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AboutAPA4047105SOUTHMAINSTREETTK,lif"l:'=;-,sisA-z...'3,'I\(viOY.-'.-.SEATnE98104,624-5702.14March1975.,ATT:Mr.DuanePetersen,ActingChiefEnvironmentalSection.SUBJECT:InventoryandEvaluationoftheEnvironmental,AestheticandRecreationalResourcesoftheUpperSusitnaRiver,AlaskaContractNo.DACW85-74-C-0057.'Col.'CharlesA.Debelius,DepartmentoftheArmyAlaskaDistrict,Corps.ofP.O.Box7002Anchorage,Alaska99510(')LD(0N00'<toooLDLDr--(')(')Gentlemen:We.areverypleasedtopresentthecamera-readyoriginaland.threephotocopiesofourfinalreportontheenvironmental,aesthetic,andrecreationalresourcesoftheUpperSusitnaRiverandhowthesewillbeaffectedbytheconstructionofthepresentlyproposedhydroelectricsystemcomprisingfourdarnsandtheirreservoirs.Wehavegreatlyenjoyedthecooper-ationofyourstaffoverthepastmonths,andespeciallythatofBillGabriel(formerChiefoftheEnvironmentalSection)duringtheformulationandinitialstagesofthisstudy.Sincehisdeparture,theprojecthasbeenveryablymanagedbyDuanePetersenwiththeassistanceofBobWienholdandMarionVarela,under·thedirectionofWeldonOpp,ChiTfofthePlanningBranch.Thisrepor~whichembodiesasWTh~aryofourfindings,wetrustwillbeausefulandmajorelementforthecomprehensiveiiiLANDSCAPEARCHl'fECTUREENVIRON~lENTAlPLANNINGUR8ANDESIGN.ARCHITECTURE l4March1975Page'2.'.".;.(, ,..:.,t·...'~--':.Respectfullysubmitted,"'~l~">0~~~:\"",Grant~.J~ne,'pr~~ciP~l"JONES&JONES'GRJ:dsEncl.'.:.riv ABSTRACT•-;-2".:.::;",".'.~.TheUpperSusitnaRiver,midwaybetween.-.-.AnchorageandFairbanks,possessessignificanthydro~electricresourceswhichhavefiguredprominentlyinmid-aridlong"::rangeplanning--fo-rpro~isionofel~ctricalpmqertoAla~ka's-rapidlygr~V1ing-Railbelt.Presentlyproposedhydropowe-rdeV:elopIlle'ntoftheUppersusi-t~-;'-wouldbein:Ltiatedbya-po,';er'·dam-i~-l~~erDe"n~~~yonnea~Goldcre~k/-followedbytheco~structio;of--.a---'-----regulatingdamr;,earthepr-esentDenaliHighwaybridge._.Eventual.fulldevelopmentwouldthenadddamsatVee-Canyonand_theWatanasite,downstreamfromDeadman'Creek.TheconsultantswereretainedbytheArmyCorps.ofEngineers,AlaskaDistrict~toinventorytheexisting-environmental,aestheticandrecreationalresourcesoftheriver;andtoevaluatetheeffectsoftheproposedfour,damsandtheirreservoirsupontheseresources.Therivercorridorwasclassifiedintodiscrete.segmentstospatiallylocateresourcesandeffects,_andtofacilitatesite-specificreco~~endations.Thisclassifi-cation_wasgeneratedfromanestedsetofpatterns.definedbyphysiqgraphyandgeologyaswellascharacter-isticsoftheriver,notablychanneltypeandmajortri-butaries.Existingnatural,culturalandaestheticre-.sourceswerequantitativelyinventoriedineachsegment;however,riversegmentscouldnotbedirectlycomparedonthebasisofresourcemagnitudebecausefundamentallydifferentlandscapetypeswererepresented.Instead,'buildingonpreviousworkbytheconsultan-tsandothers,comparabili-ty'wasachievedwithoutrelianceonparadigmlandscapesbydevisingcomponentmeasuresofresourceimportance.Incombination,thesemeasuresquan-tifiedv-. ~J,(i,~,.j..•.{I,.'fit,;II>I.!t...~,C,"'..-..'..'..~-.,"---.,werethenassessed,beforeandafter,intermsof:.~_::....-7'••••environmentalconstraintsonrecreationactivitiesgrouped'byrelativeimpact.Whileits·performance"_.,••_._...:.;..~••-'._•__,~r"._.,_.'••._wasoutsidethescopeofthisstudy,projectionofrecreationuseisdiscussed.Itwill,requireacon-ceptualrecreationplan,andaregionalanalysisofcompetingrecreationalopportunities.;.'-theextenttowhichnaturalprocessescharacteristicofeachlandscapetype,vereoperative(Na·turalvalue).andvisuallyexpressed(AestheticValue),beforeandafterthedams.Together,thesetwomeasuresweretakentoindicaterelativeEnvironmentalQuality,consideredin·termsoflandscapehealthandintegrity.Effectsonrecreati~~alvalues(Recreati~n·Suitability)MajoradverseeffectsonAestheticValuewereidentified,·particularlyfortheDevilCanyonandVeedams'.EarlierstudiesfindingtheUpperSusi,tnaProjectto'havefeweradverseeffectsonfishandwildlifethanotherhydroelectricalternativeswereingeneralconfirmea;althoughhighrelativeimpactswithinthestudyarea.andpotentiallysevereeffectsupontheregionallysignificantNelchinacaribouherdwerefound.Miti-.gationmaybepossibleinbothcases,dependentupon',......suggestedfurtherdesignstudies.Areaswherelackofinformationrequiresadditionalfieldstudieswerealsoidentified.Themethodologyofthestudyisthoroughlyexplainedinthetextandappendices,andanextensivebibliographyisintendedtosupportfurtherenviron."Ilen·talstudiesofthisandsimilarAlaskanprojects..lvi..