal areas.NASA CR-27S9,National Aeronautics and Space
Administration,Wallops Island,VA.102 pp.
Stern,E.M.,and W.B.Stickle,1978.Effects of turbidity and
suspended material in aquatic environments.Dredg~d
Material Research Program,Technical Report 0-76-21,
Environmental l.aboratory,U.S.Army Enginner Waterways
Experiment St~tion,Vicksburgf MS.117 pp.
Toland,D.C.,1983.Suspended solids in mainstem drainages
downstream from placer mines,Fairbanks and vicinity,
Alaska,AUQuet 3-17,1983.A Working Paper,Environmental
Quality Monitoring and l.aboratory Operations,Alaska Dept.
of Environmental Conservative,Juneau,Alaska.28 pp.
Truhlar,J.F.,1976.Determining suspended sediment loads frOM
turbidity records.In:Proc.Third Inter-Agency Sedimenta-
tion Conf.,1976.Water Resources Council,Denver,CO.
Weagle,K.,1984.Treatment of placer mining effluents using
settling pondS,volume I:t.~hnical report.Prepared for
Government of Yukon,Oept.of Economic Development and
Tourism by Ken Weagle Environment.l Consultant l.td.,
Whitehorse,YT.~3 PP.
Wilber,C.G.,1'383.Turbidity in the aquatic environment,an
environmental factor in fresh and oc.a~ic waters.Charles
C.Thomas,Publisher,Springfield,Il..133 pp.
REVIEW DRAFT ~/09/65 PAGE JOe
6.0 PROPOSED PARTICULATES CRITERIA
6.1 INTRODUCTION
A criterion is a designated concentration or limit of a
parameter that,when not exceeded,will protect a prescribed
water use with a reasonable degree of safety.In some cases,a
criterion may be a narrative statement instead of a numerical
limit.
The water quality standards for a particular water body
consist of those criteria associated with the uses for which
that water body is protected.Water bodies are classified by
the uses for which th.y ar.protected.In Alaska,all water
bodies except th.low.r Ch.na Riv.r and Nolan Creek (and mos~Qf
its tributaries)are clas'sil"ied 1"0r prot.ction of all uses.
Ideally,paramet.rs us.d for d.l"ining crit.ria should be
able to be measured relatively simply and be inexpensive,fast,
precise,and accurate.It is desirable to use techniques that
can be performed in the field without compromising the pr.cision
or accuracy of th.m.asurem.nt.Additionally,standards should
include only th.most applicabl.param.t.rs 1"0r .ach wat.r use.
For exampl.,turbidity crit.ria ar.suffici.nt to protect
secondary recreational uses,so there is no need to have
suspended or .ettl.able .olids criteria.Standards must be
st.'ced in clear,und.rstAl"Idabl.terms so that confusion do.s not
arise ov.r th.ir int.rpr.tation.Id.ally,th.y should be
appropriate l"or all types of aquatic syst.ms and should consider
seasonal,geographicAl,and flow differenc.s in natural
particulate conc.ntrations.
Criteria should be p.riodically reviewed and updated as new
data or techniques for obtaining fast and accurate measurements
become available.The particulates criteria should not be
viewed as permanent fixtures but as essential parts of an
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE fOq
evolving system to safeguard the current and future uses of
Alaska's waters.
6.2 PROPOSED CRITERIA
This section outlines suggested changes to the Alaska water
quality criteria for particulates.The current wording,
pr'::Jposed wording,and supporting rationale are presented f'::Jr
each criteria.The rationale for retaining,changing,or
deleting each criterion is based on the literature reviewed for
this document.That literature has been used to formulate the
discussions in Chapters 1 through~.Therefore,the rationale
sections are necessarily summaries of the preceding discussions.
The reader is referred to the earlier chapters for more detailed
overviews of literature relating to the effects of partic.ulates
on water supply,recreation,and biota.
Given the status of knowledge,there are probably as many
defensible sediment And turbidity criteriA for cert_in us.
categories as there are informed agencies or individuals
interested in proposing them.In reality,there is probably no
one definitive level or concentration that is detrimental to
each use in all systems under all circumstances.In some
instances,the existing criteria have been refined or modified
to reflect the findings of a variety of researchers.With
regard to aquaculture,definitive maximum suspended solids
concentrations for egg incubation and rearing have been
identified in the literature.In other instances an absolute
maximum turbidity level or suspended solids concentration may
not be appropriate.S~ch is the case for growth and propagation
of freshwater and marine organisms.The proposed standards for
these categories reflect .easonal fluctuations and site-specific
differences in natural turbidity and sediment Ievets.They
limit any appreciable increase above natural levels in systems
wh ich normall y carry low part iculat e loads wh i Ie a 11,;:IW i l"'.g for
some increase in systems which periodically exhibit moderate to
Mlgh natural levels.
REVIEW DRAFT 3/0'3/85 PAGE 110
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....,
The pro~osed particulates criteria presented below are made
with two caveats from the Alaska Department of Environmental
Conservation.First,the Department does not want to assess
revisions to the existing water use categories as "part of this
study.Second,since it is the Department's responsibility to
fully protect the various water uses,in setting criteria the
Department prescribes limits be set on the most s.l"Isiti",.us.in
each water use category.For aquatic biota,this means setting
criteria for the most sensitive life stage of the most sensitive
spl!!!cies in the most sensit ive season.This approach is
prescribed by the EPA.
Table 6-1
essent ial to
category are
us.'.
lists water uses and the parameters that are
each.Parameters not appearing in a particular
considered unnecessary for the protection of that
1.Water supply.
a.Turbid i ty
glS.1!!11n,;:Shall not exceed 5 NTU above natural
conditions when the natural turbidity is
50 NTU or less,and not have more than 10~
increase in turbidity when the natural
condition is more than ~O NTU,not to exceed
a maximum increase of 2~NTU.
There shall be no increase in turbidity when
the natural condition is 5 NTU or less,in-
crease shall not cause turbidity to exceed 10
NTU when the natural condition is between 5
and 10 NTU,shall not cause more than a 5 NTU
increase when the natural condition is 10 t,j
25 NTU,and shall not cause turbidity to
exceed 250 NTU when the natural condition is
SO to 250 NTU.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/65 PAGE III
TABL.E 6-1
W~TER USES ~NO P~R~METERS FOR WHICH CRITERI~MUST
BE EST~BL.ISHED TO MEET WATER QU~LITY 08JECTIVES
-
________E§c~isyls!g_E~c~m§~~c~_
Settleable Y.Accum.
I~ceiQit~I22 __2Qliga___Ein@a __
x
Ec@~!l_~~t@!:
Drinking,culinary.
and food processing
Agr'iculture
Aquaculture
Industrial
Contact recreation
Secondary recreation
x
x
x
x X
X X
X X
X X
~
Growth of aquatic organisms
Seafood Processing
Contact recreation
Secondary recreation
Growth of AqUAtic organisms
X
X
x
x
x
X
x
x
x
X
x
x
x
x
X
x
-
TSS •Total Suspended Solids
REVIEW DRAFT 3/09/85 PAGE 11~
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\6lPUl
b.Sedim!ent
g~1~11ng:No measurable increase above natural
cond i t i ems.
erQQQ§~~:No increase in settleable solids or volatile
suspended solids above natural conditions.
Although light attenuation is not an issue related to the
acceptability of drinking water,most people find water with 5
or more turbidity units obJectionable (Bruvold 1975).Sorensen
at a1.(1977)state that 0 to 10 turbidity units provide ar,
excellent source of water supply requiring only disinfection.
They also state that 10 to 250 units provide good sources
requiring only usual treatment,and that waters with turbidities
greater than ~50 units are poor sources requiring special o~
auxiliary treatment.Therefore,the existing criteria has been
modified to protect naturally clear so~rces of drinking wat~r.
At the same time,the proposed standard allows for a greater
increase where water contai~s higher natural turbidity levels
which would require usual treatment or would otherwise be
unacceptable as a water supply.With regard to sediment,the
primary concern is that sediment not interfere With
disinfection.Interference with disinfection is directly
related to the type and amount of organic sediment (volatile
suspended solids)present in the water (Symons and Hoff 1975).
An increase in inorganic suspended sediment above natural
conditions does not necessarily impede the clarification
process,and in some instances may enhance it (NAS 1973)There-
fore,the suspended sediment criterion has been modified to
limit only volatile suspended solids.The rationale for the
proposed settleable solids criterion is:(1)Natural waters
which are otherwise suitable as a water supply normally contain
low levels of settleable solids;and (~)settleable solids may
significantly decrease the effective life of sedimentation
basins or filtration systems,thereby increasing treatment
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE fG
Shall not c:ause detrimental ePfects on
indicated wate~use.
Delete crite~ion for this use category.
2.Water -sl.lpply:agric:ultut~e,including ir~t~igation and stoc:\.<'.
wC\t et~i rllil
a.T1..lrbidity
s.l:t.!a.!inQ :
b.Sed irnent
g~.ia~.i!:!S:For sprinkler irrigation,water shall be free
of particles of 0.074 mm or coarser.For
irrigation or wate~spreading,shall not
exceed 200 mgll fo~an extended period of
time.
fC2~ga~g:Retain the existing criteria and add the
following.Inc~ease in total suspendea
solids shall not interfere with the treat-
ment of agricultu~al wat&~supply.No
increase in settleable solids above natu~al
conditions allowed.
The concern is fo~particulate matter which May block
pumping and sp~aying equipment and cause formation of c~usts 01"1
land or coat vegetables which have been irrigated.The solids
criteria should be measured directly.Turbidity should be
deleted because the conce~n is fo~the physical p~esence of
pa~ticles and not light scattering and absorption.The term
"extended period of'time"is vague,but the~.was no info~mation
in the literatu~e ~eviewed that would improve this term and be
defensible.The particle size crite~ion appea~s to be adequate
because it limits the pa~tic:le size to silt and smaller
mat e~ia 1.
-.:..Wate~supply:
a.Turbidity
g~.ia~ing:
aquac:ultu~e
Shall not exceed 2S NTU above natural condi-
t ion level.Fo~all lake water",shall l"lI:>t
REVIEW DRAFT '3/09/8S "AGE II"
-
-
c.
e!:!2e2~!.!aJ
Sed irl1ent
g~.!!!]'1!!g=
exceed S NTU over natural conditions.
Delete criteria for this use category.
No imposed loads that will interfe~e with
established water supply treatment levels.
~h.re the natural condition is less than 3
mg/L,suspended solids shall not exceed 3
mg/L..~her.the natu.ral condition is greater
than 3 mg/L.,suspended solids shall not
increase by more than ao~.There shall be no
increase in settleable solids above natural
conditions.
A definitive maximum concentration of 3 mg/L.for inCUbating
salmonid eggs and 25 mg/L for salmonid rearing is presented in
the literature (Sigma Resource Consultants 1979).Thus,the
maximum concentration should be limited in order to facilitate
adequat~water supply treatment and ensure successful incubation
and rearing.The 3 mg/L level is important because most
hatcheries support egg incubation and use of this level is the
most conservative.There is no apparent reason for a turbidity
criterion as such.The proposed suspended solids criteria would
insure that turbidity-causing sediments are kept to a minimum.
It should be noted that ultraviolet disinfection may be
inhibited by turbidity-causing sediments.However,there are no
dat4il.in the literature reviewed regarding specific tUl~bidity
levels that inhibit ultraviolet disinfection.A low level
increase in suspended solids (3 mg/L)will limit the volume of
turbidity-causing particles.The rationale for limiting
settleable solids include the well documented adverse impacts of
sediment accumulation on egg incubation and fry development (see
Tables 4-1 and 4-2).
4.Water supply:industrial
a.Tt.lrbidity
g~i~!1Dg:Shall not cause detrimental effects on
REV lEW DRAFT '3/09/65 PAGE 115
b.
E!:2e2§~2:
Sediment
51!.!§1.!DS=
established water sypply treatment levels.
Retain criterion for this use category.
No imposed loads that will interfere with
established water supply treatment levels.
No increase in total suspended solids and
settleable solids levels above natural con-
ditions that would adversely affect estab-
lished water supply treatment.
Turbidity is retained for those industries which use
turbidity as the established parameter in treatment systems,
such as the brewing industry.As pointed out in Section 4.2,
industries vary considerably with regard to the amount of
particulates which can be tolerated.Some industries can
tolerate only low parti=ulate level~.Because the ~ang.:of
acceptable water quality varies widely,a narrative criteria is
probably the be.t avai lable.Tne propo.ed sediment crit.l~iol'l is
designed to protect established treatment techniques.
5.Water recreation:contact recreation
a.
b.
Turbidity
g~.!§!.!ng:
Sediment
5~i§!iJ:!S1:
Shall not e~c.ed 5 NTU above natural condi-
tions when the natural turbidity is 50 NTU or
Ie••and not have more than 10%increase in
turbidity when the natural condition is more
than 50 NTU,not to eMceed a maMimum increase
of 15 NTU.Shall not eMce.d 5 NTU over
natural conditions in all lake waters.
Shall not exce.d 5 NTU above natural condi-
tions when the natural turbidity is SO NTU or
less and not have more than 10~increase in
turbidity when the natural condition is more
than 50 NTU.
No increase in concentrations above natural
cond i t i ems.
REVIEW DRAFT 3/03/85 PAGE "~
-
-
-
e~2e2§~g:Celete criterion for this use category.
Aesthetics and safety are the primary considerations for
contact recreation such as diving,swimming,and w~ding.Data
show that people prefer to recreate in clear rather than turbid
water.A 5 NTU change in turbidity levels is noticed by most
peolPle.Cloudy water can also obscure dangerous rocks or other
underwater obstructions.The upper limit for achieving these
goals is 50 NTU (McSauhey 1966>.There is no basis for having
different standards for lakes and streams.Therefore,this part
of the standard is deleted.There is no information that
warrants changing the turbidity levels in the existing criteria,
which afford a high level of protection,other than the amount
of maximum increase.
Sediment·is not a direct consideration for conta~t
recreation and this standard is deleted.Suspended sediments
may need to be limited only if the particles are organic or are
associated with pathogenic microorganisms.The presence of
pathogenic organisms are covered in water Quality criteria not
addressed in this document.
6.Water recreation:secondary recreation
Turbidity
Slii~~i!!.Q:
a.
Shall not exceed 10 NTU over natural condi-
tions when natural turbidity is 50 NTU or
le••,and not have more than ~O~increase in
turbidity when the natural condition is more
than SO NTU,not to exceed a maximum increase
of SO NTU.For all lake waters,turbidity
shall not exceed 5 NTU over natural condi
t ions •
.er:9.e2~!!g :Sha 11 not ex ceed 10 NTU over natura 1 cOl"ld 1-
tions when natural turbidity 15 50 NTU or
less,and not have more than ~O~increase 11"1
turbidity when the natural condition 15 more
than 50 NTU.
REVIEW CRAFT '3/09/85 PAGE 11'1
b.Sediment
gl!11!11.n~:Shall not pose hazards to ineioental human
contact or cause interference with the Yse.
Delete criterion for this use category.
Based on MeGauhey (1~6e),the current turbidity criteria
afford a high level of protection for boating and other
non-contact water recreation.Fishing may require more
stringent standards in order to maintain a suitable sport
fishery.However,in th15 case,the turbidity criteria for 'the
growth and propagation of fish,shellfish,and other aquatic
organisms would apply.There is no apparent reason for lake and
stream standards to differ.Furthermore,there is no defensible
reason for retaining the sediment criterion for this use based
on the literature reviewed.
Shall not exceed 25 NTU above natural condi-
tion lavel.For all lake waters,shall not
exceed 5 NTU over natural conditions.
Shall not exceed 5 NTU increase above natural
conditions up to 25 NTU and shall not exceed
20~increase above natural conditions
(M••sured in NTU)when the natural condition
is 25 NTU or greater.
7.Growth and propagation of fish,shellfish,
life
a.Turbidity
s~.!a1.!.ng:
and other aquatic -
b.Sediment
g~1.!11n~1 The percent accumulation of fine sediment in
the range of 0.1 to 4.0 mm in the gravel bed
of waters utilized by an.dromous or resident
fish for spawning may not be increased more
than 5~by weight over natural conditions (as
shown from grain size accumulation graPh).
In no case may the 0.1 to 4.0 mm fine
sediment range in the gravel bed of waters
REVIEW DRAFT ~/OS/a5 PAGE 118
-
'"'"
used by anadromous and resident fish for
spawning exceed a maximum of 30%by weight
(as shown from grain size accumulation
graph).(See note 3 and 4)In all other
surface waters no sediment loads (suspended
or deposited)which can cause adverse effects
on aquatic animal or plant life,their repro-
duction or habitat.
E~292~§g:Suspended and/or settleable solids content of
surface waters shall not adversely affect
aquatic plants and animals,their reproduc-
tion or habitat.In natural conditions less
than 2S mg/L,suspended solids shall not have
more than a ~o%increase.In waters where
the natural condition is greater than as
mg/L,suspended solid~shall not have more
than a 20%increase.No increase in settle-
able solids above natural conditions.The
percent accumulation of fine sediment in the
range of 0.1 to 4.0 mm in the gravel bed of
waters used by anadromous or resident fish
for spawning may not be increased more than
~%by weight over natural conditions,not to
exc.ed aO%by weight over natural conditions.
Th.existing turbidity criteria afford a moderate to high
level of protection for aquatic organisms as evidenced by data
froln Herbert et al.(1961>,Alabaster (1972),Sykora et a1.
(1972>,Sorensen et al.(1977),Langer (1980),Sigler (1981>,
Sis!ion and 8i lby (1982),NCASI (1984b),Sigler et a1.(1984),
and Simmons (1984).Although,the current state of knowledge in
Alaska is inadequate to describe the energy base of more than a
few stl"eamS and lakes,it should be assumed that many systems
depend on primary productivity to at least some extent.
Quantitative information presented by Bell (1973),Nuttall and
Bill::lY (1973),McCart et a1.(1980),Van Nieuwenhuyse (1983),and
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE Oq
LaPel"'l"'ier-e et al.(1983)indicate that tur-bidity cl"'itel"'ia are
necessal"'y fol'"the protection of aquatic systems ~hich depend on
primar-y prodl.Lct i vity.Fl.ll"'therrnc.re,there is
substantial evidence that tUl"'bidity has a negative impact on
salmonid feeding (Alabaster-1972;Sykor-a.et al.1972;Langer
1960;Simmons 1964),salmonid gl"'owth (NCASI 19B4b;Siglel'"et al.
1984),selmonid distribution (Siglel'"19B1;Bisson and Bilby
1982;5i,18r st a1.1984),and benthic rnacroinvertebrate
popul~tions (Herber-t et al.1961;Sorensen 1977;~aPerriere et
a1.1963)•The suggested changes in the tur-bidity standar-d
fact
greater-
than
address the
to have a
prOductivity
that increase.in very clear water are likely
effect on a~uatic organisMs and primary
the same magnitude of increase in naturally
turbid ~ater.
The reaSon for-limiting fines in spawning gl"'avels is:to -
eg~s and alevins by filling interstices in the
is •volumetric,not a gravimetric concern.
the type of fine material,weight may vary Widely
of the same dimensions,-but both would occupy the
On
for
Depending
avoid smothel"'ing
g~~avel.·This
same volume of space and reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity in
water flowing through
because the accepted
proposed cr-iter-ia are
the gl"'avel to the same degree.However,
technique is to weigh the fines,the
expressed in terms of weight.Although,
the percentage accumulation of fine sediment in a gr-avel bed is
difficult to evaluate,the Department has found it to be a
useful criterion.With regard to substrate characteristics of
tne size range stated in the eMistin;cr-iteria
and based on info~mAtion in the literatul"'e (McNeil
1964,l<o.ki 1966,eu~ns 1972,Ph ill ips et a1.1975;
Coble 1976;TAgart 1976;Iwamoto et a1.1975;
al.1geO;Crous.et Al.1961,Tappel and BJ'::Jr-nrl
crit.~ion allOWing a ma)(iml,AM of 30 percent fine
spawni ng beds,
are adequate
and Ahnel1
Hausle and
Cederholm et
1983).The
sediment is not ~UPPol"'t.d by the literature;this maximum should -
be lowered to 20 percent as a Ma~imuM (McNeil and Ahnell 1954;
K';:Jski 1965;Shelton and Pollack 1966;BJornn 1969;Burns 1972;
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE f10
BJornn et al.1974;Hausle and Coble 1976;Iwamoto et al.1978;
Cede~rholm lit al.1980;Crouse et a1.1981;Tappel and BJornl"1
198=:;;NCASI 1984a;NCASI 1984b).The settleable solids
mea5H.lrement is re lat i vel y simp le and re 1i able and ca.n-be 1.lsed il"l
place of the percentage accumulation of fine sediment at the
Department's discretion.EIFAC (1965)concluded that spawning
gravels should be kept as free as possible from finely dividied
solids.Van Nieuwenhuyse (1983)and Simmons (1984)suggest a
settleable solids criterion of less than 0.1 mllL for a high
level of protection.Thus,the proposed criteria afford a high
level of protection for salmonid spawning gravels.
Suspended solids are also detrimental to aquatic organisms
and,since suspended solids can not be correlated with turbidity
on a state-wide basis,it is necessary to have a st~ndard for
total suspended solids..The propo$e~criterion is rest~ictiy~
for naturally -clear water but less restrictive for waters
containing naturally high suspended solids concentrations.It
is in agreement with the ~S mglL criteria suggested by several
authors CEIFAC 1965;Gammon 1970);Alabaster 197~;Bell 1973;
NAB 1973;Sorensen et al.1977;Alabaster and Lloyd 1982;Wilber
1983;and George and Lehnig 1984)to maintain optimal fisheries
and prevent harmful effects on fish.This criterion offers a
higrl level of proteetion fo~sediment-free spawning and rearing
waters while allOWing some increase in streams and lakes which
rece.ive natural sediment loads.It also accounts fo~the high
degree of seasonal suspended sediment variability in Alaska's
many st~eams and lak•••
1.Water supply:
a.Turbidity
gl!1~11ng:
Er2.ag~~9=
aquaeulture
Shall not e~ce.d as NTU.
Delete standard for this use category.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE 121
c.Sediment
g~i!!1i!!g=No imposed loads that will interfere with
established water supply treatment level~
Where the natural condition is les~than 3
mg/L,suspended solids shall not exceed 3
mg/L.Where the natural condition is greater
than 3 mg/L,suspended solids shall not
increase by mo~.than ao~.There shall be no
increase in settleable solids above natural
condit ions.
The rationale is the same as cited above for aquaculture in
fresh water •
.:=......Water su~ply=
a.Turbidity
sl1i.!1.!n,g1
.e!:2a9.!~gl
b.Sediment
gl1!~]'in.e;
E!:9a9.!~gl
seafood processing
Shall not interiere with disinfection.
Oelete criterion for this u ••category •
Below normally detectable amounts.
Shall not increase levels of suspended and
.ettleable solids above natural condition or
shall not interfere with disinfection or
established water treatment processes.
The turbidity standard was deleted becau.e the concern with
seafood proces.ing is the amount of suspended and settleable
solids in the water rather than light scattering.The sediment
criterion,IIbelow normally detectable amounts,"is !Iomewhat
ambiguous and was redefined in terms of an increase in suspended
and .ettleable solids above natural conditions,thereby making
the crlterion easier to enforce.
REVIEW DRAFT '3/0'3/85 PAGE 111
3.Water sl.lpply:
a.Turbidity
g~.!§~.!!Jg:
.el:QeQ~!!g:
b.Sediment
g1ijJ!~.i!!gI
industrial
Shall not cause detrimental effects on estab-
lished levels of water supply tre~tment.
Delete criterion for this use category •
No imposed loads that will interfere with
established water supply treatment levels.
No increase in total suspended and settle-
able solids levels above natural conditions
that would adversely affect established water
supply treatment.
Turbidity wa.deleted because light scattering is not a
concern for industrial use of marine water;su~pended and
settleable solids levels are the-concern.Industries vary_.in
their water qU~lity requirements.Some require water virtually
free of particulates.This standard encompasses all potential
uses so that opportunities for future economic development in
Alaska are not precluded.
4.Water recreationl contact recreation
a.
b.
Turbidity
g1i.i!!~.ing:
.2r2e2.1.g 1
Sed irnent
g1i.i~I.i!lgl
Shall not exceed 2S NTU.
Shall not exceed S NTU above natural condi-
tions when the natural turbidity is SO NTU or
Ie••and not have more than 10~increase in
turbidity when the natural condition is more
than SO NTU.
No measureable increase in concentrations
above natural conditions.
Oelete criterion for this use category.
REVIEW ORAFT 9/09/6S PAGE I~~
-
Aesthetics and
contact recreation
safety are the
such as diving,
primary considerations for
swimming,and wading.Data
5.Water recreation:secondary recreation
Sediment is not a consideration for contact recreation and
this criterion should be deleted.
Snall not po.e hazards to incidental human
contact or cause interference With the use.
Delete criterion for this use category.
Shall not eKc.ed 25 NTU.
Shall not eKc.ed 10 NTU over natural condi-
tions"when natural turbidity is 50 NTU or
less and not have more than ao~increase in
turbidity when tne natural condition is more
tnan 50 NTU.
Turbidity
g~i!!1i:ag:
E!:QgQ~!!g:
Sediment
g~.ij!iin.9:
a.
b.
show that people prefer to swim in clear rather than turbid
waters.Cloudy water can alsl:;I obscure dangero'Js underwater
obstructions.The upper limit for achieving these goals is 50
NTU.Therefore,the turbidity standard is limited to that
level.The turbidity criteria afford a high level of
protection,but are lower than natural conditions in some areas
of Alaska marine waters.
G.Growth and propagation of fish,sh.1lfish,and other aquatic
1 i fe
The current standards .ffo....d ..high 1.ve1 of protection for
boating and other non-contact water recreation.Fishing may
,"eQuire more stringent standards in order to maintain.suitable
sport fishery.However,the standards for the growth and
p ....op.gation of fish,shellfish,and other aquatic organisms
would cover the concerns.
a.Turbidity
gli.i!!i.i!!.9~Shall not reduce the depth of the compe~sa
tion point for photosynthetic activity by
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/65 PAGE 111
-
more than 10~.In addition,shall not reduce
the maximum Secchi disk depth by more than
10".
E~229§~~:Within the photic zone,shall not ~xceed 5
NTU increase above natural condition up to
25 NTU and shall not exceed a ao~increase
above natural condition (measured in NTU)
when the natural condition is a5 NTU or
greater.Shall not reduce the depth of the
compensation point (depth at which 1~of the
incident light is available)for photosynthe-
tic activity by more than 10~.
b.Sediment
§;~1!!.t1!)a:No me.sureable increase in concentrations
above natural conditions.
Total susp~nded solids·shall not have More
than a ao~increase above natural cc,ndit ions.
There shall be n6 increase in settleable
solids levels above natural conditions.
The existing criteria using compens.tion point and Secchi
disk depth may be ade~uate.However,there are few data in the
literature reporting compensation point and Secchi disk depth irl
Alaska marine waters.Most of the data are reported as
turbidity and suspended solids.Hence,turbidity levels should
be used as the primary criterion limiting the amount of
particulates ~here light penetration is of paramount interest
with compensation point .s a secondary criterion.The suggested
changes in the turbidity standard address the fact that
increases in turbidity in clear waters are likely to have a
greater affect on primary productivity and depth of the euphotic
zone than the same magnitude of increase in turbid waters.
The existing sediment criterion (no measurable increase in
concentration above natural conditions)certainly affords a high
level of protection.This criterion is restated in terms of
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE 1~~
suspended and settleable solids,allowing for some increase in
total suspended solids above nat!.lral conditi-ol"ls.Th&suspel"lded
solids criterion reflects marine organisms'generally greater
tolerance of sediment than that of freshwater~-organisrns as
evidenced by higher
adverse affects have
concentrations (100 to 6000 mg/L)at which
been reported (see Table.4-5 and 4-6).
~,
Furthermore,increa.es in suspended marine sediments are likely
to be localized and periodic (Ozturgut et al.19B1)in this high
dilution environment.Although 1"10 specific settleable solids
criteria are presented in the literature,the proposed criterion
is conservative and restricts any increase for the following
r"eaSOl"ls:(1)The natural variability in settleable solids
levels with verticle depth in the water column;(2)the -potential difficulty in e.tablishing natural levels of inorganic
sediment which will eventually settle under quiescent
--cc,nditions;(3)the potential diffic'..llty in monitoring --~l"ld
el"lforcing a definitive criterion in the marine envirol"lment;(4)
the variability in d i stri but iOYI of infaunal and epifaunal
organisms which may be sensitive to additional sediment
accumulations;and,(5 )the lack of scientific data regarding ~
the demonstrated effects of s.ttleable solids on Marine benthos.
7.Harvesting for consumption of raw mollusks or other raw
aquat ic 1 i f.
a.Turbidity
5~1§11ng:Shall not reduce the depth of the compensa-
tion point for photosynthetic activity by
more than 10~.11"1 addition,shall not reduce
the maximum Secchi disk depth by more than
10"•
-
b.
.E!:Qag!!~g:Delete criteria for this use categc1ry.
Sediment
g~1aSing:No existing standard.
E!:ga2a~gs No increase in ••ttleable solids acove
natural conditions.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE I~'
,....
There is no evidence to support the necessity of having
turbidity or suspended solids criteria for this use category.
relating to toxic materials arid/or microbial
corttarnination of raw shellfish are covered il"l other water
star.dards outside the scope of the particulate
stal'1ldards.The proposed settleable solids criterion protects
the consumer from undesirable deposits of particulate matter on
edible organisms.
5.3 REFERENCES
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of the Royal Society London Bulletin,180:395-406.
Proc.
Alatlaster,J.S.,arid R.Lloyd,1982.
freshwater fish.Second Edition,
Boston,MA.361 pp.
Water quality criteria for
Butterworth Scientific,
8ell,M.C.,1973.Silt and turbidity.In:Fisheries Handbook
of Engineering Requirements and Biological Criteria,U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers,North Pacific Division,Portland,
OR.
Bisson,P.A.,and R.E.Bilby,1982.Avoidance of suspended
sediment by Juvenile coho salmon.No.Amer.Jour.of Fish.
Manage.,2(4):371-374.
BJornl"l,T.C.,1969.Salmon and steelhead investigations,Job
l"lo.5--embryo survival and emergence studies.Report F-4'3-
R-7,Idaho Fish and Game Department.
BJ ':'t"rlrl,T.C.,M.A.
Wallace,1974.
aquatic lif••
Idaho,Moscow,
Brusven,M.Molnau,F.J.Watts,and R.L.
Sediment in streams and its .ffect on
Water R••ourc••R•••areh Institute,Univ.
ID.47 pp.
of
Bruvold,W.H.,1975.Human perception and evaluation of water
quality.CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control,
5 (2)=153-231.
Burns,J.W.,1972.Some effects of logging and associated road
construction on northern California streams.Trans.Amer.
Fish S.:jc.,101 (1) :1-1 7.
Cede,rholrn,C.J.,L.M.·Reid,and E.O.Salo,1980.CI.IMI.llative
effects of logging road sediment on salrnonid populations.
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gravel:A Renewable Resource in the Pacific Northwest,
University of Washington,Seattle,WA.
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Crouse,M.R.~C.A.Callahan,K.W.Malueg,and S.E.Dominguez,
1981.Effects of fine sediment on growth of Juvenile coho
salmon in laboratory streams.Trans.Amer.Fish.Soc.,110
(2):281-286.
EIFAC,1965.Water quality criteria for Eu~~pean freshwater
fish,report on finely divided solids and inland fisheries.
European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission Technical
Paper No.1,Int.~national Journal of Air and Water
Pollution,9(3):151-168.
Gammon,J.R.,1970.The effect of inorganic sediment on stream
biota.Prepared for the water Quality Office of the
Environmental Protection Agency,Grant No.180S0DWC,U.S.
Gov.Printing Office,Wasnil"gton,D.C.141 pp.
Ger.:1rge,T.5.,and D.E.Lehnig,1984.Turbidity and solids.
Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency by Camp,
Dresser &McKee,Annandale,VA.
Hausle,D.A.,and D.W.Coble,1976.Influence of sal"d in redds
on survival and emergel"ce of brook trout <§21~~11ri~~
fQDt~n~ll§).Tral"s.Amer.Fish.Soc.,No.1,pp.57-63.
Herbert,D.W.M.,J.5.Alabaster,M.C.Dart,and R.Lloyd,1961.
Tne effects of china-clay wastes on trout streams.Intl.
Journal of Air and water Pollution,5(1):56-74.
Iwamoto,R.N.,E.C.Salo,M.A.MadeJ,and R.L.McComas,1978.
Sediment and water quality:a r&view of the literature
including a suggested approach for water quality criteria.
EPA 910/9-78-048,Prepared for the Environmental Protection
Agency by Fisheries Research Institute,College of
Fisheries,Univ.of Wasnington,Seattle,wA.46 pp.+
Appal"ld i cas.
Koski,K.V.,1966.The survival of coho salmol"l (Qns2rb~ns~~
~l~~tSQ)from egg d.position to emergence in three Oregon
coastal streams.M.S.Thesis,Oregon State University,
Corvallis,OR.
La~ger,O.E.,1980.Effects of sedimentation on salmonid stt'eam
life.Pal=ler pre••nted at tn.Techncial Workshop on
Suspended Solids in the A~uatic Environment,Jun.17-18,
Whit.ho~.e,YT,Environmental P~otection Servioe,Vancouver,
BC.20 pp.
LaPerriere,J.D.,D.M.8Jerklie,R.C.Simmo~s,E.V.Van
Nieuwenhuyse,S.M.Wagener,and J.e.Reynolds,1983.
Effects of gold placer mil"ing on interior Alaskan stream
ecosystems.in:Proceedil"lgs of First Annual Meeting of
Alaska Chapter American Water Resources Association,Nov.
1983,Fairbanks,Alaska.34 pp.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE 1~8
-
McCart,P.J.,P.M.R.Green,D.W.Maywood,and P.T.P.Tsui,
Ig80.Environmental studies no.13 effects of siltation on
the ecology of Ya-Ya Lake,N.W.T.Prepared for Minister of
Indian and Northern Affairs by Aquatic Environments,
Limited,Calgary,Alberta.286 pp.
McGauhey,P.H.,1968.Engineering management of water quality.
McGraw-Hill Book Company,New York,NY.295 pp.
McNeil,W.J.,and W.H.Ahnell,1964.Success of pink salmon
spawning relative to size of spawning bed materials.
Special Scientific Report--Fisheries No.469,U.S.Fish and
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NAS q 1973.Water quality criteria,1972.National Academy of
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WaShington,D.C.594 pp.
NCASI,1984a.A laboratory stUdy of the effects of sediments of
two different si~e characteristics on survival of rainbow
trout (§~lm2 ~~1cgn~~1)embryos to fry emergence.National
Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improve-'
rnent,Technical Bulletin No.4i29,April,1984.49 pp~+.
Append i ces~
NCAsr,1984b.The effects of fine sediment on salmonid spawning
gravel and Juvenile rearing habitat--a literature review.
National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream
Improvement,Technical Bulletin No.428,New York,NY.
66 pp.
Nutl~al,P.M.,arid G.H.Bilby,1973.
wastes on stream invertebrates.
(S):77-86.
The effect of China-clay
Environmental Pollution,
Ozturgut,E.,J.W.Lavelle,and R.E.Burns,1981.Impacts of
manganese nodule mining on the environment:results from
pilot-scale mining tests in the North Equatorial Pacific.
In:R.A.Geyer (ed.>,Marine Environmental Pollution,
2:Dumping and Mining,Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co.,
New York,NY.S74 pp.
Phillips,R.W.,R.C.Lantz,E.W.Claire,and J.R.Moring,1975.
Some effects of gravel mixtures on emergence of coho salmon
and steelh.ad fry.Trans.Amer.FiSh.Soc.,104(3);461-466.
Shelton,J.M,and R.D.Pollack,1966.
survival in incubation channels.
95 (2):183-189.
Siltation and egg
Trans.Amer.Fish.Soc.,
,r-Sigler,J.W.,1981.Ef'ects of chronic turbidity on feeding,
growth and social behavior of steelhead trout and coho
salmon.PhD.Dissertation,University of IdahO,Moscow,
ID.ISS pp.
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Sigler,J.W.,-T.C.BJor n,a ...d F.H.Ev~rset,1964.Effects of
Chro...ic turbidity 0 de...sity a ...d growth of steelheads and
coho salmon.Trans.Amer.Fish.Soc,113(2)2142-150.
Sigma Resource Consultants,1979.Summary of water ~uality
criteria for salmo...id hatcheries.Dept.of Fisheries and
Oceans.
Simmons,R.C.,1984.Effects of placer mining sedimentation on
Arctic grayling i ...int.rior Alaska.M.S.Thesis,U...iversity
of Alask.,Fairbanks,Alaska.75 PI'.
Sorensen,D.L.,M.M.McCarthy,E.J.Middlebrooks,and D.B.
Porcella,1977.Suspended and dissolved solids effects 0 ...
freshwater biota:a review.Corvallis E...vironmental
Research Laboratory,Office of Research and Development,
Environmental Protection Agency,Corvallis,OR.65 pp.
Sykora,S.L.,E.J.Smith,and M.Synak,1972.Effect of lime
neutrali%ed iron hydroxide susp.nsions on Juvenile brook
trout.Water Re.earch,(6):935-950.
Symons,J.M.,and J.Ci Hoff,1975.Ratio~ale for turbidity·
maximum contaminant level.Pr.s.nted at T~ird Water
Quality Tech ...ology.Confer....c.,American Water Works Associa-
tion,Atlarlta,GeOrgi ..,Oecemb.r 8-10,1975,Water Supply
Research Division,Environm.ntal Prot.ction Agency,
Ci ...cil"lnati,OH.19 PI'.
Tagart,J.V.,1976.The survival from egg deposition to
emergence of coho .almo...in the Clearwater River,Jefferson
Cou...ty,Washi ...gto....M.S.Thesis,University of Wasningto ...,
Seattle,WA.65 pp.+Appendices.
Tappel,P.O.,.....d T.C.BJor......,1963.A ....w method of relating
size of .pawning gravel to salmon .mbryo size.North
America ...Jour ...al Fisherie.Ma ...ag.m....t,(;3):123-135.
Van Nieuwenhuyse,E.E.,1983.The effects or placer mini ...g on
the prim.ry prOductivity of i ...t.rior Alaska streams.M.S.
Th.sis,University Qf AI.ska,F ..irb....ks,Alaska.120 pp.
Wilber,C.G.,1983.Turbidity in the aquatic environme...t,an
envirQ...m....t.1 factor in fresh a ...d oceanic w.ters.Charles
C.Thomas,Publish.r,Springfi.ld,IL.133 PI'.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE '30
-
-
1'1'""',
APPENDIX A
ANNOTATED SIBLIOGRAPHIES~-FRESH W~TER
<1/q
REVIEW DRAFT 1/1':l8S PAGE ~-1
REFERENCE.ADEC,1S8~.Wat.r quality standards.Alaska O.pt.
of Environm.ntal Con••rvatlon,Jun.au,Ala.ka.
27 pp.
REFERENCE
~OCATION.L.~.P.t.r.on &A••oclat••,Inc.
-
IMPORTANT
p~aESI 3-13
Th.wat.r quality .~andard.,is AAC 70,ar.deserib.d by various
••etions which includ.a g.n.ral s.etion and discus.ion of
short-t.rm varianc.,prot.et.d wat.r us.s and crit.ria,
proc.dur.for applying wat.r quality crit.ria,mixing zon.s,
zon..of d.posit,th.rmal di.charg••,cla••ification of stat.
wat.rs,proc.dur.for r.cla••ification.clas.ification crit.ria,
.nforc.m.nt discr.tlon,and d.finitions.
q/q
REVIEW DRAFT e/l~/8~p~eE A-e
-
"""I·
I
REf:'ERENCEI ~l.b ••t.r,.J.S.,.nd R.L.10yd,1982.WAt.r quality
crit.ri.for fr ••"w.t.r fi.".S.cond Edition,
Sutt.rwort"Sci.ntific,So.ton.361 pp.
REF~ERENCE
L.OC:ATIONI Univ.r.ity of A1 ••k.L.ibr.ry,F.irb.nk.
IM~)ORTANT
PA~;ES.1-3,1:5-17
KEY WORDS,Sedim.nt,Turbidity,Susp.nd«l Solid.,Fish,WAter
Clu.1 ity
8l'l1t1QI8!IQl'lI
E)(c:•••iv.conc.ntr.tion.of fin.1y divid.d solid.m.y b.".rmfu1
to •fi.".ry by..cting dir.ct1y on fi.".wimming in w.t.r
cor\t.ining .u.pend«l .01id.,.nd .ith.r killing t".m or reducing
t"tlir growt"r.t..nd r ••i.t.nc.to di •••••'by pr.v.nting t"•
•uc:c•••fu1 d.v.10pm.nt of fish .gg..nd 1.rv••,by modifying
n.t:ur.1 mov.m.",t..nd migr.t iOl".of fish,by r.ducing t"•
•bl.ilnd.nc.of food .v.i 1.b1.to t".fi.",or by .ff.ct i ng t"•
•f1r ici.ncy of m.thod.for c.tc"ing fi.".·Th ••p.wning ground.of
trclut .nd ••1mon .r.p.rt icu1.r1y·.u.c.pt.b1.to finely divid.d
.olid.,.nd •.11I.11 .mount 0'turbidity or d.po.it.d .01id.m.yC.l,Jl..fi.h to .•void th.m or pr.v.",t .ucc•••fu1 d.v.10pm.nt of
th.tir .gg..Th.r.i.no .vid.nc.th.t .u.p.nd.d .01 ids
corlc.ntr.tion.b.10w ~mg/L.h.v..ny .ff.ct on fi.h.
COrllc.ntr.t ion..bov.2:5 mglL.".v.,in .om.in.t.nc••,r.duc.d
fillh yi.1d,3:5 mglL.".v.r.duc.d f_ding int.n.ity,:50 mglL.n.v.
r.dluc.d the growth r.t.of trout,8a mglL.ch.rco.1 n.v.ki ll.d
D.~'hni..Th.10we.t conc.ntr.t ion known to h.v.r.duc.d fi.h
1i 1'..)(p.ct.t ion i.90 mglL.,.nd the 10w••t conc.ntr.t ion known
to h.v.incr••••d .u.c.ptibi1ity to di .....i.100 mg/L..In .om.
w.t.r.fi.".r.few in n ...mb.r,or .b••nt in t".100-400 mg/L.
r.rlg..Simi1.r conc.",tr.tion.incr•••••u.c.ptibi1ity to
d 11,••••,mort.1 ity r.t••,r.duc.growth r.t••,ki 11 D.phni.,.nd
drfL.t ic.11y r.d...c.inv.rt.br.t.f.un.in .tr••m b.d..T".r.i.
no r.1i.bl••vid.",c.to l"'dic.t.th.t fi.h f ....n •••Mi.t in w.t.r.
nor'm.11y cont.ining gr••t.r th.n /too mglL..u.p.",d.d .01 id..Fi.h
m.~'.urviv.coftC.ntr.t io",.of ••v.r.1 thou••nd mg/L.for .hort
p.,,'iod.b ...t may d.mag.th.ir gi 11..Thi.m.y .ub••qu.ntly .ff.ct
th.,ir .urviv.1.
T.rlt.tiv.crit.ri.for .....p.nd.d solid.in fr••hw.t.r .r•••
follow..(a~mglL.h.v.no h.rm'ul .ffect.on fi.h••,a~-80 mglL.
will provide for good 01'"mod.r.t.fish.ri ••,80-400 mg/L..r.
un1ik.1y to ....pport good fi.h.ri ••,.t b ••t,only poor fi.h.ri •••1"'.'lik.ly to b.cont.in.d in ...at.r.norm.l1y cont.ining )400
mg/L..
gig
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19f8:5 P~GE A-3
REFERENCE_Arrud.,J.A.,G.R.M.rzo1f,.nd R.T.Faulk.1983.
Th.role 0'.usp.nded,••dim.nts in the nutrition of
zoop1.nkton 1n turbid ~.s.rvoir••Ecolo;y,64(~)1
122~-123~.
REFERENCE
~OCATIONI AI.sk.R.sourc••~ibr.ry,Anchor.g.(microfilm)
IMPORTANT
PAGES.122~-123~
at:it:ig!e!lQ~'
QA»bni.were tasted to discov.r:(1)The physical .¥~.ct5 o~
susp.nded s.diments on ing••tion .nd incorporation rates o~
.1g••,(2)Ing••tion r.t ••of two .iz••of c1.y min.ral ••dim.nt
p.rticl••,and (3)Growth .nd .urviv.l wh.n '.d y ••st and
••dim.nt.with and without organic mat.rial ad.orb.d onto
p.rticl...Incr•••••0'.u.p.nded .ediment 'rom 0.0 to 24~1 .mg/L
d.cr•••.a 1n;••tion rat..0'.lg••by 9~p.rc.nt and d.cr••••d
incorporat io1'\r.t..by.·99 p.rcent.Nutrient.can tui 'aa-sorbed
onto .ediment p.rticl...nd provide food'for QAAttnl.but no~a.
well ••directly ingesting nutrient..Th.thre.hold of .uspended
.olid.for efficient feeding .ppeared to be 100 mg/~.
q/q
REVIEW DRAFT e/1~6e PAGE A-~
""'"
REFERENCE.Sell,M.C.,1973.Silt and turbidity.Inl
Fisheries Handbook of Engineering Requirements and
Biological Criteria.U.S.Army Corps of Engineering
Division,Corps of Engineers,North Pacific Division,
Portland,Oregon.
REFERENCE
LOCATION.
-
IMPORTANT
PAaES.1-7
KEY WORDS:Sediment,Silt,Bed-load,Turbidity,Trout,Salmon,
Eggs,Alevins,Production,Mortality,Smothering,
InfttCtion
Relatively large quantities (~00-1000 ppm)of suspended water-
borne material can be carried for short periods of time in
streams without detriment to fish.The catch of fish is affected
above levels of 30 3TU,as visual references are lost.Primary
food production is lowered.above levels of 2~3TU.The presence
of bed lo·ad material c:an ki 11 buried eggs or alevins.by
restricting water interc:hange and can smother food organisms.
Stu1l:Ues conducted in the Chilcotin River in British Columbia
indicate that salmonid fish will not move in streams where the
silt c:ontent is above 4,000 ppm.Streams with average silt loads
between eo and 400 ppm are not desirable for supporting fre.h-
water fisheries.Streams with less than 2S ppm may be eHpected
to support good freshwater fisheries.When an eHcess amount of
silt is deposited throughout salmon and trout redds after
spawning is completed,there is a resultant interference with the
proper percolation of water upward through the redd,a loss of
dissolved oHygen,and a lac:k of proper removal of catabolic
pro!ducts.This "smothering ll of eggs also promotes the growth of
fungi which may spread throughout the entire redd.The eHtent to
which siltation is harmful to Dlmon and trout spawning and egg
incubation depends upon the amount and type of material
deposited,as well as the time of occurrence.When sediment
contains clay particles,it may form a hard,compact crust over
the stream bed and render the spawning area unusable.aenerally,
salmonid eggs will suffer a mortality of es percent when 1S to 20
percent of the gravel voids are filled with sediment.Prolonged
eKposure to some typ.s of sediment results in thickening of cells
of the respiratory epithelium and the eventual fusion of adJacent
gill lamellae.Evidence of gill irritation in trout and salmon
fingerlings held in turbid water has been noted frequently by
fish culturists,and considered a common avenue of infection for
fungi and pathogenic bacteria.It is apparent that salmonids
suffer more physical distress in turbid water than do other
species.
q/9
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/e~PAGE A-~
REFERENCE.e.schta,R.L.1980.Turbidity and suspended
sediment relationships.IDa Proc.Symp.on
Watershed Management 'SO,Boise,Idaho.pp.271-282.
REFERENCE
LOCATION,Alaska Oepartment of Fish and aame,A~chorage
.IMPORTRNT
PAGES.
KEY WOROS.-
The Oak Creek and Flynn Creek watersheds in western Oregon were
analyzed for turbidity and suspended sediment.Suspe~ded
sediment concentration and turbidity correlated significantly at
the 90 percent confidence limit for 24 of 26 storm events.The
relationships dif'ered significantly between drainages,however,
so prediction equations must be worked out for each watershed.
_Turbidity may b.useful in evaluating sediment transport in small
mountain drainag..where suspended sediment concentrations and
water discharge.can chang.quickly.-Turbidity mea.urem-.nts,~
though,are ambiguous partly because there a~e so Many way.of
measuring it and each instrument used influences the r ..ultant
turbidity value..On this proJect,the Hach alOOA turbidimeter
calibrated in NTU was us.d.Formulae and curv..showing the
relationships betw••n suspended sediment and turbidity are
presented.
-
9/'1
REVIEW DRAFT ~/as PAGE A-6
-
REFERENCE.Bisson,P.~.and R.E.Bilby.1982.Avoid.nce of
.usp.nd.d ••dim.nt by Juv.nil.coho ••lmon.No.
Am.r.Jour.of Fi.h.Manag ••,2(4).371-374.
REFE~RENCE
LOCI~TION.Al ••ka R••ourc••Libr.ry,Anchora;.
IMP(JRT~NT
PAGE!Sr
KEY WORDS.Turbidity,Coho Salmon
Juvl.ni 1.s.lmon were t ••t.d und.r l.bor.tory condit ions to
d.t.rmin.thre.hold l.v.l..liciting .void.nce .nd modific.tion
of b.h.vior.l r ••pon..by .cclim.tion to chronic low lev.l.of
fin....diment.Sediment .....int ....oduc.d into.divid.d ch.mb.....
•nd fish we ....e ob......v.d to •••...hich h.lf th.y p ef..........d.
SU.I~.nd.d ••dim.nt lev.l..voided by coho Juveni 1••w b.low
l.th.l l.v.l..Fe.ding effectiv.n•••m.y be imp.i .....d in the 70
to 100 NTU .....ng..Fi.h m.y h.v••void.d w.t ......in th.t .....ng••0
th.)"could ••e p .....y.F"i.h did not ••l.ct .1 ight ly tu....bid "(10 to
20 NTU)....t .....but ....t.r of .lightly high .....tu....bidity .ppe.r.d to
b.u.ed fo....cover.Th ••utho.....conclud.th.t fi.h should not b•
•toc:ked into highly tu bid t......Al.o,mod t.inc ov ....
10...b.ckg ....ound l.v.l pp.rently not .voided by the fi.h.
ql=t
REVIEW DRAFT e/19/8~P~GE ~-7
REFERENCE.
REFERENCE
L.OCATIONI
IMPORTANT
PAGES'
BJornn,T.C.,M.A.Bru.v.n,M.P.Molnau,and J.H.
Milligan,1977.Tran.port of graniti~••dim.nt in
.tr.am.and it ••ff.ct.on in••~t.and fi.h.
Univ.r.ity of Idaho,For••t Wildlife and Rang.
Exp.rim.nt Station Bull.tin No.17,Mo.~ow,Idaho.
'+7 pp.
Coop.rativ.Fish Unit,Univ.r.ity of Ala.ka,
Fairbank.
40,41
KEY WORDS:Salmonids,Aquatic Inse~ts,Abundance,Drift,
S.dim.nt,Emb.dd.dn•••
8MtiQrB!lQt!
The .ffects of (6.35 mm diameter sediment on Juvenile salmonids
and aquatic in••ct.wa.•••••••d in two Idaho .tr••m..In.
natural .tr.am riffl.,b.nthic in.ect.war.1.~-tim..Mor.
abund.nt in •plot cl.an.d of .edim.nt,with mayfli..And
.ton.fli••'+to 8 time.more .bundant,r ••p.ctiv.ly.In.mall
natur.l pool.,.ddition.of'••dim.nt r ••ult.d in a proportional
d.cr....in fi.h number..Th.amount.of ••dim.nt in the two
.tr••m..tudied did not have an obvious adv.r•••''''.ct on the
abundanc.of fish or the in.ect drift on which th.y f ••d.In
artificial .tr.am chann.l.,b.nthic in••ct d.n.ity in fully
••dim.nted riffl..()2/3 cobbl..mb.dd.dn•••)wa.1/2 that in
un••dim.nt.d riffl...How.v.r in••ct drift wa •••••ntially the
.am.in both.Fi.h in ••dim.nt.d chann.l ••xhibit.d hi.rarchical
b.havior,While tho..in un••dim.nt.d chann.ls w.re t.rritoria1
in b.havior.
Conclusions deriv.d from .xperim.nta1 data ar.that ••dim.nts can
affe~t aquati~in••~t population.wh.n d.posit.d in riff1 ••,
r.duce the .umm.r r.aring c.pacity of .tr.am.wh.n d.posit.d in
pool.,and r.duc.the wint.r fi.h capacity of .tr.am.wh.n
d.po.it.d in the 1arg.r int.r.titia1 .pac••of .tr.am .ubstr.t••
If the p.rc.ntag.of fin•••dim.nt .xc••d.20 to 30 p.rc.nt in
spawning riffle.,.urvival and .m.rg.nc.of .almonid .mbryo.
b.gins to d.clin..Wh.n riffl ••ar.fully emb.dd.d with fin.
s.dim.nt,in.ect .p.ci.s compo.ition and abundanc.chang...Th.
abundanc.of Juv.nil..almon in pool.of small r.aring .tream.
d.clin..in .lmo.t dir.ct proportion to the amount of pool ar.a
or volume 10.t to fin...dim.nt d.po.ited in the pool.Th.
numb.r of salmonid fish a str.am can .upport in winter i.much
r.duced wh.n the interstic.s in the str.am sub.trate are filled
with fine sedim.nt.The p.rcentag.of fin.s.diment in riff1 ••
not only provide.a measure of the SUitability of the riffles for
embryo survival,but is also an index of the .mount of fine
sediment being deposited in pools or substrate interstices•
.~/c,I •
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/83 PAGE A-a
....
REFERENCE.~lark.on,C.C.,D.E.L.hnig,S.V.Plant.,R.S.
Taylor,and W.M.William.,1983.Hydrologic basis
for .u.p.nd.d .olid.crit.ria.Pr.par.d for
Environm.ntal Prot.ction Ag.ncy by Camp,Dr••••r &
McKee,Annandal.,Virginia.
REFIERENCE
LOCi~TION:Alaska Departm.nt of Environm.ntal Con••rvat ion
I MPIIJRTANT
PAGIES •v-v ii,2-34--2-37,4-1--4-23
KEY WORDS:Sedimentation,Suspended Solids,Turbidity,Primary
Production,Zooplankton,Macro i nv.rtebrat e.,
Salmonid,Fish,Hydrology
The report discuss....veral factors that ar.important to the
d.viltlopm.nt of a wat.r quality crit.rion for suspend.d
.olids/turbidity for the prot.ction of aquatic biota.Th.s.
fac'Ioors includ.r.gional,physiographic,and s.asonal
con'.id.rat ions,and relat.d hydrolog ic ph.nom.",a.
The natural solids loading to a wat.rbody will vary from sit.to
.it,.,d.p.nding upon physiographic:factors <inclUding slop.,soil
typl_,type of ground cov.r)and upon rainfall and runoff.H.nc.,
•••'.onal and r.gional crit.ria n ••d to b.d.v.lop.d that take
intl~ac:c:ount the significanc:.of natural and oth.r nonpoint
SOUirc.loadings.Wat.r C1ual ity c:rit.ria should b.d.v.lop.d for
susp.nd.d solids in the wat.r column as w.ll as for s.ttl.d
s.diment and th •••crit.ria n ••d to addr•••the compl.x situation
of toxic..orb.d to su.p.nd.d and s.ttl.d solids.Additionally,
the .ff.c:ts of .ustained .xposur.to su.p.nd.d .olids v.rsus
sholrt-t.rm storm r.lat.d pul ••s n ••d to b.quant i fi.d.Although
the r.port do..not r.comm.nd crit.ria to prot.ct aquatic lif.,
it do....tabli.h a fram.work for consid.ration of r.gional,
••ai.onal,and biological factors.
q/q
REVIEW DRAFT ~/83 PAGE A-9
REFERENCE,Crou••,M.R.,C.A.CAllahan,K.W.M.lu.g,.nd
S.E.Domingu.z,19S1.E~~.cts of ~in.s.dim.nt on
growth o~Juv.nil.coho .Almon in l.bor.tory str.am••
Tr.n••Am.r.Fi.h.Soc.,110(2)1281-286.
REFERENCE
LOCATIONI ~l ••ka R••ourc••Libr.ry,Anchor.g.(microfilm)
IMPORTANT
P~GESI
Juvenil.coho .almon production .xpr••••d ••tissue .l.bor.tion
wa.m•••ur.d in labor.tory .tr••m.und.r .iM l.v.l.of fin•
••dim.nt.tion.~.v.ls o~s.dim.nt .mbedd.dn•••w.r.20,~O,60,
SO,and 100 p.rc.nt as cumul.tiv.w.ight.Production of coho
••lmon w..invers.ly r.l.t.d to the quantity o~fina ••dim.nt.
Signific.nt d.cr.....in fi.h production occurr.d in the 80 to
100 p.rc.nt .mbedd.dn...str••m.wh.n ~in.(2.0 mm or l ••s>
••diment.wer.26 and 31 p.rc.nt by volume.a.nthic org.nisms
w.r.cover.d by.the ••diment.Aut~or.conclud.th.t r ••ring
h.bitat for Juv.nile ••lmon ••w.ll as .p.wning habitat .hould be
protected from sedim.nt.tion.
9jq
REVIEW DR~FT ~li9/e~PAGE A-l0
REF'ERENCE I
REF'ERENCE
LOC:ATION.
DFO,1983.A r.tion.1.for .tand.rd.r.1ating to th.
di.~h.rg.of ••dim.nt.into Yukon .tr••m.from p1A~.r
min...D.p.rtm.nt of Fi.h.ri •••nd O~••n.,Fi.1d
S.rvi~••BrAn~h,Environm.nt Canada,Environm.nt.1
Prot.~t ion S.rvi~.,N.w W••tmini.ter,B.,C.24 pp.
A1ask.D.partm.nt of Fi.h .nd Game,H.bit.t Divi.ion,
F.irb.nk.
-
-
-
IM!=lIORTFlNT
PFlt5IES.ii,1-3,13-18
KEY WORDS.S.d:Lm.nt Di.~h.rg.,P1.nts,Inv.rt.br.t.s,F:L.h,
Produ~tion,Mort.1ity,Str••m C1 •••:Lf:L~.t:Lon.,
St.nd.rds
a~~lQIaIIQ~
Guid.1in...r.propo••d for .n admini.tr.tiv./r.gu1.tory
fr.lm.work to m.n.g.p1.~.r m:Ln:Lng ••d:Lm.nt d:L.~h.rg..Th:L •
•pl=troach :L.b •••d on .n .Ht.n.iv.r.vi.w .nd di.~u••:Lon of
1it.r.tur.r.g.rding tn...n.it:Lv:Lty of b:Lo10gi~.11y :Lmport.nt
Aql.ll.t:L~r ••our~...Fiv.~1 •••:L fi~.t :Lon.(A,B,C,0,.nd X)h.v.
b ••,n propo••d b •••d on tn.b:Lologi~.l _n.:Lt :Lv:Lty of'r ••our~••
andl p.st m:Ln:Lng .~t :Lv:Lty in ••~h w.t.rbody.IIA II ~1 •••:L fi~.t :Lon •
•r.'•••0~:L.t.d only w:Lth high import.n~.-S~h.du1.I (••lmon,
trCtut,or ch.r).p.wning h.bit.t.liS"~l •••if':L~.t ion.would
••r"v.••r ••ring .r•••for S~h.du1.I fi.h.IIC"~l •••ifi~.t ion.
ar.t good h.bit.t .r...for S~h.dul.I I fi.h .u~h ••gr.y1 ing,
whit.f'i.h,or burbot."Oil ~l •••ifi~.t ion.would .Hhibit low or
no u..by .ny of th..bov.fi.h or be u ••d only ••migr.tion
~orridor.,.nd "XU ~l •••ifi~.tion••1"'.for pr.viou.1y d ••:Lgn.t.d
pliL~.r mining .1"'....S.dim.nt di.ch.rg••t.ndard.to tn.wat.r.
of th..bov.~l •••ifi~.tion..1"'.proposed to b.0 mg/~for .11
II All wat.rbodi ••,100 mg/~for .11 "S".nd "c".tr••m.,100 or
10010 mg/~for .11 "D lt .tr••m..nd 100 or 1000 mg/~for II XII
.tr'••m..Th....t.nd.rd••r.upper 1 imit.of .~~.pt.b1.1.v.1 •
•nd .r.d.fin.d for .ff1u.nt.from tn.op.r.tion ••oppo••d to
r.c:.iving w.t.r .t.nd.rd••
ThE!impa~t of a sediment release on stream product ion wi 11 depend
on tn.org.ni.m.pr•••nt,.tr••mb.d ~ompo.ition,th•••••on,
.tr'••m flow,.tr••m v.10city,b.ckground ••diment 1.v.1.,th.
vo1um.of 1"'.1 ••••,th.dur.tion of the r.1.....nd tn.
~omlpo.ition of th•••dim.nt.Tn.obvious .ffect.of ••dim.nt 01"1
fi.,h produ~t ion will b.mo.t not :L~••b1.on ~.rt.:Ln .t.g••of fi.h
11f~.~y~l..whi~h v.ri...mong .p.~i...S.dim.nt ~.u•••th.
gr.'.t ••t r.du~t ion 1n fi.h produ~t ion by ~.u.ing mort.1 :Lty :Ln th •
•g;1 and .1.vin .t.g..of d.v.10pm.nt .nd in th.d.gr.d.t ion of
tn.'h.bitat.Sin~.prim.ry produ~.r.,inv.rt.br.t ••,.nd fi.h
are 11nk.d tog.th.r in Aquati~food ~h.in.,.ny d.1.t.riou•
•ff'.~t on .1g..w:L 11 aff.~t .qu.t i~inv.rt.br.t •••nd fi.h th.t
d.j:il.nd on .n.rgy produ~.d in the .tr••m.
q/9
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/8~PAGE A-ll
REFERENCE.Europ••n I~l.nd Fish.ri.s Advisory Commission,196~.
Wat.r qu.lity crit.ria for Europ.anfr.shwat.r fish,
r.port on fin.ly divid.d solid••nd inl.nd fish.ri.s.
EIF~C T.chnic.l Pap.r No.1.Int.rn.tional Journ.l
of Air and Wat.r Pollution,9(3)11l51-168.
REFERENCE
LOCATION'Univ.r.ity of Ala.k.,F.irb.nk.
IMPORTANT
PAGES,16l5-167
KEY WORDS:Suspended Solids,Turbidity,Fish,Water Quality
Crit....i.
A literature survey addresses the direct effects of suspended
.olids on fi.h-growth,d ••th,r ••ist.nc.to di •••••,
r.production,b.M.vior,.nd food .upply.Evid.nc.indic.t ••th.t
fi.h sp.ci...r.not .qu.lly .u.c.ptibl.to .u.p.nd.d .olid••nd
tM.t .olid••r.not .qu.lly M.rmful.Minim.l turbidity m.y c.u••
fi.M to .void .p.wning ground.or pr.v.nt .ucc•••ful .gg
d.v.lopm.nt.Th.r.i.no .vid.nc.tM.t .u.p.nd.d .olids
conc.ntr.tion.below as ppm M....m.fish 0...fi.M.ri •••
Conc.ntrations .bov.2~ppm Mav.r.duc.d fi.M,~O ppm M.v.
r.duc.d growtM r.t.of trout,.nd 82 ppm of cM.rco.l M.v.kill.d
gAQon1A.TM.lowest r.port.d conc.nt ....tion for.str.tcM of
.tr••m cont.ining f.w or no fish i.as ppm.TM.r.ar.s.ver.l
otM.r .tr••m.witM .1igMtly low.r conc.ntr.tion.wh.r.tM.
fi.h.ry i5 not notic••bly M.rm.d.In l.bor.tory t ••t.the low••t
conc.ntr.tion known to r.duc.fi.M lif••xp.ct.tion.i.90 ppm
and tMe lowe.t conc.nt ....tion known to h.v.inc.......d
•u.c.pt.bility to di.....i.100 ppm.W.t.rs cont.ining 100 to
400 ppm .u.p.nded .oUd.incr.....u.c.pt ibiUty to di •••••,inc.......mo ...t.lity r.t...nd reduce growtM r.t...UAennlA h.v.
b ••n kill.d by •v.ri.ty of .olid.in this conc.ntration r.ng••
TM.r.i.no .vid.nc.th.t w.t.rs normally c.rrying .olid.gr••t.r
tMan 400 ppm .upport v.ri.d or pl.ntiful fi.h f.una..Many kind.
of .olids c.n be pr•••nt in conc.ntr.tion.of ••v.r.l thou••nd
ppm for .hort p.riod.witMout killing fi.h,but m.y d.m.g.th.ir
gills.
T.nt.tiv..u.p.nd.d .olid.crit.ria .r.propos.d ••follow..(as
ppm will not h.v••ny Marmful .ff.ct.on fi.h.ri ••,a~to 80 ppm
will m.int.in good or moder.t.fi.h.ri ••,80 to 400 ppm .r.
unlik.ly to .upport good fr••hwat.r fi.h.ri ••,.t b••t only poor
fi.h.ri...r.lik.ly to b.found in w.t.r.cont.ining )400 ppm
su.p.nded solid••
Iq;Ci
REVIEW DRAFT e/1~/8S PAGE A-12
-
_.
REFERENCE'Gammon,J.R.,1970.Tn ••ff.ct of inorg.nic .edim.nt
on .tr••m biot..Pr.pared for tne W.ter Qu.lity
Offic.of tn.Environm.nt.l Prot.ction Ag.ncy,Gr.nt
No.lS030DWC,u.s.Gov.Printing Offic.,W••hington,
D.C.141 pp.
-
....,
REFE~RENCE
LOCF~TIONI
I MPCIRTANT
PAGE~SI
Coop.r.tiv.Fi.h Unit,Univ.rsity of Ala.k.,
F.irb.nk.
i ,ii,1-3,7,a
KEY WORDS:Fisn,Macroinvertebrates,Suspended Sediment,
Popu1.tion D.n.ity,Div.r.ity
Fish and macroinvertebrate populations f1uctu.ted in response to
v.r),ing qu.ntiti..of ••dim.nt produc.d by •crush.d 1im••ton.
qu.r'ry.Susp.nd.d .01 ids 10.d.(40 mglL .....u1t.d in •23 p.rc.nt
r.d~lction in m.croinv.rt.br.t.d.n.ity b.low tn.qu.rry.Input.
of SO to 120 mgll c.u••d.40 p.rc.nt r.duction .nd input.of
mor.t tn.n 120 ,"gIL r.sult.d in •60 p.rc.nt r.duct ion>in
m.cr'oinv.rt.br.t.popul.tion d.n.ity.S.dim.nt whicn ••ttl.d out
in rif'l..cau••d a 40 p.rc.nt d.cr••••in popul.tion d.nsity
r.g.~rdl...of the .u.p.nd.d .01 ids conc.ntr.t ion.M.croinv.rt.-
br.t:.popul.t ion div.r.ity r.m.in.d uncn.ng.d bee.us.mo.t t.M.
r.spond.d to the ••m.d.gr...Introductions of ••dim.nt up to
160 mg/L c.u...imm.di.t.incr•••••in tn.r.t.of inv.rt.br.t.
dri 1't proport ion~l to tn.conc.ntr".t ion of .dd it ion.l .u.p.nd.d
.01id..Tn..t.nding crop of fi.n d.cr••••d dra.tic.l1y wn.n
n ••vy .u.p.nd.d ••dim.nt (1:50 mg/L)occurr.d in .pring.Fish
r.m.lin.d in pool.during tn••umm.r wn.n ••dim.nt input w••v.ry
n ••vy but v.c.t.d ••••dim.nt .ccumu1.t.d.Aft.r wint.r flood.
r.mclV.d ••dim.nt d.posit.,fi.n r.turn.d to tn.pool.during
.pr~,n;.nd .cni.v.d 30 p.rc.nt normal .t.nding crop 1.v.1.by
••rl,y Jun..It i.conc1ud.d tn.t .ignific.nt r.duction.in fi.n
.nd m.croinv.rt.rb.t.population d.n.iti ••will d.finit.1y occur
.t IUJ.p.nded .01 ids conc.ntr.t ion•••low ••30 to eo mg/L.
q,k1
REVIEW DRAFT ~/e3 PAGE A-13
...".
REFERENCE.6eorg.,T.S.,.nd O.E.~.hnig,1984.Turbidity.nd
.olids.Prep.red for U.S.Environment.l ProtectiQn
Ag.ncy by C.mp,Dr••••r &McK.e,Ann.nd.l.,Virgini ••
REFERENCE
~OCATION.
IMPORTANT
PAGES.a-a -4-11
KEY WORDS:Turbidity,Sediment,Aquatic Biota,Impacts,
St.nd.rd.,Crit.ria,W.ter QU.lity ObJective.
Summarizes recent literature pertaining to the impacts of _
turbidity .nd .edim.nt on prim.ry !'roduction,and on the
survival,growth .nd prop.g.tion of zoo!'lankton,
m.croinv.rt.br.t ••,.nd fi.h.In .ddition,it .x.min••Canadi.n
w.ter qu.lity obJ.ctive.for turbidity,and the .u!'porting
ration.l..Numeric.l d.t.from ••v.r.l k.y inv••tigation.ar.
pre.ented including result.from bio••••y studie.,st.te w.ter
qU.lity .t.ndard.,plac.r mining .tudi••in Al ••k.,guid.line.-
for ••tting turbidity and .ediment .t.nd.rd.,.nd recomm.nd.d
level.for the protection of a variety of water u••••
-
-
q/q
REVIEW DRAFT e/19/8~PAGE A-14
-
-
REFERENCEs HAu.le,D.~.,.nd D.W.Coble,1976.Influence of
.and in redds on .urvival and emergenc.of brook
trout (§~!~~!!n~!!~nt1n~11!).Tran••ction.~M.ric.n
Fish.ri.s Soci.ty,No.1,pp.S7-63.
REFERENCE
LOC~TIONI Univ.rsity of ~l ••k.Libr.ry,F.irb.nk.
IMPORT~NT
P~GES I S9-62
KEY WORDS;Brook Trout,Spawning Gravel,Sand Concentration,
Em.rg.nc.,Surviv.l,Mort.lity
Alevins of brook trout were buried in laboratory troughs in
sp.wning gravel cont.ining 0 to as perc.nt .and.S.nd alow.d
.m.rg.nc..nd r.duc.d the numb.r of fry .m.rging.~lthough the
p.rc.nt.g.s of fry .m.rging in l.boratory studi.s w.re high ()aa
p.rc.nt),th.y d.cr••••d signific.ntly with incr•••ing ••nd
compo.ition.Em.rg.nc.of brook trout from tnia study,and
.t.eln••d,chinook s.lmon,.nd cono ••lmon in oth.r
inv••tigation.d.clin.d wh.n sp.wning grav.l conc.ntr.tio~of
••nd .Mc••d.d .bout 20 perc.nt.Tn.brook trout.urviv.l r.t.
from n.tching to .m.rg.nc.w••-.stimat.d .t 70 p.rc.nt in
L.w....nc.Cr••k,Wiscon.in wh.r.n.tural .p.wning r.dd.cont.in.d
31 p.rc.nt ••nd.Tot.l .m.rg.nc.wa.S9 p.rc.nt from egg
d.pc,.it ion to .m.rg.nc..Mort.lity of 41 p.rc.nt cr more of
d.pc.ited ov.in L.wr.nc.Cre.k m.y n.v.b••n c.u••d by low
conc.ntr.tions of di.solv.d oMyg.n .nd/or tn••ff.cts of ••nd.
'Q/0t
REVIEW DR~FT aIle/as P~GE ~-lS
REFERENCE,
REFERENCE
LOCATION,
IMPORTANT
PAGES'
Herbert,D.W.M.,and J.C.Merkens,1961.Th.
eff.ct of sus~.nd.d mineral solids on the survival of
trout.Int.rnationa1 Journal of Air and Water
~ollution,Vol.4,No.1,~p.46-35.
University of Alaska,Fairbanks
51-54
KEY WORDS:Sus~et"'lded Solids,Trout,Lethal EfTects,Gill Damage,
Fin Rot
Suspet"'lsions OT kaolin and diatomaceous earth were used to test
the .ff.ct.of .u.pend.d solid.on trout.From the data
available th.r.app.ar.to b.no gr.at differ.nce in the 1.tha1
.ff.ct of kaolin and diatomac.ou••arth.Su.p.n.ion.of 30 ppm
cau••d t"'l.gligibl.damag.to fi.h ov.r a 6 month p.riod.A f.w
d.ath.occurr.d in .usp.n.ion.of 90 pp.m indicating that this
1.v.l may have an adv.r•••ff.ct.More than half tn.trout di.d
in .u.p.nsions_of 270 and al0 ppm,fr.qu.ntly from tn••ff.cts of
di......Fish .xpo.ed to .uspet"'ld.d .olids concentrations of 30
to 90 ppm exhibit.d normal gills bl,Jt fish exposed to
concentration.of 270 to 810 ~pm displayed a thickening and/or
fusing of gill lamella..After 57 days of eKposure to 270 ppm
diatomaceous earth trout showed signs of caudal fin damage.
'1/9REVIEWDRAFT~~9/85 PRGE A-16
~!
......
.....
.....
REFE~RENCE I Herbert,D.W.M.,and J.M.Rienards,1963.orne
growth and survival of fish in some suspensions of
solids of'industrial origin.International Journal
of Air and Water Pollution,Vol.7,pp.297-302
REFE~RENCE
LOC~~TION.University of'Alaska,Fairbanks
IMPCJRTANT
PAGEiS.302
KEY WORDS:Suspended Solids,Trout,Survival,Disease,Growth
A 1fishery is likely to be seriously harmed if tne average
eonc::entration of'suspended solids in the water is gre.ter than
about 600 ppm.At concentrations of'90 and 300 ppm the ef'f'ect is
mortl doubtful."rhis study has shown that trout can be kept in
good nealth f'or 9 montns in 200 ppm coal-washery waste solids.
The e~tent to which concentrations in this range will be harmf'ul
de~lnd.on the nature of'the solids and other environm_ntal
f'ac1;ors.There is no ind icat ion that 30 ppm kaolit'l and
dia1:omaceous earth make trout more susceptible to disease 01'"
reduce their chances f'or survival.In one e~periment ~O ppm wood
f'ibtlr and eoa1-washery sol ids redueed the growth of'rainbow trout
in the laboratory.In practice,it is unlikely that ~O to 60 ppm
sollLds wi 11 have a serious ef'f'ect on growth.
9/'1
REVIEW DRAFT a/l~/8~PAGE A-17
REFERENCE.Hynes,H.8.N.1973.The .ffect.of sediment on the
biota in runn1ng wate~.In'FluVial p~ocesses and
sedimentation.Proc.of Hydrology Symp.,Univ.of
Alberta,Edmonton,Albe~ta.
REFERENCE
LOCATION'Alaska Department of Fish and Game,Anchorage
IMPORTANT
PAGESt
KEY WORDS,Sedimentation,Standards
a~~QI8IIQ~
The status of knowledge of the effects of turbidity and siltation
by inert solids on plants,benthos,fish,and f1sh eggs 1s
reviewed.It is concluded that the upper limit for suspended
sediments is 80 m;/~of inert silt,.and,or clay.This level
will not seriously damage a fishery but may reduce growth rates
and abundance.The allowable amount should not,however,result
in siltation.If so,the level should be adJusted.Streams must
always be allowed to remove the silt.
__t
'-lA
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/S~P~GE A-1S
-
-
REFE~RENCE.b.amot 0,R.N.,E.O.Salo,M.A.M.deJ,and R.L.
McCom.s,1978.Sediment .nd w.t.r qU.lity.•r.vi.w
of tn.lit.r.tur.including.sugg.st.d appro.cn for
w.t.r qu.lity crit.ri..Fish.ri ••R••••rch
Institut.,Coll.g.of Fish.ri.s,Univ.rs~ty o~
W••hington,Se.ttl.,W.shington.Pr.p.r.d for th.
u.S.Environm.nt.l Prot.ction Ag.ncy,S ••ttl.,EPA
910/9-78-048.46 pp.+App.ndic.s.
REFE~RENCE
LOCF~TION.F.lls Cr••k Environm.nt.l,Anchor.g.
IMPC)RTANT
PAGE~S.1-~,8-12,43-46,App.ndilC A,App.ndiK C
KEY WORDS:Sediment Criteria,Suspended Sediment,Turbidity,
B.dlo.d,Str••mb.d,M••sur.m.nt T.chniqu.s,Alga.,
Phytopl.nkton,Inv.rt.br.t••,In••cts,Fish,
S.lmonids
Conc:lusions .nd r.comm.ndations reg.r.ding s.dim.nt crit.ria are
b.sl~on .n·.nalysis of~h.lit.ratur.and the proc••dings 'of a
on.··day s.dimlint workshop.Among th.conclusions drawn by th.
t.chnical pan.l at th.s.diment workshop,tn.following points
ar.most p.rt in.nt I (1)S.dim.ntat ion of spawning grav.ls
produc.s significant d.trim.ntal .ff.cts on salmonids,(2)Fine
b.d mat.rial app.ars to hav.a significant impact on primary and
s.ccmd.ry product ivi ty,(3)Turbid tty m.asur.m.nts ar.us.ful
indi~cators of g.n.r.l suspend.d s.dim.nt l.v.ls but ar.difficult
to r.lat.to any biological significanc.,(4)Tn ••stablishm.nt
of sedim.nt crit.ria on th.basis of m.asur.m.nts oth.r than
turbidity may b.difficult but not impractical,(~)Alt.rnativ.
ap~·oach.s to turbidity as a crit.rion includ.composition of b.d
matltrial,b.havioral asp.cts of aqu.t ic fauna,and cl inic.l
m.allur.m.nts of physiological funct ions as a m.asur.of str.ss,
(6)A s.t of s.dim.nt crit.ria is n ••d.d rath.r than on.
numltrical stand.rd,(7)If a crit.rion is chos.n,it should b.
strIPamb.d mat.rial and it should b.associated with th.amount of
f i nits in t he spawn i ng bed ,(8)B.d lo.d m.asurem.nt s ar.too
com~)l icat.d to use as a crit.rion,(9)Str.ambed composit ion
r.f],.cts th.ov.rall condition of •str.am in r.lation to
s.di.m.nts,(10)Th.b.st alt.rnativ••ppears to b••stablishm.nt
of crit.ria limiting th.p.rc.ntag.of fin.s in str••mb.ds,and,
(11)A n ••d .Kists to dev.lop a m.asurabl.r.lationship b.tw••n
suspend.d s.dim.nts and str.amb.d composition.
q/q
REVIEW DRAFT ~/19/85 PAGE A-19
-
KEY WORDS:Sediment,Turbidity,Runo~~,Irrigation,Erosion
Turbidity and suspended sediment concentration were measured for
both agricultur..l runoff and irrig..tion return flow.Ext.nsive
.t ..ti.tic..l ..n ..ly.i..how~only minim..l corr.l ..tion.Mi •
•c ..tt.ring th.ory w....xplor.d to det.rmin.the .ignific..nce of
.uch f ..ctor....particl••iz.,index of refraction,conc.ntr..tion
..nd ..ngl.o~.catt.r for both the n.ph.lom.t.r and th •
.tran.mi ••iom.t.r.It w...found that only particl ••of 1•••th ..n
10 micron.in dit!lm.t.r contribut..ignificantly to the
m.a.ur.m.nt of turbidity.Th.r •••arch.r.recomm.nd direct
m....urem.nt of .u.p.nd.d .edim.nt for ..gricultural r"unoff and
irrigation r.turn flow.
D.L.S••••tt,and J.M.Ebeling,1978.
of turbidity for quality m.nt of
runoff ..nd irrig..tion ret~rn flow.
Engin••ring D.partm.nt,W...hington State
Pullman,Wa.hington.-,_36 pp.+
Nichol.Environm.nt ..l Consulting
1,7-11,26-33
King,L.G.,
Significanc.
..gricultur..l
Agricultur..l
Univer.ity,
App.ndic.s.
REFERENCE.
IMPORTANT
PAGES.
REFERENCE
LOCATION'
-
-I'1,19
IREVIEWDRAFT-&f4-9/8e PAGE A-20
-
-
REFE~RENCE,LAng.r,O.E.,1980.Eff.ct.of s.dim.nt.t ion on
••lmonoid .tre.m lif..P.p.r pr•••nt.d .t the
T.chnic.l Workshop on Su.p.nd.d Solid.in the Aqu.tic
Environm.nt,Jun.17-18,Whit.hors.,Yukon T.rritory,
C.n.d..Environm.ntal Protection Service,V.ncouv.r,
B.C..20 pp..
REFE~RENCE
LOC~~TIONI Al ••k.D.p.rtm.nt of Fi.h .nd a.m.,Habit.t Divi.ion,
F.irb.nk.
I MPCIRTANT
PAGE~SI 1-20
-
-
KEY WORDS:Sediment,Salmonid,Turbidity,Periphyton,Primary
Production,~lg••,M.crophyt ••,Inv.rt.br.t••
Avai.lable data from several investigators indicate that sediment
c.n .ff.ct .11 form.of .tr••m lif..Th.gr••t.r the incr••••in
••d~.m.nt in •..lmonid .tr••m,the gr••t.r wi 11 be-th••dv.r••
•ffIICt.on pl.nt .nd .nim.l 1 i f.pr•••nt in th••tr••m.The
.dd~.t ion of ••dim.nt to •.tr••m incr•••••turbidity,c.u•••
•coIJlring,.moth.r.p.riphyton,.nd produc••un.t.bl ••ub.tr.t •••
Thel~.condit ion.h.v..n .dv.r••imp.ct on prim.ry product ion,
phot:o.ynth.t ic .ct ivity of .lg...nd m.crophyt ••,.nd
invltrt.br.t.popul.tion..Sinc.low.r trophic l.v.l.produc.
mo.t:of the food r.quired for ••lmonid product ion,.ny d.cr••••
in th.ir qu.ntity or qu.lity will .ff.ct fi.h growth .nd
.ur~'iv.l.S.dim.nt.m.y directly .ff.ct fi.h through .br••ion
.ndlor clogging of gill.,r.ducing f ••ding .ffici.ncy,.nd
d ••truction of .gg.in .p.wning ground••
Th.Briti.h Columbia Pollution Control Br.nch .cc.pt.30 mg/L a.
an acc.ptabl...dim.nt r.l....l.v.l,while F.d.r.l Fi.h.ri ••
•CCltpt.r.l.....of 2S mg/L or b.ckground l.v.l.,which.v.r i.
gr••Lt.r.Th ••t.t.of Or.gon in.i.t.th.t r.l •••••b.1"10 high.r
th.r~background l.v.l.up to 30 JTU.Wh.n b.ckground l.v.l •
•)CclI.d 30 JTU,the r.l ••••m.y .l.v.t.b.ckground l.v.l.by 10
p.rc:.nt.Unfortun.t.ly,turbidity do••not n.c••••ri ly corr.l.t.
with the .mount of .u.p.nd.d ••dim.nt pr•••nt.
q/i
REVIEW DR~FT a/19/8~P~GE A-21
REFERENCE,Lan.t,D.R.,D.L.Penros.,.nd K.W.Eag1.son,1981.
V.ri.b1.affaets of s.dim.nt addition on str.am
b.nthos.Hydrobio10gi.,791187-197.
REFERENCE
LOCATION.
IMPORTRNT
PAGES.187,18a,192,193
Th..ff.ets of s.dim.nt inputs from ro.d eonstruetion on two
.tr••m.w.r.studi.d.O.t..ugg••t th.t the b.nthie str••m
community r ••pond.d to ••dim.nt .ddition.in th.following w.y••
As s.dim.nt was .dd.d to •str••m,the .r••of .v.i1.b1.roek
h.bit.t d.cr••••d with •eorr••ponding d.er....in b.nthie
d.n.ity.During low flow eondition.•st.b1.s.nd community
d.v.10p.whieh is qua1it.tiv.ly diff.r.nt from th.roeky
.ubstr.t.eommunity.During p.riod.of high flow,••nd
sub.tr.t...r..n un.uit.b1.h.bit.t for b.nthic org.nism..As
.v.i1.b1.habit.t deer•••••,the b.nthie eommunity h ••a m.rk.d1y
10w.r d.n.ity.Soth .tr••m••Khibit.d down.tr••m iner•••••in
m••n .u.p.nd.d ·.olid.eonc.ntr.tion.·in the r.ng.of 17 to 105
mg/L,.nd in th.perc.nt.g.of .ub.tr.t••and .nd gr.v.1.
ctA
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/85 PAGE A-22 -
REFERENCE,~loyd.D.S.,lS8S.Tu ...bidity in f .....hw.t ....h.bitats
of AI ••kA.•....vi.w of publi.h.d .nd unpublish.d
lit tu........l.v.nt to the u••of tu...bidity •••
w.t qu.lity .t.nd....d.R.po...t No.as-l.Ala.ka
D.pt.of Fish and a.m••H.bit.t Division,J'un••u,
AI ••k..101 pp.
-
REFERENCE
LOCATION'
-
IMPORTANT
PAGiES.39-46.:51-70
KEY WORDS'Tu...bidity.Su.p.nd.d S.dim.nt.W.t ....Qu.lity
St.nd ....d ••Aqu.tic H.bit.t
e~~QIe!lQ~
Thi.....po...t is •....view and int ....p tation of in~ormation
p ovid.d by num.rou.inv••tig.to....on tu bidity .s it ....lat ••to
f hw.t.....qu.tic h.bit.t.in AI ••k..A .umm....y of info...m.tion
f om AI ••k..nd .l••wh ......dd ing the .ff.ct.of tu...bidity on
f hw.t.r .qu.tic h.bit.t.i.p nt.d.A .p.cific di.cu.~ion
i.p nt.d ~onc....ning tu...bidity ••-it .ff.ct.light
p.n.t tion.prim.ry p...oduction,••cond y p...oduction••nd hum.n
u..of f .....hw.t.r h.bit.t..Thi.info m.tion p ...ovid•••b ••i.
fo.....t.bli.hing tu...bidity w.t....qu.lity .t.nd d ••
R.lation.hip.b.tw••n tu...bidity.nd .u.p.nd.d ••dim.nt lso
di.cu•••d.Summ.ry t.bl..pr•••nt docum.nt.d .ff.ct.0 ...
....l.tion.hip.of tu...bidity .nd .u.p.nd.d ••dim.nt ....ng ••on •
v ....i.ty of .y.t.m••nd o ...g.ni.m..It i.conclud.d th.t tu...bidity
i.•on.bl.w.t ....qU.lity .t.nd....d fo u ••in AI ••k..e•••d
on cu nt info...m.tion,the p nt .t.nd d.p ...ovid••mod.....t.
l.v.l of p ...ot.ction fo...the p op.g.tion of fi.h .nd wildlife in
cl.....w.t.....qu.tic h.bit.t..Thi.p.p 1.0 p......nt ••mod.l
p....dicting the .ff.ct.of tu...bidity on p ...im y p ...oductivity.
ct/q
REVIEW DRAFT ~/es PAGE A-23
-
REFERENCE,McCab.,G.0.,and W.J.O'Bri.n,1983.Th ••ff.ct.
of su.p.nd.d silt on f ••ding and reproduction of
Q~Q!:lD!.~QY1~2i.Am.rican Midland N.tur.li.t,Vol.
110,No.2,pp.324-337.
REFERENCE
LOCATION'University of Ala.ka Library,Fairb.nk.
KEY WORDS:asBbnAs BY!~~,Zooplankton,Suspended Silt,Filter-
ing Effici.ncy,A••imilation Rat.,Growth,Siz.,
R.production
IMPORTANT
PAGES,329-335
-
The effects of suspended silt and clay on the filtering and
a ••imilation rat..of QAQ!:ln!A QY1.~w.r.d.t.rmin.d u.ing a
Carbon 14 radiotracer method.The filt.ring rate for all
ob••rv.tion.at turbidity 1 •••than 10 NTU i.2.03 ml/.nim.l/hr.
At a turbidity of 10 NTU the filt.ring r.t..ignificantly
d.cl in...Th.d.cr....in fi It.ring rat ••above turbi"dit·i ••of
10 NTU i.prob.bly due to incr••••dgut-Io.ding of ing ••t.d
silt.In .ddition,with .n incr....in .u.p.nd.d .ilt
conc.ntration from 0 to 10 NTU,the •••imil.tion r.t.of alg ••by
~.~Y!.~d.cr••••d to b.low S~p.rc.nt in .11 c.....It wa.
shown that the gr.at••t .ff.ct of turbidity on •••imilation
.ffici.ncy occur..t low turbidity v.lu...R••ult.from.life
table .xperim.nt .how th.t ev.n low .u.p.nd.d .ilt l.v.l.
impair.d h.althy ~.Q!:lD!A population growth.F.cundity l.v.l.
were also greatly influenced by increased levels of suspended
.ilt.Th.filt.ring r.t ••for turbiditi ••u ••d in the lif.table
.xp.rim.nt w.r.2.S ml/.nimal/hr at 2 NTU,but d.clin.d to 0.4
ml/animal/hr at 33 NTU.Wh.n a ••imil.tion .ffici.nci••ar.
factor.d in,anim.l.f ••ding .t e NTU would obt.in 16 tim••more
.n.rgy than .nim.l.f ••ding .t 33 NTU.Th.m••n body l.ngth for -
control .nim.l.wa..ignific.ntly .m.ll.r th.n the m.an body
l.ngth of Q QY1.2i r.i ••d in both low .nd high .ilt
environments.The most likely reason for this discrepancy is
that .nim.l.growing in the .u.p.nd.d .ilt .nvironm.nt ch.nn.l
more .n.rgy into i ncr•••in;body .iz.th.n into r.production.
Although the .nimal.r.is.d in .u.p.nded .ilt w.r.larg.r,th.y
w.re not a.h.althy a.tho..r.i ••d in the .b••nc.of .ilt.
Sp.cifically,the individu.l.rais.d in .ilty w.t.r l.ck.d
car.pac.str.ngth and r ••i1 iency.It wa.conclud.d th.t both
filtering .ffici.ncy .nd a ••imil.tion rat •••1"'•••verly d.pr••••d
at .v.n low conc.ntr.tion.of su.p.nd.d silt and clay.
Furthermor.,the popul.tion growth r.t.of zooplankton w••
significantly dimini.h.d by susp.nd.d silt.and clay••
-
gjq
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/SS PAGE A-24
-
REFI::RENCEI ~cC:art,P.3.,P.M.R.Green,D.W.Mayhood,and
P.T.P.Tsui,1980.Environm.ntal studi ••No.13
.ff.cts of silt.tion on the .cology of V.-V.~.k.,
N.W.T.Prepared for Minister of Indi.n and North.rn
Aff.ir.by Aqu.tic Environments,l.imit.d~C.lg.ry,
Alb.rt..286 pp.-
REFI::RENCE
I.OCI~TIONI Nict'lol.Environm.nt.l Con.ult ing
IMPIJRTANT
PAGI::S;8~-141,144-162,231-23~,2:50-274
KEV WORDS;Suspended Sediment,Turbidity,Secct'li Disk,
Chlorophyll-.
The report provid..•detailed discussion of a variety of water
qu.lity p.ram.t.r..nd the .cology of V.-V.l..k.,Northw.st
Terll"'itori...W.t.r qu.l ity p.....m.t.r.di.cus••d include
.u.IP.nd.d ••dim.nt,S.cchi di.k tran.p.r.ncy,turbidity,
t.m!l).r.tur.,di ••olv.d oKyg.n,pH,.lk.linity,.nd nutri.nt ••
Bio:logic.lfunct ion.l group.di.cu•••d includ.phytopl.nkton,
Zooll)l.nkton,zoob.ntho.,.nd fi.h.Th.r.port al.o .ddr•••••the
proll3l.m of qu.ntit.tiv••tand.rd.-for .u.p.nd.d .olid.,including
tt'l.r.l.tion.hip b.tw••n turbidity .nd .u.p.nd.d .olid••
I
9/<1
REVIEW DRAFT ~/19/8~PAGE A-2:5
-
KEY WORDS:Turbidity,Transmittance,Scatter,Nephelometri~
8~~QI8I.!Qr:I
IMPORTANT
PAGES.2~2,233,236-264
-
L..A.Peterson &Associates,Inc.
REFERENCE.McCluney,W.R.,1973.Radiometry of water turbidity
measurements.Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation,47(2)12~2-266.
REFERENCE
L.OCATION.
A number of opti~al measurement techniques for particUlates have
been developed that are easy and quick and can be performed !n
§1t~.However,these methods are applicable only if a proper
relationship between the optical property being measured and the
amount of suspended sediment can be found.Some of these
techniques yield results that are roughly proportional to the
amount of suspended material under certain circumstances.
However,the optical properties of these techniques rely on the
shape,refractive inde)C,particle size distribution,particle
concentrat ion,and the absorpt ion spectra.-Hence,opt-tcal
properties are proportional to mas.or volume concentration only
when all other parameters are constant.However,natural waters
exhibit considerable variability in the.e parameters,which makes
the establishment of the desired relationship difficult.This
variability in natural water severly restricts the usefulness of
using optical techniques for routine measurement of the amount of
suspended material.
Of the various techniques for measuring optical properties,
turbidity and transparency are the most widespread.
A variety of definitions of turbidity exist.These include the
intensity of light transmitted (unscattered)through the sample,
a ratio of the intensity of light scattered by a .ample to the
intensity of the light source,the amount of light scattered and
absorbed rather than transmitted in straight line.through the
sample,and a reduction in transparency of a sample due to the
presence of partiCUlar matter.Turbidity has also been defined
as the amount of suspended Matter,in ppm,as ascertained by
optical observation,and in terms of different measurement
techniques <e.g.,Jackson Candle and Nephelometric turbidity).
-
-
CiR
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/83 PAGE A-26
REF~ERENCE :
REF~ERENCE
LOCATION.
I MFIORTANT
PAGIES:
McLeay,A•.3.,A•.3.KnoK,.3.G.Malick,I.K.
Birtwell,G.Hartman,and G.L.Ennis,1'983.Effects
on Arctic grayling (!b.:tm~llYa !!:si,lsya>of snort-term
exposure to Yukon placer mining sediments:labora-
tory and field studies.Canadian Tecnnical Report of
Fisneries and Aquatic Science.No.1171.·40 pp.+
Appendice••
A1a.ka Department of Fi.n and Game,Habitat Division,
Fairbank.
Kiii,Kiv,34,3~
~
I
KEY WORDS:Grayling,Suspended Sediment,Mortality,Sub-letnal
Effects,Blood Glucos.L.v.l.,Gill Hi.tologi.s
In a laboratory study,laboratory-reared grayling wnicn were
acc~limat.d to 1~d.gr•••C .urvived a 4-day .Kposur.to ••dim.nt
•l"m p.ns ions of <2~0,000 mlil/L,and a 16-day .Kpo.ur.·to·:50,000
mglL.Fi.n whicn w.r.acc11mat.d to :s d.gr••s C and n.ld in pay
dh-t .u.p.n.ion.of <10,000 mg/L .u.rviv.d for'"days,wn.r.a.10
to 20 perc.nt mortality occurr.d at tn.nign.r conc.ntration••
Inc)rganic ••dim.nt l.v.ls of )10,000 mg/L cau••d fi.h to surfac.,
a dir.ct r ••pon..to .l.vat.d ••dim.nt l.v.ls.Tn.gill
nitlto1ogi.s of fi.h .urviving tn•••"'-day .Kpo.ur••wa.normal.
Sul~p.n.ion.of ••dim.nt cau••d acut ••tr•••r ••pon...(.l.vat.d
and/or more vari.d blood gluco..l.v.l.,d.pr••••d l.ucocrit
1.".1.>in grayling acclimat.d to .itn.r t.mp.ratur..H.matocrit
vallu••for tn•••fi."w.r.not aff.ct.d by ••dim.nt ••
Our-in;summer field bioassay studies,all grayling neld in <20
mg/L and <100 mg/L .tr.am..urvived with no ov.rt .ign.of
dilJtr...or pny.ical damag..Sub••qu.ntly,fisn captur.d in low
.I,ulp.nd.d .01 ids wat.r w.r••>cpo ••d to l.v.l.of <1210 mg/L and
<34 mg/L for :s day.in two ••parat ••tr.am..A1tnougn all of
tnll..fi.h .urviv.d,gill ti ••u..from .p.cim.n.at .acn .it.
snc)w.d mod.rat.-to-mark.d nyp.rtropny and nyp.rpla.ia of lam.11ar
.pjltn.lium,along witn a prolif.rativ.numb.r of gill
.ct:opara.it...It wa.conclud.d tnat .nort-t.rm .>cpo.ur.of
Arc:t ic grayl in;to .ub1.tnal conc.ntrat ion.of .usp.nd.d s.dim.nt
ca"cau••a numb.r of .ff.ct.inclUding acut ••tr•••r ••pon••••
qJq
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/8:5 PAGE A-27
REFERENCE.NCAIl,1984&.A l&bo~.tory study of tn••ffects of
••dim.nts of two diffe~.nt stz.cnArAct.~tsttcs on
survival of rainbow trQut (§Almg a.1~~n.~1).mbryos
to fry emergence.National Council of the Paper
Indu.try for Air .nd str.am Improvem.nt,-Technical
Bulletin No.429,April,1984.49 pp.+Appendic•••
REFERENCE
LOCATION;Univ.rsity of Alaska Library,Fairbanks
IMPORTANT
PAGES.43,46
KEY WORDS:Fine Sediment,Rainbow Trout,Embryos,Fry Emergence,
Entrapm.nt,Mortality,Survival
This technical bulletin describes the findings of a continUing
laboratory .tudy of the .ffect.of ••lect.d fine ••dim.nt.on the
.urviva1 of rainbow trout .mbryos to fry .m.rg.nc..Tn.pr.s.nce
of fln..ediment was obs.rv.d to be beneficial -a.w.11 ••
detrimental depending on tne .iz.of the .edim.nt.Physical
.ntrapment was indicat.d to b.th.·princip18 cau••of Morta1.tty
while there was nodi.cernable cUfference in fish .izes or time.
of fry .m.rg.nce und.r the eondition.studi.d.Conclu.ions from
this study ar.as follow..MaJor diff.r.nc.s w.r.obs.rv.d in
the survival of rainbow .ggs to the tim.of .m.rg.nc.,b.tw••n
<0.88 mm and <6.4 mm diam.t.r s.dim.nt.Fin.s <0.8 mm w.r.found
to r.duc.survival by 1.1 p.rc.nt for .ach p.rc.nt incr.a••in
fin••ov.r the rang.of 10 to 40 perc.nt.This compar.s to a 1.S
p.rcent m.an r.duction in survival for .ach p.rcent incr.as.in
fin••,det.rmin.d from a large numb.r of 1it.ratur.r.f.r.nc•••
Th.pre••nc.of coarse fin.s <6.4 mm diam.t.r reduc.d survival by
approHimat.1y 0.8 perc.nt for .ach p.re.nt incr....in fin•
•edim.nt ov.r the rang.of 0 to 40 p.rcent fin.s.
'1/<1
REVIEW DRAFT ~1-9-IS3 PAGE A-aS
-
-
-
REFE~RENCEI NC~SI,lS84b.Tne effects of fine sediment on
salmonid spawning gr.vel and Juvenile r.aring nabitat
-a liter.tur.r.vi.w.N.tion.l Council of th.
Industry for Air .nd Stream Improv.m.nt,Technical
Bulletin No.428,New York.66 pp.
REFE~RENCE
LOC~~TION:University of Alaska,Fairbanks
I MPC)RTANT
P~GE~SI 12-21,30-61
,~
KEY WORDS:Fine Sediment,Salmonids,Survival,Mortality,
Em.rg.nc.,Production,Turbidity,~voidanc.,F••ding,
M•••ur.mentT.chniqu••
A lit.rature review is pr.sented on the effect.fin.sediments
may have on .almonid h.bitats,primarily with r.f.r.nc.to
spawning gr.v.l and Juv.nil.r.aring habitat.Lif.history and
habitat charact.ri.tic.of .ight .p.ci ••ar••ummariz.d.Fin.
s.dl~m.nts in sp.wning gr.v.l h.v.b••n.d.fined as particl.s b.ing
anyllfh.r.from 0.8 mm to S.~l mm diam.t.r,·d.p.nding on -the
author.It has be.n shown th.t an incr.a••in fin•••dim.nt
d.cr'.ases gr.v.l p.rm.ability,intragrav.l wat.r flow,and oMyg.n
cone:.ntrat ions in the grav.l,deer......mbryonic surviv.l,
impalirs norm.l .mbryo d.v.lopm.nt,and aff.ct.timing,.ize,and
suce:...of fry .m.rgenc..Docum.nt.d .ff.cts on salmonids .r.
pr.IJ.nt.d for the .ight .p.ci.s.
Doc,.&m.nt.d .ff.ct.of fin...dim.nt in the wat.r column and
strltamb.d on Juv.ni 1..almonid.p.rtain to growth,.urvival,
movllm.nt,d.n.ity,siz.,biom.s.,.nd production.Catch.bility
of fi.h was r.duc.d wh.n turbidity .xc••d.d 30 JTU due to r.duced
visibility.Algal-bas.d food production i.r.duc.d wh.n
turbid it i..exc••d 2~JTU.Fish mov.m.nt was imp.ir.d in str••ms
wh •.,,,.silt .xc••d.d 4,000 ppm.Juv.nil.coho .almon which were
pr••,ccl im.t.d to turbidity .Mh ibit.d an .voidanc.r.act ion at
thrllshold l.v.ls of 100 NTU.
FinE~sediment measurement techniques include the McNeil bottom
s.mJI1.r,a device for m.a.uring gr.v.l size con.titu.nt.by
volum.tric d.velopm.nt,a liquid carbon dioxide fr••z.cor.
s.mJ)l.d.vic.,.nd a tritube fre.z.cor•••mpl.r.
9A
REVIEW DRAFT e/19/8~P~GE A-29
REFERENCE.~oggl.,C.C.,1978.B.havio~al,phy.iological and
l.thal .ff.ct.of .u.p.nd.d ••dim.nt on Juv.nil •
•almonid..M.S.Th ••i.,Col1.g.of Fi.h.~i••,Univ.
of Washington,S.attl.,WA.87 pp.
REFERENCE
LOCATION.Univ.~.ity of Alaska,Fai~bank.(Int.~lib~a~y loan)
IMPORTANT
PAGES:2-7,59-7~
KEY WORDS:Suspended Sediment,Salmonids,Bioassay,Turbid
Studies were conducted to assess the effects of suspended
••dim.nt on Juv.nile sa1monids in the .t~.am .nvi~onment.Static
bioassay tanks w.~e used to dete~mine 96 hou~LC50's,changes in
gill histology,and chang.s in blood physiology.Two
ex~.rim.ntal .tr.am designs w.r.u••d to r.1at.s.dim.nt concen-
t~ations to avoidance behavior.
Results,involving acute (4 days o~less)rathe~than chronic
exposure to su.p.nd.d .edim.nts,indicate s.asonal chang.s in·the
to 1eranc.of s.lmonids to susp.nded s.diment.Bioassays
conduetad in summ.~·p~oduced LC50's 1•••than 1500 mg/L,while
autumn bioas.ays showed LC~O's in .xe••s of 30,000 mg/L.Th.
tolerance of wild coho .a1mon to susp.nded solid.was high.~than
hatche~y p~oduc.d coho's,appar.ntly beeau••of p~io~.xposura to
suspended sedim.nts.Histological examination of gills ~evea1.d
structu~a1 damage by susp.nd.d sediment.Blood chemist~y showed
.levat.d blood glucos.lev.1s at sub1.tha1 susp.nded sediment
conc.nt~ations.Exp.~iments conducted with a tu~bid a~tificia1
st~eam and cl.a~t~ibuta~y indicat.d a ~e1uctance by the fish to
leave thei~established t.~~itories.Studies conducted with a
Y-shaped st~eam show.d a p~ef.~ence fo~tu~bid wate~at low to
medium concent~ation.and slight avoidance at high
concent~ations.
ct;q
REVIEW DRAFT ~/a~PAGE A-30
-
-
REFERENCE.Nuttall,P.M.,and G.H.Bilby,1973.The effect of
china-clay wastes on stream invertebrates.Environ-
mental Pollut ion,(~)177-66.
REFERENCE
LOCATIONI University of Alaska Library,Fairbanks
I MP'ORTANT
PAGES.77,79,Sl,sa
-
KEY WORDS:Clay Wastes,Suspe~ded Solids,Deposited Solids,
Aquatic Plants,Macroinvertebrat.s,Population,
Density,Abundance
e~~QI8I!Q~
Rivers polluted with clay wastes supported a sparse population of
few species.Rooted aquatic vegetation was absent at stations
where the suspended solids concentration was high ()2000 ppm),
whereas unpolluted reaches supported a rich community of aquatic
plants.Control streams supported 36 times the de~sity of
anh,als found at clay-polll,Jted stations.Species COMposition was
greater in I,Jnpolll,Jt·ed rivers and at stat ions downstream of sewage
outfalls compared with clay-polluted reaches.Clay pollution
either eliminated or redl,Jced the abundance of several macro-
invertebrate sp.cies frequent in control streams.The absence of
plants and macroinvertebrates in rivers receiving clay waste was
ass,ociated with the deposit ion of fine inert sol ids rather than
turbidity or abrasion by particles in suspension.
qfc.
REVIEW DRAFT -&I-1g./a~PAGE A-31
REFERENCE.
•
REFERENCE
LOCATION,
IMPORTANT
PAGES.
~hillip.,R.W.1971.Effects of sediments on the
gravel environment and fish production.10.Proc •
of Symp.Forest Land Uses and Stream Erosion,Oregon
at.Univ.
Alaska Department of Fi.h and Game,Anchorage
-
KEY WORDS:Rainbow Trout,Gold Mining,Logging,Turbidity
Sediment influences fish in many ways:(1)Blocks transmission
of light,reducing algae production,(2)Damages gill membranes
and can cau.e death where concentrations are high and ewposure.
are long,(3)Harm.spawning by filling interstice.and reducing
oxygen exchange,(4)Interfere.with removal of metabolites,(~)
Make.barrier.preventing fry from emerging,and,(6)Reduce.
cover on .tream bottom.Sediment is defined as particle.le••
tnan 4 mm in size.Fi.hing .ucce.s i.reduced where turbidity-is
greater than as ppm.Concentrations of kaolin and diatomaceous
earth of 270 to 810 ppm for 10 days killed rainbow trout.
Mortality of ~7 percent in rainbow fingerling.one and a half
mile downstream of a gold dredge producing 1000 to 2~00 ppm
.olids occurred in 20 days versus 9.~percent mortality in a
control stream.Other fish .pecie..uch a.sunfiSh and ba••
appear to be more tolerance of turbidity.Turbidity i.produced
from erosion as a r.sult of logging,road building,mining,and
other activitie••
qA
REVIEW DRAFT e/lg/a~PAGE A-32
-
-
REFERENCE?Phillips,R.W.,R.C.Lantz,E.W.Claire,and J.R.
Moring,1975.Some effects of gravel miMtures on
emergence of coho salmon and steelnead trout fry.
Trans.Amer.Fisn.Soc.,104(3)1461-466.
REFE~RENCE
LOCFnIONI Alaska Re.ources Library,Anchorage (microfilm)
IMPC~RTANT
PAGE~SI
KEY WORDS.Cono Salmon,Ste.lnead Trout,Sedimentation
Eight miMtures of sand and gravel were tested in incubation
trOl.ll;nS ulling cono salmon and steelnead eggs.Survival for cono
e!IHIll wa.96 percent in control miMture,82 percent in 10 percent
sanel,64 percent in 20 percent sand,38 percent in 30 percent
sand,20 percent in 40 percent sand,22 percent in 50 percent
sarlel,arld 8 to 10 percent in 60 to 70 percent sand.Sand was 1
to 3 mm in diameter.For steelnead,tne relationship was
simi,lar,ranging from 99 percent in tne control miMture to -18
perc:ent in 70 percent sand.Emergence of-fry appeared to b.
earlier tnan normal.This study appears to support previous
stuctie•.wnich nave shown the inverse relationsnip between the
amount of fines and egg survival.
REVIEW DRAFT
----,----------
q/~
8/19/85 PAGE A-33
REFERENCE'P_ickaring,R.J.,lS76.Measurement of "turbidity"
and relatad ~haractaristies of natural watars.Open-
Fila Raport 76-153,U.S.Gaological Survey.13 pp.
REFERENCE
L.OCATIONI
IMPORTANT
PAGES.1,2 -
KEY WORDS:Turbidity,Jackson Candle,Formazin,Nephelometric
Attempts to quanti~y turbidity have led to a proliferation o~
dafinitions,mathods of mea.uremant,instrumants,standards,and
units of maasura.Turbidity data for natural waters ara appliad
to .avaral usas,including.(1)Datarmination of tha dapth to
whieh photosynthasis can occur,(2)Aasthetic avaluation of watar
usad for racraation,and,(3)Estimation of eoncantration of
.uspandad sadimant.·L.ack of standardization of the maasuramal"lt
oftan has r.sultad unwittingly in corralations batwaan unralAtad
numbars.Thara is a .strong faaling within tha hydrologic
profa.sion that mora pracisa and dafinitiva sats of mathods .nd
tarminology ara requirad.Turbidity ganarally is measurad as an
optical phanomenon and should ba raportad in optical units.
The U.S.Geological Survey has adopted the following
principlas.(1)Standard instruments and methods should ba
adoptad to maasura and raport tha light transmitting
charactaristi~s of natural waters in optical units,thus avoiding
tha usa of uturbidityll as a quantitativa maa.ure,(2)Raporting
of llturbidity"in Jackson Turbidity Units,Halliga Units,
savarity,or Naphalomatric Turbidity Units should ba pha.ad out;
(3)Tha basis for astimations of sadimant concantrations using
light maasuraments should ba documantad adaquataly,al"ld,(4)Tha
usa of transparancy maasuramants by aacchi disk is considerad to
ba acceptabla,although light transmittanca may prova to ba a
mora pracise maans of obtaining the same information.
q/9
REVIEW DRAFT ~/S5 PAGE A-34
-
-.
REFE~RENCE.Sn.lton,J.M.,And R.D.Pollock,1966.SiltAtion
And .gg .U~ViVAI in incubAtion cnAnn.ls.T~an••
Am.~.Fisn.Soc.,9~(2).la3-189.
REFE~RENCE
LOCATION.AIA.k.Rasou~c.s Lib~A~y,Ancno~.g.(mic~6'ilm)
IMPClRTANT
PAeE~SI
~
I
KEY WORDS.Cninook S.lmon,Cnum SAlmon,Siltation
Cninook and cnum salmon eggs in incubation cnannels we~e
5ubJI.ctad to .UtAtion.In the fi~5t ••••on,180,000 cninook
.gg!1 we~.pl.nt.d .nd no .1 It.t ion cont~ol m.ASU~..w.~.
impJ.•m.ntad.SU~ViVAl of .gg.WAS ~O p.~c.nt.In tn••ucc••ding
two •••50n.,cnum ••lmon .gg.W.~.plant.d .nd silt cont~ol
m••••u~..W.~.impl.m.nt.d.Su~viv.l w..92 and 9~p.~c.nt,
~.5p.ctiv.ly.Silt W••cl••ned f~om the cn.nn.l Aft.~tn.fi~st
••Allon.D.posit ion .....p~im.~i ly .ilts .nd ClAy.And .ccount.d
fo~.0.5-10.4 p.~c.nt of total subst~.t••Ampl .....ignt.In tne
'i~tlt ••••on,.ilt.tion WAS so n ••vy thAt An ••timAt.d 35.3
p.~c~.nt of 1nt.~liI~.v.l voids W.~.fill.d.Tne upp.~po~t ion of
tn.cnann.l WAS us.d •••••ttling bAain in ••A.on.2 .nd 3 and
most~of tn.m.t.~i.l ••ttl.d out.Mo~t.lity of .gg.in tn.'i~.t
••••Ion ~.ngad f~om 8~p.~c.nt in tn.n.Avi ••t silt to 32 p.~c.nt
in tn.lignt.at silt.
qA
REVIEW DRAFT S/19/8~PAGE A-3~
----,------------------------------------------
REFERENCE 1 Sjgler,J.W.,T.C.BJornn,
Effects of chronic turbidity
stee1heads and coho salmon.
113 (2)1142-1:50.
and F.H.Everest,1984.
on density and growth of
Trans.Amer.Fish.Soc.,-
REFERENCE
LOCATION.
IMPORTANT
PAGES.
KEY WORDS Coho Salmon,Steelhead,Turbidity
-
Yearlong and older salmon can survive high concentrations of
suspended sediment for considerable lengths of time.Mortality
occurs above ao,ooo mg/L.This paper considers the .ffects of
suspended sediments on newly emerged young.T.sts done in
laboratory streams used clay,fireclay and bentonite.
Significant difference.were seen between the growth rate of fish
in clear versus turbid streams.Fish tended to move out of
turbid channels.In natural systems,newly emerged fish ~
encountering turbidity wo'uld likely move out of the area.l3ill
tis.ue damage wa.observed after 3 to :5 days in turbid water.As
little as 2~NTU cau.ed reduction in fish growth,probably from
reduced ability to fe.d.It is not known if this is due to
inability to sae prey or interceptions of appropriate light
wavelengths by particles.At turbidities of 100 to 300 NTU,fish
left the channals or died.The te.ts were conducted primarily -
with turbiditi.s of 2~-~O NTU.
-
-
CiA
REVIEW DRAFT 6/19/8:5 PAGE A-36 -
-
....
REFiERENCE:Sigma Resource Consultants,1979.Summary of water
Quality criteria for salmonid hatcheries.Dept.of
Fisheries and Oceans.
REF!ERENCE
LOCATION.Alaska Oepartment of Fish and Game,Anchorage
I MPIORTANT
PAGES.
KEV WOROS.Salmon,Suspended Solids
Criteria are established to allow evaluation of new water sources
and identify water treatment needs when establishing a hatchery.
Primary fish culture parameters such as dissolved oHygen,pH,
ammonia,dissolved carbon dioKide,hydrogen sulfide,nitrite,and
suspended sol ids are considered.Suspended solids are either
organic or inorganic.Inorganic solids can transport adsorbed
pollutants such as pesticides.Coating of fish eggs with silt
can inhibit gas transfer of carbon dioKide,oKygen,and ammonia.
It can also affect Juvenile fish by reducing growth'rate,
reducing dissolved oKygen,disrupt feeding,transportation of
adsorbed pollutants,and damage to gills.It is suggested that
an acceptable limit of suspended solids for inCUbating eggs is 3
mg/L and for rearing and holding the limit would be e~mg/L in
the absence of other pollutants•
9Ji
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/Se PAGE A-37
REFERENCE:Simmons,R.C.,19&4.Effects of pl.c.r mining
sedim.nt.tion on Arctic gr.yling of int.rior Al.ska.
M.S.The.i.,Univ.r.ity of Ala.k.,Fairb.nks,Alaska.
73 pp.
"""
REFERENCE
LOCATION.
IMPORTANT
PAGES.3,32-6~
KEY WORDS:Turbidity,Settleable Solids,Total Residue
The effects of placer mining sedimentation on Arctic grayling
were .s•••••d by comp.ring d.ta coU.ctlld in mined and unmin.d
stream..Although many young-of-th.-year and .dult gr.yling us.d
unmin.d .tr••ms for .umm.r h.bit.t,no grayling w.r.found in the
min.d .tr••ms .KC.pt during p.riods of migr.tion.Gr.yling
apparently ••l.ct.d cl.ar wat.r .t.....m.for .umm.r r.sidenc••
C.g.d fish studies demonstrated that if gr.yling could not escape
from .tr.am.c.rrying mining ••diments,th.y would suffer dir.ct,
chronic .ff.cts,including gill dam.g.,di.t.ry d.fici.nci.s,and
slow.d maturation.Th.indirect .ff.cts of sedim.nt.tion on
gr.yling populations,through loss of .ummer habit.t for f.eding
.nd reproduction,ar.more sev.re than the direct one••
B.sed on this .tudy,the following water qu.lity guidelin••and
corr.sponding l.vel.of prot.ction .Kpected in r.c.iving w.t.rs
w.r••ugg.sted.
Level of Total Residu.,Settleable Turbidity,
et:2t.£i.!2tl ___!!!QLb _______§2!.!;'aL_ml.Lb ___~IY ___
Hign (1~0 (0.1 (2~
Mod.r.t.lS0-300 0.1-0.2 23-100
Low )300 )0.2 )300
o.jq
REVIEW DRAFT -&.4-9/a~PAGE A-3S
-
REFERENCE.So~ensen,o.L.,M.M.McCa~thy,E.J.Middleb~ook.,
and O.B.Po~cella,1977.Suspended and dissolved
solids effects on freshwater biota.a review.
EPA-600/3-77-042,Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory,Office of Research and Oevelopment,U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency,Corvallis,Oregon.
65 pp.
REFIERENCE
LOCF:lTION:L.A.Pete,...son &Associate.,Inc.
-I MPIORTANT
PAGIES:1,2,21,22,32-42
KEY WORDS:Suspendedanism.we,...s difficult to dsmonstrata,
Suspended solids have significant effects on community dynamics
due to tu,...bidity;Suspended solids may have significant effects
on community succession,community stability,and fish avoidance
reactions;Sediment.may se,...ve as a ,...e.e,...voi,...of tOMic chemicals,
and"Relat ively high suspended sol ids we,...e needed to cause
beh,.vio,...al ,...eact ions C20,000 mg/L)or death (200,000 mg/L)in
fisln over the short term.
ani'sms were difficult to demonstrate,Suspended solids have
siglnificant .effects on community dynamics due to turbidity;
Suspended solids may have significant effects on community
sucl:e.sion,community stabi 1 ity,-and,fish avoidance react ions,
Sediments may serve as a re.ervoir of tOMic chemicals,and,
Rel.tively high suspended solids were needed to cau.e behavioral
re.u:t ions (20,000 mg/L)or death (200,000 mg/L)in fish over the
sholrt term.
REFERENCE:Symons,J.M.,and J.C.Hoff,1975.Rationale for
turbidity maximum con~.minant level.Pre.ented at
Tnird Water Quality Tecnnology Conference,American
Water Works A.sociation,Atlanta,Georgia,December
6-10,1975.Water Supply Research Divis40n,
Environmental Pro~ection Agency,Cincinnati,Onio.
18 pp.
REFERENCE
LOCATION;Alaska Dep&rtmen~of EnVironmental Conservation
IMPORTANT
PAGES;1-4,15,17
KEV WORDS'Turbidity
B~~9!8IIQ~
For drinking water,5 units of turbidity became obJectionable to
a considerable number of people,and many people turn to
alternate supplies wnich may be les.safe.Tne relationship
between particulates in tne water and tne pre.ence of disease
causing organisms was documen~ea from literature.Turbidity ~en
at low levels,above 1 turbidity unit,interfere.witn
disinfection and prevents maintenance of an .ffective
disinfectant agent <e.g.,cnlorine)througnout tne distribution
system.Indication.are tnat bact.ria and virus.s can be
protected by certain kind.of particles from inactivation by
chlorine.Inorganic ~rticle.can cau.e turbidity and probably
have no bearing on tne potential protection of pathogens.Small
organic particles,on the other hand,may protect pathogens.
Therefore,in evaluating turbidity,tne nature of tne particle.
in the water must be taken into account.
9/q
REVIEW DRAFT 6/19/8~PAGE A-40 -
REFIERENCEI Tappel,P.D.,and T.C.BJornn,1983.A new method
of relating size of spawning gravel to salmonid
embryo size.North American Journal Fi.heries
Management,31123-135.
REFI::RENCE
LOCI~T I ON"
I MPI:JRTANT
PAGIES:
University of Alaska Library,Fairbanks
129-131
-
-
KEY WORDS:Salmonid,Survival,Size,Emergence,Spawning Gravel,
Fine Sediment
A 'new method for describing the size composition of salmonid
spal~ning gravel wa.developed.Salmonid embryo survival was
rel,.tad to two part icle si ze groups,9.50 mm and 0.85 mm,in
lab,oratory tests.In these tests,)90 percent of the variabil ity
in embryo .urvival wa.correlated with changes in sUbtrate.size
coml~o.ition.Gravel mixture.containing high percentage.of the
fi nl8 .ed iment produced'slight ly smaller steelhead 'f'("y'than
gra.....els containing low percentages of fine .ediment.There 'was
no relationship between changes in gravel size composition and
the siza of chinook salmon emergents.In gravels containing
large amount.of fine .ediment,many of the .te.Ihead and chinook
sallmon fry emerged before yolk sac absorption was complete.
9/9
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/85 PAGE A-41
REFERENCE.Thurston,R.V.,R.C.Russo,C.M.Fetterolf,Jr.,
T.~.Edsall,V.M.Barber,Jr.,(eds.>,1979.A
review of the EPA Red Book.quality criteria for
water.Water Quality Section,American Fisheries
Society,Bethesda,MO.313 pp.
REFERENCE
LOC~TIONI L.A.Peterson &Associates,Inc.
IMPORTANT
PAGES.1,2,266-270
KEY WORDS;Suspended Solids,Settleable Solids,Turbidity,
Residue,Criteria,Aesthetics,Freshwater Aquatic
Life,Protection
This is a review and discussion OT EPA criteria TOr suspended
solids,settleable solids,and turbidity with regard to .esthetic
water quality,freshwater fish and other aquatic life.The
aesthetics criteria are generally satisfactory as stated in the
Red Book.Recommendations for improvement of aesthetics crite~ia
include definition of nuisance organisms,and recognition-and
discussion of the aesthetic value of biological components of
aquatic systems.The criterion for fr.shwater and other aquatic
life is difficult to apply under most conditions and impossible
to apply in others.Turbidity and solids are not synonymous as
sugg.sted in the Red Book,and no method is proposed for
measuring the compensation point.There is no correlation made
betwe.n sedimentation effects and the criterion or with
compen.ation depth.The recommended maximum concentrations of
suspended solids for various levels of protection are
oversimplified in the Red Book to the extent that they are no
longer scientifically sound.The application of reduced photo-
synthetic activity as a criterion for freshwater fish appears to
be an indirect measurement of the effects of sediment and
turbidity,at best.Residues (turbidity and solids)should be
considered separately with each parameter measured in standard
units.The criterion for solids should be defined in mg/~of
residues (solids>,turbidity in NTU,and terminology should be
consistent with Standard Methods.Future EPA criteria should
take into account the criteria developed by a number of authors.
Many of these data would support a limit of 100 mg/~
non-filt.rable residue for fresh and estuarine waters to prevent
mortality.However,one reviewer of the Red Book thought that
100 mg/L is too restrictive and that concentrations could be much
higher without causing adverse effects.There is no universal
agreement as to levels of turbidity to be allowed nor is there
agreement upon units to be used.
gig
REVIEW OR~FT ~/a~PAGE A-42
-
r
I
REFE~RENCEI Truhlar,J.F.,1976.O.t.rmining .u.p.nd.d s.dim.nt
loads from turbidity record..IDI Proc.Third
Inter-Agency Sedimentation Conf.,1976.Water
R••ourc.s Council,Denver,CO.
REFE:i;RENCE
LOCI~TIONI Ala.ka D.partm.nt of Fish and Gam.,Anchorage
I MPIJRTANT
PAGI::SI
KEY WORDS.Turbidity,Su.p.nd.d Solid.
Methods of evaluating sediment-control measures are considered.
Field data .hows a good cor....eliltion betw••n m.an daily
disl:harg.-w.ight.d tu....bidity and m••n daily di.cha....g.-w.ight.d
SUIII::Iended sol ids conc.ntrat ion.Dig ital and graph ic r.corde.....
wer~employ.d to m.a.~r.turbidity.Although there appear.to be
no univ.rsal r.lationship betw••n turbidity and su.p.nd.d
sed:iment.,th......app.ar.to b.a good corr.lation fo ....individual
strtlam..Turbidity could.b.tak.n and .u.p.nd.d .olids ·comt=lut.d
USil...g wat.r d.ischarg.r.cord..Actual m.a.u.....m.nt mu.t b.Mad.
to flstabUsh the corr.lat ion and then p .....iodically to v.ri fy it.
gl;
REVIEW DRAFT 1/19/1S PAGE A-43
REFERENCE'Turnp.nny,A.W.H.,and R.William.,1960.Effects
of sedim.ntation on th.gravels of an industrial
riv.r syst.m.Journal Fish Biology,17,661-693.
REFERENCE
LOCATION.Univ.rsity of Alaska Biomedical Library,Fairbank.
IMPORTANT
PAGES:664,666-691 ""'I
KEY WORDS:Trout,Mortality Rate,Eggs,Alevins,Suspended
Solid.,Dis.olv.d OKyg.n,P.rm••bility
Rainbow trout eggs were planted in river gravels to assess the
.ff.cts of .iltation on salmonid .pawning .ucc....In r.ach.s
wh.r.siltation du.to th.coal industry has occurr.d,96 to 100
p.rc.nt of .ggs di.d during incubation in tn.grav.ls.Thi.high
mortality rat.corrasponds to suspand.d solids conc.ntrations of
2 to 2481 mg/L,graval p.rm.abilitias in tha rang.of ~to 74
cm/h,and dissolvad oKygan concantration.of 2.4 to 7.6 mg/L.In
anoth.r rivar .gg mortality rang.d fr.om 24 to 96 p.rcjnt
corrasponding to suspand.d .olids lavals of 3 to 1610 mg/L,
grav.l parm.abiliti..ranging from 7 to 2geO em/h,and di ••olv.d
oKyg.n of 3.6 to 6.6 mg/L.Tha lowar mortality rata in tha lat.r
river is probably a rafl.ction of th.low.r .uspandad solids
l.vals.Al.vin survival thrashold valu••for dissolv.d oKyg.n
and p.rm.ability ar.around 4.9 mg/L and 40 cm/h,r.spectivaly.
It wa.calculatad that a 30 p.rc.nt alavin mortality rata
corrasponds to a dissolv.d oKygan coneantration of 6.5 mg/L.
Alavin .iz.also .howad a strong posit iva corralation with tn.
di.solved oKyg.n supply rat ••
ctJq
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/63 PAGE A-44
-
REFERENCE:
REFERENCE
LOCATION:
Van Nieuwenhuyse,E.E.,1983.Tne effects of
mining on the primary productivity of interior
streams.M.S.Tnesis,University of
Fairbanks,Alaska.120 pp.
L.A.Peterson &Associates,Inc.
placer
Alaska
Alaska,
.t'j'
!
-I
"
r
I
!
IMPORTANT
PAGES:~8-66
KEY WORDS:Turbidity,Settleable Solids,PAR,Gross
Productivity,Algal Productivity,Recreational
Activities,Criteria
A strong positive correlation was observed between incident PAR
and gross productivity,attesting to the importance of light in
regulating primary production.This relationship provid.s the
partial basis for a Model which could be used to predict algal
productivity at different turbidity levels.
Recreational activities such as canoeing and fishing would
probably be popular on Birch Creek if the channel were
rehabilitated to allow fish'passage,and if turbidity could be
maintained below 200 to 300 NTU.Tne result.of this study
support the contention that a .ettleable solids standard of <0.1
ml/L for receiving waters could be reasonable.With regard to
turbidity,the following tentative criteria are suggested:6 to
2~NTU high level of protection,25 to 100 NTU moderate,100 to
300 NTU low,300 to ~OO NTU very low.
°J:4
REVIEW DRAFT ~~19/8~PAGE A-4~
REFEREBCE.Vanous,R.0.,P.E.Larson,and C.C.Hach,1962.
The theory and measurement of turbidity and residue.
in:Water Analysis Volume 1 inorganic specie.,Part
I,Academic Press,New York,N.Y.pp.164-234
-
REFERENCE
LOCATION;L.A.Peterson &Associates,Inc.
IMPORTANT ~
PAGES;167-221
KEY WORDS:Turbidity,Nephelometric,Residue,Suspended and
Disso!ved Solids
The theory of light scattering is presented by a review of
terminology,Rayleigh scattering and theory,and Mis scattering.
The discus.ion of the measurement of turbidity includes the
effects of sample and instrument parameters on turbidity
measurement,a history of turbidimetric methods,modern
nephelometric instrumentation,commercial instrumentrespons••,
process instruments".speci ficat ions for nephelometric
instrumentation,methods of instrumenta!turbidity measurem.nt,
and the potentia!of future nephelometric developments.
~A
REVIEW DRAFT ~/19/6S PAGE A-46
....
II
:i,
~
I
I
REFE~RENCE
REFE~RENCE
LOC~~TIONI
IMPORTANT
PAGE~SI
Wilber,C.G.,1983.Turbidity in th.aquatic
environment,an environmental factor in fresh and
oceanic waters.Charles C.Thom.s,Publisher,
Springfield,III inois.133 pp.
Nichols Environmental Con.ulting
2~-36,41-108,112-116
KEY WORDS:Turbidity,Suspended
Water,Effect.
Solids,Freshwater,Marine
A ..'eview of key literature quantifies the effects of turbidity
and suspend.d .olid.on fre.h and marine water 1,1....Included
are effect.on chemical and physical water quality,water supply,
fre1lshwater and mari ne organisms and ae.thet ics.Biological
.ffllct.on a wid.vari.ty of organi.ms include physiological,
feecling efficiency,feeding s.lection,feeding rates,
filter-feeder feeding,reproductive behavior,population numbers
and densities,growth and development,resistance to disease,and
habitat utilization•.Specific groups of organisms discussed are
warm water fi.h.s,salmonid fishes,freshwater macroinverte-
brat ••,and a number of marine organisms including coral,filter
feeding organisms,and marine mammals.
r
I
at rtlams may
conc:ent rat ions.
to 85 ppm is
eMhoemely bad.
be classified according to suspended solids
A concentration of 2~to 30 ppm is optimal,30
good,83 to 400 ppm is poor,and )400 ppm is
0,/9
REVIEW DRAFT ~/l~/8~PAGE A-47
KEY WORDS:Gravel Size,Trout,Ova,Alevins,SurVival,Emergence
REFERENCE.Witzel,~.D.,and H.R.MacCrimmon,19S1.Role o~
gravel substrate on ova survival and alslVin emergence
of rainbow trout,§~lm2 Q~lcgn@cl.Canadian Journal
of Zoology,Vol.~9.pp.629-636.
Alaska,ofUniver-sityUnit,FishCooperative
Fair-banks
A verticle flow incubation apparatus was used to determine the
role of various gravel size.on ova survival and emergence of
rainbow trout alevins.Sur-vival to emergence,time of emergence,
and alevin condition at emergence were significantly influenced
by gravel size.Me ..n percent surviv..l to emergence increased
from 1 percent in a-mm gravel to 76 percent in 26.-~-mm gravel.
Survival of ova to swim-up stage in a gravel free incubator was
sa percent.Differences in -percent survival were most
significant within the 2 to a mm gravel range.Poor survival of
trout alevins in tne a to 4 mm gravel was the r.sult of
entrapment.Tne time to emergence also increased with gravel
size.~arger alevins,which emer-ged later from coar-ser gr-avels
had the l ....t yolk reserve.Premature emergence of free embryos
and shortening of the alevin emergence period in 2.0-mm gravel
was identified as a stress r.spons••
REFERENCE
~OCATION.
IMPORTANT
PAGES.629,632-63~
q /.-1'-1
REVIEW DRAFT ~9/85 PAGE A-48
r
!
I
APPENDIX 8
GENERAL LITERATURE--FRESH WATER
The ....~e....nc..listed he...ein we ...e eviewed by proJect team
mem:l:ters and Judged to bel (1)Too g.n l'(2)In.ppl ic.bl.to
the scop.of this proJect (••g.,l.t.d topic••uch ••
biologic.l lif.hi.to...y),(3)Th.info...m.tion cont.in.d in •
•p.cific f nc.w...Mpl.in.din mo ....d.t.il in on.0 ...mo ....
of the f nc•••pp.....ing .bov.in App.ndiM A,0"',(4)Only •
po...'t ion of the .....f .....nce w••applic.bl ••nd th is info...m.t ion i.
citl.d in the t.Mt of the ....po...t.
qfq
REVIEW DRAFT S/lt/Se PAGE 8-1
ADEC,1979...Plac.r mining and wat.r qual ity,Al ••ka wat.r
quality manag.m.nt plan.Non-point .ourc••tudy ••ri ••Sec.
208 P.L.92-S00,9S217,Ala.ka Oepartment o~Environm.ntal
Con••rvation,Jun.au,Ala.ka.100 pp.
ADEC,1981.E~amination of drainages for effects of placer
mining and otM.r wat.r quality con.id.ration.Fairbank.and
int.rior Ala.ka,August 10-24,1981.A Working Pap.r,
Ala.ka D.partm.nt of Environm.ntal Con••rvation,Divi.ion of
Environm.ntal Quality Op.rations,Monitoring and Laboratory
S.ction,Jun.au,Alaska.70 pp.
ADEC,1982.Drinking wat.r .tandard..Ala.ka Departm.nt of
Environm.ntal Con••rvation,Jun.au,Ala.ka.
ADF&G,1983.;Fi.h....y productivity and instr.am miningl implica-
tion.for the Sri.tol Say R.gion.Pr.pared by Ala.ka D.pt.
of Fish .nd e.me for the Sr.i.tol Say Study Group.46 pp.
AFS,1984.1984 bibliog....phy on fi.h .nd wildlife ....lation.hip.
to Mining.Fish and Wildli'.R.lationship.to Mining
Committ ••,W.t.r Quality section,Am.rican Fi.h.ri••
Soci.ty.
Aitk.n,W.W.,1936.The relation of soil erosion to stream
improvem.nt and fi.h lif..Journal of For••try,Wa.hington,
34,10e9-1061.
Alabast.r,J.S.,1972.Su.pend.d .olid.and ~i.heri...Proc.
of the Royal Soci.ty London Sull.tin,1801 3ge-406.
Ala.k.Wat.r Study Committe.,1975.Ala.ka water assessment
probl.m id.nti'i~ation,t~hnic.l m.morandum to the W.ter
R••ourc••Council,ASWC,Jun.au,Ala.k..203 pp.
Al.Mander,G.R.,and E.D.Hansen,1983.E~f.cts of sand bedload
.edim.nt on •brooktrout popul.tion.Fi.h.rie.R••••rch
Report No.1906,Michigan Dept.of N.tural R••ource.,
Fl.heri ••o.partm.nt.
Allen,P.B.,1979.Turbidimeter measurement of .uspended
.edim.nt.U.S.Departm.nt of Agriculture,Sci.nc.and
Education Admini.tration,Agricultural R••••rch R••ult.,
ARR-S-4,New Orl.an.,LA.S pp.
Angino,E.E.,and W.J.O'Brien,1968.Effect.of .u.pend.d
Material on w.ter quality.Int.rnational A••ociation
Scienti'ic Hydrology,781 120-12S.
APHA,1980.Standard m.thods for the examination of water and
wa.t.w.ter.lSth Edition,American Public Health
A••oci.t ion,W••hington,D.C.1134 PP.
9!c.
REVIEW ORAFT 8/19/SS PAGE S-2
-
-
-I
I
I
APH~',198~.St.nd.rd m.thod.for th••K.min.tion of w.t.r .nd
w••t.w.t.r.16th Edition,Am.ric.n Public H••lth
A••oci.tion,W••hington,D.C.12S8 pp.
API,1980.Guid.to wAt.r qUAlity stand.rds of th.~nit.d
St.t...Environm.nt Aff.ir.O.pt.,API Public.tion No.
4321,First Edition,April 1980,Am.ric.n P.trol.um
In.titut.,W••hington,D.C.
Apman,R.P.,And M.S.Ott,1965.Sedimentation and stream
improv.m.nt.N.w York Fi.h &a.m.Journ.l,12(2)1117-126.
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9/:t
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gfq
REVIEW DRAFT ~19/85 PAGE B-4
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~11
REVIEW DRAFT ~/a5 PAGE B-5
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....h'ill
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REVIEW DRAFT -8+1-9/8e PAeE B-7
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.....
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I
'1/9
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PAGE 8-9
q/~
REVIEW DRAFT -&1-1-9/85
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g/9
REVIEW DRAFT -&l-19/8~PAGE B-10
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Environm.nt.1 Protection Servic.,Pacific R.gion,Yukon
Br.nch,Environm.nt C.n.d••
Stice,P.O.,1982.Correlating settleable solids to total
.u.pend.d .01 ids conc.ntr.t ion of irrig.t ion tai h".t.r.
M.S.Th ••i.,Wa.hington St.t.Univ.rsity,Pullman,W~.~O
pp.
Sumrler,F.H.,and O.R.Smith,1939.Hydrau1 ic mining and debris
dam.in r.1.tion to fi.h lif.in the ~M.ric.n .nd Yuba
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Swerlson,w.A.,1978.Influence of turbidity on fish abundance
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Prot.ction ~g.ncy,Duluth,MN.92 pp.
Sykclra,S.L.,E•.1.Smith,and M.Synak,1972.Effect ot'lime
n.utr.1ized iron hydroKid ••u.p.n.ion.on Juv.ni1.brook
trout.W.ter R••••rch,6193:5-9:50.
Tac"~,S.L.,1980.Migrations and distribution ot'Arctic:
grayling in int.rior .nd .rctic ~l ••ka.F.d.r.1 Aid in Fish
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County,W••hington.M.S.Th ••i.,Univ.r.ity of W.shington,
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'Tarz:wel1,C.M.,1957.Water quality criteria t'o1"aquatic:life.
ID-Biologic.1 Prob1.ms in W.t.r Pollution,Tr.n.action ot'
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-1.9''iJ
REVIEW DR~FT 8/1918:5 PAGE B-19
Tebo,C.B.,19~~.Effects of siltation resulting from improper
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17(2)164-70.
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Townsend,A.H.,1983.Sport fishing--placer miningl Chatanika
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Appendic.s.
Treweek,S.P.,and J.J.Morgan,1980~Prediction of suspension
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Wagener,S.M.,1984.Effects of placer gold mining on stream
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=d9
REVIEW DRAFT 1/1S/8e PAGE 8-20
-
Walkotten,W.J.,1976.An improv.d t.chniqu.for fr••z.
sampling str.amb.d s.dim.nt..USDA For••t S.rvic.R••••rch
Not.PNW-281,P.cific Northw••t For.st .nd Rang.EMp.riment
Station,Juneau,Alask••
Wallen,I.E.,19S1.The direct effect to turbidity on fishes.
BUlletin,Oklahoma AgricUltural and M.chanical Coll.g••
48 (2)I 1-27.
Wan,g,W.C.,1971.Effect of turbidity
Illinoi.Stat.Wat.r Surv.y,Urbana,XL.
on algal
11 pp.
growth.
--
Ward,H.B.,1938.Placer mining on the Rogue River,Oregon,in
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Warner,S.W.,1957.Environmental studies of grayling as
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~3 pp.
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laboratori...D.pt.of N.tural R.sourc••,Madison,WI.15
pp.
Wedemeyer,S.A.,and D.J.McCleary,1981.Methods for deter-
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London.pp.247-276.
Welch,E.5.,1980.Ecological .ff.ct.of wast.wat.r.C.mbridge
Univer.ity Pr.s.,C.mbridg.,MA.329 pp.
,
9,Ct
REVIEW DRAFT a+-l-9/8~PAGE 8-21
West,R.L.,and N.~.Oeschu,1984.Kantishna Hills heavy metals
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Wickett,W.P.,1959.Effects of siltation on success of fish
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Proceedings Fifth Symposium Pacific Northwest on Siltation--
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-
-
Williams,R.,and M.F.Harcup,1974.
industrial river in South Wales.
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WOJcik,F.J.,1955.Life history and management of the grayling
in interior ~laska.M.S.Thesis,University of ~la.ka,
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"..,Ie~/""REVIEW DRAFT ~~lS/85 PAGE 9-22
Wo11 t f,E.N.,and 8.I.Thom••,1982.The e'fects of placer
mining on th..nvironm.nt in central Alaska.Mineral
Indu.try R••••rch Laboratory Report No.48,University of
Al ••k.,Fairbank.,Al ••ka.66 pp.
Wolnlan,M.G.,1974.Stream standards:dead or hiding?Journal
Water Pollution Control Feder.tion,46(3)431-437.
Wolnlan,M.G.,1977.
.ediment field.
Changing needs and opportunities in the
Water Re.ource.Rese.rch,13(1)I~O-34.
"'F"
I
!
.-
Zemansky,G.M.,T.Tilsworth,and D.J.Cook,1976.Alaska
mining and water qu.lity.In.titute of Water Resourc••,
Univer.ity of Al.ska,Fairbanks,Ala.ka.82 pp.
q./o.
REVIEW DRAFT ~/a~PAGE 8-23
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....
-
~PPENOIX C
~NNOT~TEO BISLIOGR~PHIES--M~RINE
9/ct
REV I EW OR~FT --&1-1-9/a:s P~GE C-l
REFERENCE.Auld,A.H.,.nd J.R.Schub.l,1978.Eff.ct.of
.u.p.nd.d ••dim.nt on fi.h .ggs and larva..a
l.bor.tory ••••••m.nt.Estu.rin••nd Co ••tal Marin.
Sci.nc.,(6)1~3-164.
REFERENCE
~OCATION.Univ.rsity of Ala.ka ~ibr.ry,Fairb.nk.
IMPORTANT
PAGES.1~3
KEY WORDS.Susp.nd.d Sediments,~abora~ory,Fish Eggs,Fish
L.rv••,H.tching,Surviv.l
Eggs and larvae of six specie.of anadromous and estuarine fish
w.re .xpo.ed to concentr.tion.of .u.pended ••dim.nt up to 100
mg/L to determine the effect.of different conc.ntration.on
hatching succe..and .hort term .urviv.l.Egg .xperiments
indicat.th.t concentr.tions of up to 1000 mg/L did,not
significantly affect the hatching .ucces.of yell~w perch,
blueback h.rring,.l.wife or Am.rican ,shad eggs.Th•••me
concentration.did however significantly reduce the hatching
succe..of whit.perch and striped bas.,wh.r.a.lower
conc.ntrations did not.EMperiment.with larva.indicated that
concentration.above ~OO mg/L significantly reduced the survival
of .triped ba••and yellow perch.Concentration.above 100 mg/l
significantly reduced the .urvival of American .had larvae
continou.ly eMposed for 96 hours.The .ignificance of the••
result.are di.cus.ed in relation to change.in .ediment loading
in estuaries.
q/q
REVIEW DRAFT ~/8~PAGE c-e
-
-
REFI5:RENCE
REFl5:RENCE
LOCI~TION.
IMPIJRTANT
PAGIES.
B~.hm.~,M.L.,196~.Tu~bidity and siltation as
forms of pollution.30urnal of Soil and Wat.r
Cons.~vation,JUly-August,196~.pp.132-133.
132-133
KEY WORDS.Susp.nded Solids,S.diment Deposition,Effects,
Estuarin.Syst.ms,A.sth.tic Quality,R.cr.ational
Us.s,Phytoplankton,Zooplankton,Infauna,B.nthos
Eitftf!;;lI!3I!Qtf I
The role of suspended solids and sediment depositions in
.stll.larin.syst.ms is discuss.d in this pap.~.Th.d.st~uction 0'F
rtte:ll"'.at iona1 b.ach.s and aquat ic habitats is w.l1 docum.nt.d.
13roll.lnds mad.suitab1.fo~oyste~cu1tu~.suff.r h.avi 1y 'From
si 1'I:at ion.D~tldg.spoil disposal studi.s indicat.that infaunal
for,ns a~.d.st~oy.d by smoth.ring.Siltat ion can also smoth.r
.pifaunal fo~ms,and the unstable characte~istics of s-ilt
d.pl:Jsits could p~.v.nt r.-.stablishm.nt of popu1at ion••
Susl~.nd.d sol ids in wat.~hav•.a d.finit••ff.ct on the wat.r's
a.s'l:h.tic quality and its value fo~~.c~.ational pu~pos.s.Th.
conl:.nt~ation at which wat.~b.com.s obJ.ct ionabl.to the us.r is
a matt.r of individual conditioning.Th.biological .ff.cts of
in~l"'ganic susp.nded solids to .stua~in.communiti.s a~.compl.~
and .xtrem.ly difficult to quantify.Th.eff.cts of inorganic
s.dim.nts on zooplankton and high.~aquatic lif.ar••v.n more
dif'fI!cult to .valuat.than the .ff.cts on phytoplankton.
Man'-macl.l.v.ls of tu~bidity undoubt.d1y .~.rt inJu~ious .ff.cts
on the ..tua~in.community.Sh.llfish and finfish ar••sp.cially
Vulll"l.~abl.to damag.by ino~ganic susp.nd.d solids.The f.eding
activity of c.~tain filt.r-f..c1ing sh.llfish is inhibited by high
sus,,,end.d sol ids l.v.ls.
qli
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/8S PAGE C-3
REFERENCE.Oavi.,H.e.,and H.Hidu,1969.Eff.cts of
turbidity-producing .ub.tanc••in ••a water on .ggs
and larva.of thr••g.n.ra of bivalv.mollusk••
Th.V.lig.r,Vol.II,No.4.pp.316-323
-
REFERENCE
l.OCATION.
I MPORTI=INT
PAGES.
Univ.r.ity of Ala.ka,Fairbank.
320
KEY WORDS:ClAms,Oysters,Silt,KAolin,Fuller's Earth,
Conc.ntration,Particl.Siz.,Growth,D.v.lop••nt,
Survival
A s.ri..of .xp.rim.nts w.r.run to comp.r.the .ffects of
diff.r.nt-siZ.d particl ••on .mbryo.and larva.o~hard clam.and
American oyst.rs.~little a.0.188 gIL .ilt,3 gIL kaolin,and
4 gIL Full.r'..arth cau.ed a significant d.er....in th.
p.rc.ntag.of oy.t.r .gg.d.v.loping normally.American oyst.r
.gg.w.r.not aff.ct.d ..by 4 giL .ilicon dioxid.,r.gardl•••-of
particl..iz••_Th.small ••t particl••((S micron.)of .ilicon
dioxide had the gr.at ••t .ffect on survival and growth of clam
and oy.ter larv...P.rticl..in the rang.of S to as micron.and
as to SO micron.had lit_I••ffect on .urviv.l of .ith.r sp.ci ••
or on growth of cl.m l.rvae.Growth of American oy.ter l.rva.
d.cr••••d progr•••lvely ••the .iz.of .ilicon dioxide particl••
d.cr••••d.Bivalv.larv••grew fa.t.r in low conc.ntr.tion.of
.u.p.nd.d particl••th.n in cl••r ......at.r.
9/<1
REVIEW ORAFT S/t9/8S PAGE C-4
-
--
-
-
.,..
I
REFERENCE a 30hn.on,3.K.,1971.Effect of turbidity on the
r.t.of filtr.tion .nd growth of the slipp.r limpet,
~~tQ!g~!~!2~n!~~t~L.m.rck,1799.The V.liger,Vol.
1~,No.3.pp.31~-320.
"i""
I
I
I
REFERENCE
LOCATION a University of Al ••ka,F.irb.nks
.,...
I
I
I.
IMPORTANT
PAGES.318-320
KEY WORDS:Turbidity,Silt,Kaolin,Fuller's Earth,Effects,
Filt.r F••ding,Shell Growth,G••tropod
Th.purpo..of this inv••tig.tion w.s to d.t.rmin.how the shell
growth of th.filter f ••ding ga.tropod ~CtQ!gY!A !2~n!~.t.is
affected by prolonged exposure to various levels of turbidity
(0.002 to o.as giL)in natur.,and to .x.min.the .~p.rim.nt.l
.ff.ct.of incr•••ing concentr.tions (0.08 to 1.S6 giL)of .ilt,
kaolin,and Fuller'•••rth on the filtr.tion r.t..of ~~
f2CD1s~t~.R.sults·showed that the shell growth rat.decreased
a.the .l.v.l of n.tur.l turbidity incr•••ed.Lik.wise,s,.,.ll
IiIro'wth .....found to b.IiIr ••t ••t in •tr.n.pl.nt.tion .nvironm.nt
of low turbidity..comp.r.d to.high turbidity .nvironm.nt.
Th.filtr.tion r.t..of ~~!Q~nl£~tl d.cr••••d ••th.l.v.l of
turbidity increased.Low concentrations of silt equivalent to
n.tur.l l.v.l.of turbidity in natura produc.d .ignific.nt
r.duction.in filtr.tion r.t...Silt,Full.r'•••rth,.nd k.olin
.ach c.u••d ••ignific.nt r.duction in th.filtr.tion r.te ••th.
conc.ntr.tion incr••••d up to 6 giL.R.duc.d .h.ll gro...th r.t.
m.y b.th.r ••ult of in.d.qu.t.food intake due to clogging of
th.filtering mech.nism by turbidity.Su.t.in.d high turbidity
m.y h.ve •limiting .ff-et on th.di.tribution of 'L 19~Dis.~•.
fq/~
REVIEW DRAFT S/19/SS PAGE C-S
REFERENCE.John.ton,D.O.,.nd O.J.Wildi.h,1982.Effect of
.u.p.nd.d ••dim.nt on f ••ding by larv.l h.rring
(~lYa..b.~.D~Y.b.r.D~Y.b~).Bull.tin
Envi~onm.nt.l Cont.min.tion TOHicology,(29).251-267.
REFERENCE
LOCATION.Univ.r.ity of Al ••k.Libr.ry,F.irb.nk.
IMPORTANT
PAGES I 261,26~-267
KEY WORDS:Susp.nd.d S~im.nt.,Light Intensity,Herring,
L.rv••,F_ding R.t.,Zoopl.nkt.r.,Visibility
et:!~QI8!!Q~
Th.purpo••of this .tudy was to det.rmin.if increased levels of
.u.p.nd.d ••dim.nt occurring .ft.r dr.dging,.nd r ••ultant
d.cr.....in light int.n.ity,r.duc.pr.y vi.ibility for l.rv.l
h.rring to the .Kt.nt th.t the f~ing r.ta i ••ffact.d.Th •
•ff.ct of .u.p.nded .ediment on l.rv••of diff.r.nt .g••w•••lso
inv••tig.t.d.L.rv..f.d in w.t.r cont.ining ~.nd 8 mg/L did
not con.um..ignific.ntly few.r zoopl.nkt.r.th.n did control
l.rv...How.v.r,l.rv••f.d .t 20 mglL did con.um••ignific.ntly
f.wer zoopl.nkt.r.th.n did the control..Simil.rly,larv••f.d
.t 6S.nd lOS'phototopic lUH con.um.d .ignificantly f.war
zoopl.nkt.r.th.n tho..fed .t 300 IUH in the control t.nk••
Th.r.war..ignific.ntly fewer l.rv••in the bottom .ection of
the t.nk.cont.ining .u.p.nd.d ••dimant than in the control..A.
the conc.ntr.tion of .u.p.nd.d ••dim.nt w..incr••••d,light
int.n.ity .nd vi.ibility of pr.y d.cr......A••r ••ult,the
l.rv..move into the batt.r illumin.t.d .urf.c.l.y.r.to f ••d.
Th.d.er....in light int.n.ity .t lower ••diment conc.ntr.tion.
(4 .nd S .g/L)i.not .ufficient to r ••ult in •d.pr•••ion of
f ••ding r.t...At gr••t.r conc.ntr.tion.of .u.p.nd.d ••dim.nt
(20 mg/L),the vi.ibility of pr.y .nd light int.n.ity .r•
•ignific.ntly d.cr••••d .nd the f ••ding r.t.i.d.pr••••d.Th.
l.v.l of .u.p.ndad ••diment r ••ulting in •d.pr•••ion of f ••ding
r.t.by h.rring l.rv••i ••lso •function of l.rv.l .g••nd .iz••
q/q
REVIEW DRAFT S/19/SS PAGE C-6
-
-
...
-
REFE~RENCEI Kiorboe,T.,E.Frant.en,C.Jensen,and e.Soren.en,
1981.Effects of suspended sediment on development
and hatching of nerring <Clya••b.r.D';,Y.>egg••
E.tuarine,Coa.tal and Shelf Science,(13)1107-111.
REFE~RENCE
LOC~~TIONI
I MPC)RTANT
PAGE~SI
Univer.ity of Ala.ka Library,Fairbank.
107
KEY WORDS.Egg.,Herring,Su.pended Sedim.nts,Hatching,
Development
Herr'i";(~lYa!lA bAr.DSY.>eggs artifically fertilized in the
la~)ratory were con.tantly eKpo..d at S to 300 mg/L su.pend.d
.ilt:and to .hort term concentration.of SOO mg/L at different
tiMit.during embryonic development.Re.ult.indicate that
embr'yonic development wa.u"affec:ted by .u..pended .i It.
Mort~a1ity rate.varied .igni'ficantly between aquaria,but the
'vartat ion wa.not related to .i 1 t concentrat ions.It wa.
co"c:luded that no harmful e"'fect.are likely to occur to herring
.pa.-.ning ground.a.a r ••ult of .u.pe"ded part icle input.from
dreclging and .imi 1ar operat ions.
~f O'il •
REVIEW DRAFT 6119/8S PAGE C-7
REFERENCE.Kio~bo.,T.,F.Mohl.nb.~g,and O.Noh~,1980.F••d-
ing,pa~ticl•••l.ction and c.~bon ab.o~ptlon in
M~1ilY••~Yli.in diff.~.nt miMtu~••of alga.and
~••u.p.nd.d bottom mat.~ial.Oph.lia,19(e).193-20~.
REFERENCE
LOCATION.Univ.~.ity of Ala.ka Lib~a~y,Fai~bank.
IMPORTANT
PAGES.193
KEY WORDS.Silt Conc.nt~.tion,Alga.Susp.nsion.,~~!ilY•
•gyll.t Filt~.tion,Food Uptak.,Ca~bon Budg.t
Th..ff.ct.of .ilt conc.nt~ation on filtration beh.vio~,food
uptak.,and carbon budg.t of the mu •••l ~~11Y••~yll.w.~•
•tudied.Inc~•••ing amount.of mat.~ial w.~.~.tain.d by the
gill.with inc~.a.ing .ilt conc.nt~ation.,but an inc~a.lng
p~portlo...of this wa.....Ject.d a.p••udofaec...P••udofa.c••
wa.p~oduced at .ilt conc.ntrations above 1 mg/L.Th.amount
inc~.a••d lin.arally with the amount of.mat.rial ~.tain.d.a~y
Matt.r ing••tionincrea••d with Inc~a.ing conc.nt~atlon of .ilt.
At a .llt concwnt~ation of 2 mg/L,alga.w.~.conc.nt~at.d by a
facto~of 3,and at SS mglL by a facto~of about 30.Th.ca~bon
ing ••tion ~at.inc~.a••d consid.rably at a low conc.nt~atlon of
.11t compa~.d to a su.p.nsion of pu~.alga.,and d.c~.as.d at
hlgh conc.nt~atlon.(~~mg/L).Ca~bon absorption .ffici.nci ••
w.~.high (~9 to 6S p.~c.nt)up to a silt conc.nt~ation of ~
mg/L,and d.c~.a••d slightly at high.~conc.nt~ations (~2 to ~S
mg/L).It wa.conclud.d that ~~1ilY.is w.ll adapt.d to .1lt
eoncent~ations up to 33 mg/L,and ev.n b.nefits f~om concent~a
tlons up to e~mg/L.
9/Cj
REVIEW DRAFT a/lgv8~PAGE C-S
-
REFERENCE.Loosanoff,V.L.,1961.Effects of turbidity on scme
larval and adult bivalves.Proceedings Gulf and
Caribbean Fisn Institute,Fourte.ntn Annual Session,
November.pp.SO-ge.
REFERENCE
LOCATION.
IMPORTANT
PAGES.eo,e3-91
"I""
I
i,
O/"D
!
'i'""
I
I
I
KEY WORDS:Bivalves,Oysters,Turbidity,Silt.Kaolin,Pumping
Rate,Snell Movement
An analysis of the effects of turbidity upon larval and adult
bivalves is presented.Studies of tne American oyster,
~r••~2.~r.§~ir~iDisA,and cf ~.n~~m.rs.nAriA are emphasized
although several other species are also presented.Different
species of mollusks,their eggs and their larvae were affected to
different degrees by the same concentrations of turbidity-causing
sediments.Very small·quantities of silt and kaolin ~cmetimes
at imulated normal .act ivit ies of adult'and larval moll usks.
However,concentrations as small as 0.1 gIL significantly reduced
tne water pumping rate by an average of S7 percent and strongly
affected the character of shell movements of the adult oysters.
At concentrations of 3.0 to ~.O gIL,the average reduction in
pumping rate was over 90 percent.The shell movements of oysters
kept in turbid waters ~re associated with frequent eJections of
large quantities of silt and mucus accumulating on the gills and
palps.In another experiment,oysters were exposed to silt
concentrations of 1.0,2.0,3.0,and ~.O gIL for 4S nours.When
the oyster.were again SUbJected to normal sea water,they failed
to show the usual recovery-type of .hell movement nor did they
resume a rapid rate of pumping,as is normally observed after
exposure to sediment for relatively short periods.Apparently
longer exposures affect them a.dversely by inJuring the ci Uary
mechanisms of their gills and palps.Data indicated that
lamellibranchs (oysters and clams)feed most effectively in
relatively clear water.
q~~/'i
REVIEW DRAFT -&/--1-9/8S PAGE C-9
•f __--_
REFERENCE.McFarland,V.A.,and R.K.P.ddicord,1980.
L.thality of a susp.nd.d clay to a div.rs.s.l.ction
of marin.and .stuarin.macrofauna.Archiv.s
Environm.ntal Contamination Toxicology,(9).733-741.
REFERENCE
LOCATION.Univ.rsity of Alaska,Fairbanks
IMPORTANT
PAGES,637-640
KEY WORDS:Marine Macrofauna,Susp.nded Kaolin,Sensitivity,
Tol.ranc.,Mortality
An evaluation was made of the lethality of a suspended clay
min.ral on a phylog.n.tically div.rs.s.l.ction of marin.and
.stuarine macrofauna.A v.ry wid.rang.of sensitiviti ..to
susp.nd.d kaolin was obs.rved among the 16 sp.ci.s studi.d.
Eight had (10 p.rc.nt mortality aft.r .Mposur.to 100 gIL
susp.nd.d kaolin for ~to 12 days.A vari.ty of oth.r sp.ci.s
....r.found to b.more s.nsi·tiv..Th.200-hr LC~O for the muss.l -
~L ~.11!g~n!An~.was 96 gIL.An .xp.rim.nt using the tunicat.
B~~!9!s ~.r.!gg..was terminated at 136 hr because of the high
mortality reach.d at that time.-Two oth.r tunicat ..w.r.much
more tol.rant to susp.nd.d kaolin with a 12 day Le~O of 100 gIL.
Th.200-hr LeSO for the spot-tailed sand shrim~was ~o gIL,and
the 400-hr Le~O was ~O gIL for the sa••sp.ci.s,indicating a
high tol.ranc.to susp.nd.d clay.Th ••uryhalin.grass shrimp
was .v.n l.ss s.nsitiv.to susp.nd.d kaolin.Th.Dung.n.ss crab
~.!Is.r mA.saUUr was t.sted for 10 days and found to b.more
s.nsitiv.than any of the shrimp speci.s,with a 200-hr LeSO of
32 gIL.Th.100-hr Le~O for the amphipod en1.9A.mm.~Y.
£gnf.~~l£2lY.was 78 gIL,indicating an int.rm.diat.s.nsitivity
to suspended kaolin.The concentration causing ~O perc.nt
mortality of the polycha.t.~••ntn...~£~1Q..in 200 hr was
.stimat.d to b.48 gIL.The English sol.e.~QQbc~.~.t~l~•
•xhibited no mortal it i ••in 10 days at a concentration of 70 gIL
or l.ss,but 80 perc.nt mortality OCcurred after 10 days at 117 ~
gIL.Th.shin.r p.rch ~..RRC.R.t.was the most s.nsitiv.
species tested with only one fish alive after 26 hr in 14 gIL
susp.nd.d kaolin.Th.r.lativ.s.nsitivity of the speci.s t.st.d
may b.a function of the fr.qu.ncy to which th.y ar.subJ.ct.d to
high susp.nd.d ••dim.nt in th.ir .nvironMent.-
r
9li
REVIEW DRAFT -&f-l-9/8~PAGE C-l0
REFERENCE.Moor.,P.G.,1977.Inorganic particulat•
•u.p.n.ion.in the ••a .nd th.ir .ff.ct.on marin•
•nim.l..OC ••nogr.phy .nd M.rin.Biology Annu.l
R.v i .w,(1l5)•22:1-363.
REFE~RENCE
LOC~~TIONI Univ.r.ity of'Ala.ka,Fairbank.
IMPC3RTANT
PAGE~S I 2~-337
KEY WORDS.Turbidity,Su.p.nd.d Solid.,Marin.Anim.ls,Dir.c~
Eff.ct.,Indir.ct Eff'.ct.,M.a.ur.m.nt T.chniqu••,
Economic Ef'f'.ct.
An overall synthesis of available literature pertaining to saline
aquntic habitat.i.pr•••nt.d and di.cu•••d .long with m.a.ur.-
m.n1:t.chniqu..f'or total part iculat.matt.r.Th •••t.chniqu••
incl~ud.gravim.tric,c.ntrif'ug.tion,and in I.ii.!ll m.a.ur.m.nt.of'
the absorption of r.dioactiv..n.rgy or the ab.orption of'
.ca1:t.r.d 1 ight.Opt ical Jmtthod..r.by far the molit-popular
t.chniqu..for .tudying su.p.nd.d mat.rial,.nd invo1v.th.·u ••
of d.vic..r.nging from the .imp1.S.cchi di.k to a vari.ty of
tran.mittanc..catt.ring and d.po1arization m.t.r..a.v.r.l
invll.t ig.tor.have ••tabl i.h.d ,a r.lat ionsh i p b.tw••n S.cch i
d.pt:h and •••ton cont.nt,a.cchi d.pth and att.nu.t ion
co.,'fici.nt.,and the att.nuat ion co.ffici.nt and part icul.t.
conc:entr.t ion.in •••wat.r.Mor.r.c.nt ly,turbid condit ion.
havil b ••n r.cord.d by !n .!!.Y photography,r.mot •••n.ing,and
shipborne acou.~ic systems.Four methods available f'or particle
.izll ana1y.i.of su.p.nd~••dim.nts includ.micro.copic
anally.i.,opt ieal ••d imentat ion an.ly.i.,dir.ct op~ical
.naJ:y.i.,.nd the .1.ctronic (Coult.r Count.r)m.thod.
L..gul turbidity standard..hould ultimat.ly b.d.fin.d in t.rm.
of the light r.quir.m.nt.of'silt tol.ranc.of the org.ni.m.
r.quiring prot.ction.It may b.more r.alistic to r.-d.fin.
allc)wabl.turbidity incr.....in t.rms of'the p.rc.ntag••bov.
bacJtground rath.r than any arbitrary num.rical valu••
Numltrous l.boratory and fi.ld .xp.riment.have b ••n accompl i.h.d
to d.termin.~h..ff.ct.of inorganic .usp.n.ion.on m.rin.
anin,.l..G.n.r.l .ff.cts .r.pr.s.nt.d for a vari.ty of m.l"'in.
ani."al groups including.protozoa,porif.r.,co.l.nt.r.ta,
et.,,~ophora,polych.ata,crust.c.a,mollusca,.chinod.rmata,
bryozoa,phoronid••,br.chiopoda,.scidiac.a,h.michordata,and
c.pl"lalochordat..In .ddition,•bri.f di.cu.sion is pr•••nt.d
regflrding f'ish,birds,marin.mammal.,.nd man.
I
9/ct
REVIEW DRAFT ~~9/85 PAGE C-l1
___-......a"'.....·-----·--
REFERENCE 1
REFERENCE
L.OCATION.
IMPORTANT
PAGES.
KEY WORDS:
Ozturgut,E.,J.W.~av.ll.,and R.E.Surn.,1981.
Impact.o~mang.n•••nodu1.mining on the
.nvironm.nt.r ••ult.~~om pilot-.cal.mining t ••t.
in the North Equatorial Paci~ic.101 R.A.G.y.r,
(ed.),Marine Environmental Pollution,2:-Dumping and
Mining.EI ••vi.r Sci.nti~ic Publi.hing Co.,Naw
York.~74 pp.
4S1-474
Mining Plume,Turbidity,Particulate Concentration,
Photo.ynth.tical1y Activ.Radiation (PAR),~ight
Att.nuation,Prima~y Productivity,Macrozooplankton,
Abundanc.,Mortality
-
-
Pilot-scale mIning tests were conducted to evaluate environmental
conc.rns and d.v.lop -.nvironm.ntal guid.1in••prior to ~ull
.cal.mining in the North Equatorial Paci~ic.Pa~ticul~t.
conc.ntration.war.r.cord.d a.light .catt.ring intan.iti_with
a n.ph.lom.t~.Particl..iz..war.m.a.urad with a Coult.r
count.r.PAR m.a.ur.m.nt.con~irm.d tn.pr•••nc.o~a
particulat.plum.with .1"1 av.rag.eoncantration o~440 ug/L in
th.upp.r 2~m.Mining particulat ••incr••••light att.nuation
and th.r.by directly a~~.ct p~imary production in th.mining
ar.a.A compari.on WAS mad.b.twa.n ambi.nt production rat ••
m.a.ur.d 1D .!~y and the ••timat.d production rat.at a point
along the axis of the plume.The total reduction in produc~ivity
ov.r th..ntir..uphotic zona at this point amount.d to 40
p.rc.nt.Th.dir.ct .~~.ct.o~mining-r.lat.d particulat.matt.r
on Macrozooplankton inc1ud.mortality,chang••in ing••tion rat ••
and th.production o~~.cal p.ll.t.,chang••in the .1.m.ntal
compo.ition o~whole organi.m.,and .hort-t.rm a~~.ct.on .patial
di.tribution,abund.nc.,.nd .peci••compo.ition.Th.,.••ult.o~
two ••t.o~to....indic.t.th.t th.r.wa.no m.Jor d.cr••••in th.
abund.nc.o~n.u.tonic macrozoopl.nkton,or .u~~ici.nt .mount.o~
mining p.rticu1.t..ing••t.d to c.u...1t.~.tion in th.ir
eh.mic.1 compo.ition,at plum.eonc.nt~.tion.1•••than 1 mg/L.
It is concluded that the e~~.ct o~mining discharge on
phytoplankton i.limit.d to that c.u_d by turbidity.Incr••••d
light .tt.nu.tion du.to incr.a••d tu~bidity r.duc.d the p~im.ry
production r.t.in th.plum..S.c.u••particul.t.conc.ntr.tion.
r.turn to .mbi.nt 1.v.1.within.~.N d.y.,it i.b.li.v.d th.t
.p.ci ••compo.ition ch.ng••will not take plac..e•••d on both
mining te.t.and 1abo~.tory .xp.~im.nt.,it i.concluded th.t the
abundanc..nd mortality o~macrozoop1.nkton will a1.0 b.
una~~ected by th.mining plum••
q/q
REVIEW DRAFT &~/8~PAGE C-12
REFERENCE a P.ddicord,R.K.,1980.Dir.ct .ff.ct.of .u.p.nd.d
••diment.on .quatic org.ni.m..!Da R.~.Sak.r
(ad.>,Contaminants and Sediments,Vol.1,Ann Arbor
Sci.nc.Publi.h.r.,Inc.,~nn ~rbor,MI.pp.~Ol
~36.
REFERENCE
LOC~TION.Univ.r.ity of ~l ••ka Libr.ry,F.irbank.
IMp!ORT~NT
P~SES.~01,~02:,~11-S1~,~2:6-~33
KEY WORDS;Suspended Sediment,Kaolin,Sentonite,Aquatic
Org.ni.m.,Mortality
Marine ilnd estuarine invertebrates were able to tolerate
continuous .Mpo.ur.to .u.p.n.ion.of kaolin .nd b.ntonita cl.y.
in the r.ng.of gr.m./lit.r for ••v.r.l d.y.to ••v.r.l w.ak.
without .ub.tanti.l mort.lity.Fi.h tol.r.t.d simil.r
conc.~tr.tion.for .imil.r p.riod.und.r .imil.r condition..~.
t.mp.r.tur.incr••••d or dis.olv.d oMyg.n d.cr••••d,tol.r.nc.
d.cr•••ed.Ev.n.t high.r t ....p.r.tur...nd 2:ppm di ••olv.d
oMyg.n,mo.t inv.rt.br.t..tol.r.t.d continuous .Mpo.ura to 60
gIL .u.p.nd.d .bantonit.for ••v.r.l d.y.b.for.mortality
occurr.d.Juv.nil.Dung.n...cr.b.....r ••ff.c:t.d to a gr.at.r
d.gr..by kaolin .u.p.n.ion.than oth.r .pec:i...Juv.nil.
Am.ric.n lob.t.r..uff.r.d no mortal it i ••in 2:0 gIL contaminat.d
••dim.nt for 2S day.and only on.molting abnormality occurr.d.
Uncontaminat.d fluid mud.have the pot.nti.l for producing high
.usp.nd.d ••dim.nt conc.ntration.and low di ••olved oMyg.n for
p.riod..uffici.nt to c:au.a mortality of a vari.ty of organism••
Contaminatad ••dim.nt .u.p.n.ion.ar.pot.ntially mora harmful
than .usp.n.ion.of uncontaminat.d ••dim.nt.
fq/q
REVIEW DR~FT a/19V8~PASE C-13
REFERENCE I Sh.rk,J.~.,J.M.O'Connor,and D.A.N.umann,
197~.Eff.ct.of .usp.nd.d and d.po.ited s.diments
on ••tuarin••nvironment ••lnl L.E.Cronin,(.d.),
Estuarine Research,Volume II,Geology and
Engin••ring.Acad.mic Pr•••Inc.,N.w York.
pp.~41-~~S.
REFERENCE
LOC~TIONI Univ.r.ity of Ala.ka,Fairbanks
IMPORT~NT
P~GESI ~41-~~6
KEY WORDS.Bioa.says,Full.r's Earth,Mortality,Estuarin.
Organisms,Subl.thal Eff.cts
arf~QIaI!QM
Static bioassay.conducted with Fuller's earth showed significant
mortality among five of the sev.n species tested in susp.nd.d
conc.ntr.tions typic.lly found in ••tu.rin.syst.m.during
flooding,dr.dging,and spoil disposal.L.th.l conc.ntrations
ranged from a low of O~~S gIL for silversides to 24.~g/~for
mummichog.(2~hr LC10).Fish..were classified as either
tolerant ()10 gIL),s.n.itiv.(1.0 to 10 gIL),or highly
••nsitiv.«1.0 gIL),b.s.d on a 24 hr LC10 u.ing Full.r's
.arth.a.n.r.lly,filt.r f ••d.r••nd ••rly-lif••tag.s w.r.more
s.n.itiv.th.n bottom dw.ll.rs and .dult..Exposur.to subleth.l
conc.ntr.tion.signific.ntly incr••••d th.h.m.tocrit valu.,
h.moglobin conc.ntr.tion,.nd .rythrocyte numb.rs in th.blood of
•v.ri.ty of fish.In .ddition,Full.r'•••rth,fin.sand,and
riv.r silt ()2~O mg/L)c.us.d significant r.ductions in the
ing••tion r.t.by cop.pods.
.qjq
REVIEW DR~FT e/19/a~PAGE C-14
....,
i
-
-
REFE~RENCE I S"'erok,,J.A.,,Jr.,,J.M.0'Connor,and D.A.Neumann,
1976.EffeQts of suspended solids on seleQted
estuaroine plankton.MisQellaneous Report No.76-1,
U.S.Aromy Corps of Engineers,Coastal Engineering
Researoc'"Center,Fort Selvoir,VA.50 pp.-
REFE~RENCE
LOCF~TIONI University of AlaskA,Fairbanks (Interlibrary Loan)
I MPCtRTANT
PAGE~SI 10, 11,15,23, 26,32,35,36
KEY WORDS:Suspended Sediments,Fuller's Earth,Silicon DioHide,
Rivero Silt,EffeQts,Carbon Assimilation,
Phytoplankton,Ingestion Rate,Cop.pods
This.reporot provides basel ine data on the effeQts of di fferent
sus~lended sediments on selected typical estuarine plankton.
Carbon assimilation by four·speQies of phytoplAnkton was
sigrlifiQantly reduQed by the light attenuating properties of fine
si 1 tcon dioxide suspensions.A conQentra-t ion of 1000 mg/Lc:au.ed
a ~~O to 90 peroQent roeduQtion in Qarbon upt-ake among the f-our
spec:ies of phytoplankton tested.A QonQentration of 2500 mg/L
Qaul~ed an 80 perQent reduQt ion in one of the species.The
ing ..stion rate by two speQies 0"Qalanoid Qopepods was
sigrlifiQantly l""eduQed during exposure to a 250 mg/L mixture of
FulJ.er's earth,fine siliQon dioMide,and natural river silt.At
a concentration of 500 mg/L river silt,the ingestion rate was
reduced by 77.5 percent.
Cj/:t
REVIEW DRAFT --&1-1-9/85 PAGE C-15
This literature review includes discussions of definitions,units
of m••.•ur.,m.thod.of m•••urement,and .ff.cts of turbidity and
.u.p.nd.d m.t.rial in th.aquatic .nvironment.Ther.i.common
agr••m.nt that optical in.trum.nts provide .n inf.rr.d rath.r
th.n •direct m.a.ur.ment of .u.pended .01id••nd th.t it i •
•lmo.t impo••iblit to r.l.t••edim.nt concentr.tion••nd optical
charact.ri.tic.from on.turbidim.ter,.tandard .u.pen.ion,or
unit of mea.ur.to another.Rel.tively f.w .tudi••r.l.t.animal
re.pon...to the actual w.ight per volume concentr.tion of
particles in suspen.ion.Rath.r,th.y corr.lat.r ••pon••with
turbidity.It i.unlikely th.t th.light ab.orbin;and
.catt.ring prop.rti..of .u.pend.d particles directly .ff.ct
.nim.l..aecau••.turbidity involve.optic.l properties th.t
c.nnot b.corr.l.t.d with th.w.ight/vo1ume conc.ntration of
.u.p.nd.d mat.rial,which directly .ffect.aquatic biot.,••veral
inve.tigator..ugg••t that turbidity only b.u ••d ••a
nont.chnical d.scriptor.GraVimetric t.chniqu..probably
r.pr•••nt a more accur.t.m.a.ur.of the .ff.ct.of .u.pended
.01ids on aquatic biota while optical m.a.ur.m.nts m.y b.
pr.f.r.bl.for photo.ynth.tic or a ••thetic purpo....L.bor.tory
.xperim.nt.often do not dup1ic.te natural condition.or r.flect
n.tur.l l.v.l.of organi.m tol.r.nce to turbidity and .u.pend.d
m.t.rial.
REFERENCE.
REFERENCE
LOC~TIONI
KEY WORDS:
IMPORTANT
PAGES.
St.rn,E.M.,and W.8.Stickl.,1978.Eff.ct.of
turbidity and su.p.nd.d materi.l in aquatic environ-
m.nt..Dr.dg.d M.t.ri.l R••••rch Progr.m,Technical
R.port 0-78-21,Environm.nt.l ~abor.tory,U.S.Army
Engin••r W.t.rways Exp.riment Station,Vicksburg,
MS.117 pp.
Dou;Clark.,U.S.Army Engine.r W.t.rway.Experim.nt
St.tion,Vicksburg,MS.
~quatic Environment,Dredged Material Disposal,
Environm.ntal Eff.ct.,Su.pended ~oad,Su.p.nded
Solid.,Turbidity
2-10
The review also discusses the effects of suspended material and
turbidity on coral.,biv.lv..(clam.,oy.t.r.,mu •••ls)cop.pod.,
.nd fi.h...The di.eu••ion includ••information about effect.on
.gg.,Juv.nil••,.nd .dult org.nism••
yfct
REVIEW DRAFT ~/19/8~PAGE C-16
APPENDIX D
GENERAL LITERATURE--MARINE
The re~er.nces listed herein were reviewed by proJect team
M8mbers and JUdged to be.(1)Too ge""eral,(2)Inapplicable to
the .cope of this proJect (e.g.,related topic••uch a.
biolLogical Ufe hi.tory),(3)The information contai""ed i""a
sp~:ific re~erence wa.eKplained in More detail in one or more
of the reference.appeari""g above in AppendiK C,or,(4)Only a
smalll of the reference Na.applicable and t~i.information i.
citl~in the teKt of the report.Additionally,ref.rence.
pertaining to mea.urement.·of particulate.applying to both
fretah and lIiari~Nater are not reprinted here a.they app.ar -in
App••nd i K B.
Iqfq
REVIEW DRAFT ~i9/8e PAGE D-1
Ad ....,C.E.,.nd a.~.W••th.rly,1981.SU.P8nd.d ••dim.nt
tr.nsport and b.nthic bound.ry l.y.r dyn.mic..IDI C.A.
Nittrouar (ed.),Sediment.ry Dynamics o¥Continental
Sh.lv.s.El ••vier,Amsterd.m.
~u.tin,R.W.,1974a.Instrumentation used in turbidity measure-
m.nt.lnl Proce.dings of N.tion.l Oce.nographic
Instrumentation C.nt.r Workshop h.ld .t W.shington,D.C.on
M.y 6-8,1974.N.tion.l Oc••nogr.phic Instrument.tion
Center,Washington,D.C.pp.4~-74.
Austin,R.W.,1974b.Probl.ms in m.asuring turbidity as a w.ter
quality p.r.m.t.r.In'Proc••ding.of S.minar on M.thodo-
logy for Monitoring the Marin.Environm.nt.EPA-600/4-74-
004,Environment.l Prot.ction Agency,W••hington,D.C.pp.
a3-~4.
S.c..cu,M.,1966.An inst.nce of the .ff.ct.oh hydrot.chnical
work.on the littor.l m.rin.lif..W.ter Pollution
Ab.tr.cts,39(S)1178.
Saker,E.T.,S.A.Cannon,and H.C.Curl,Jr.,1983.Partic~e
tr.n.port proc•••••in •sm.ll marin.bay.Journal of
Geophy.ic.l R....rch,IS(C14)19661-9669.
a.ker,E.T.,and H.B.Milburn,1983.An instrumant sy.tem for
the inv••tigation of particl.flux...Contin.ntal Sh.lf
R••••rch,1(4)1 42S-43S.
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