--_._'-----~----_.__..---_._,,-.'..-.-------~---_-----~--_.-.. _TABLEOFCONTENTSIntroduction1Susi-tna_BasinDescription.-~"--.....".-~-.13.--.-....-.~,.,:,.~:III.StudyMethodology.•...;;;..:.'-~.~-.-....---ExistingConditionsWithin-theStudyArea'109IV.V.'.'.::;-;..FutureConditionsWithintheStudyArea,",-?':.::~~~'~::'-F~:-:.~...__.",:.,"'-.131.-j:lVI.,-...,~.ResourcesofRegionalSignificance179.-:'.'.VII.-ConflictsandInteractionsAppendixA:AcknowledgmentsAppendixB:MatricesAppendixC:DataCodingRulesAppendixD:Geology~APpendixE:Bibliographyvii191215219257.297.'-' II.SUSITNABASINDESCRIPTIONGEOLOGY.,•••".•••c-TheUpperSusitnaRiverregionisageologically.....-complexarea..Ithasundergonesubsiden.ce,·marinedeposi':".tion,volcanic.intrusion,mountainbuilding,andconsider-.ableerosion:·:·The·presen'i::valleyanduplandformistheresultof''marlY''co~piexprocesses;thegeomorphological.~-'~'".'"...~'..........".,features..are,'.inlarge'part,theresultan·texpression•'-.• •''',',F,_ofstructuralcontrols,mostnotablyblockfaulting•....~_..~.'.,.•.~_~..."_~"'_"""'~_T&_""'sincemuchoftheUpperSusitnaRiveroccupies......a.deep',entirelystreamcutvalley,itisageologicallyuniquefeatureinanareaoftheworlddominatedbyglaciallycarved,broadU-shapedvalleys.AbriefsummaryofthegeologyoftheUpperSusitnabasinisprovidedhere,whileamorecompletedescriptionisincludedintheappendices..,.....Theoldestrocksknownintheareaarepaleozoicvolcanics,whichformthebasestrataor"terrane"'I'1hichlaterstrataoverlie."Followingtheestablishmentofthesebasestrata,depositionofsand-·.stonesandshales(clastics)interbeddedwithsubmarinelavaflowsindicatesthatthestudyareawasbelowsealevelduringtheTriassicandearlyJurassicperiods(fig.la).Massiveintrusionsofgraniticrock,beginninginthelatterperiod,warpedandliftedtheregion:TheupliftingcontinuedduringtheCretaceousperiodandtheSusitnaRiverdrainagebecameestablished(fig,lb).DuringtheearlyTertiary,upliftingcontinuedanderosionwassevere,evidencedbytheexposedPaleozoicrocksin13 Ii~I\I~\~~?l~~~)ti,,{/u~1(~~!'JI,;flll/((ll,M:~b®Nw.:idl:?-~~.A1I'/.~~P~U7~FIGURELINFERREDHISTORICGEOLOGY:14\(..(~.(, themid-sectionoftheuppersu~Hna'-(fig,Ieandfig.3).Theeast-westportionoftherivermaywellhavechangeditsdirectionofflowseveraltimesduringthisperiOdofwarpingandblockfaul'ting,assuggestedbyseveral"barbed",tributaries,enteringatmorethana90degreeangle."~"',",-..""."''.:':',":.,"".('"Fromthelate'Tertiary(post-Pliocene)totheearlyquaternaryperiods,vigorousmountain-buildingtookplace,attendedbyseverefaulting.Several,exten-sivesouthwes~-trendingfaults,includingthemajorSusitnaFault,wereinturntruncated,bythearcuateDena.liFaultduringthistimespan(fig.'Idandfig.2).Evidenceoffaultingcanbereaddirectlyinanumber""ofstrikingriveroffsetsontheUpperSusitna.Extensiveglaciationalsooccurredinthisperiod,planingthemountaintopstoarela'tivelyevenelevation.During,thePleistoceneepoch(fig,Ie)theentireareawascoveredwithice,Whilethelessexten-',siverecentglaciationsallowedthecentralandeasternportionsofthestudyareatobefilledbyanenormousproglaciallake(fig.If),Themorainenorthofthislakebedenclosesasecondareaofglaciolacustrinedepositsfromabodyofwateroncebackedupbehindtheterminalmoraine(fig.3).TheDenaliDamwouldrestore'thissmallerlakeforpartoftheyearbypluggingthepassagebreachedbytheSusitna,'Thestreamcutportionsoftherivervalleydownriverfromthemajorlakebedareaarecharacterizedbystronglydefinedterracesalternating\d,throck-boundwalls,ofwhichthemostprominentarethoseortheDevilCanyongorge.15 .FIGURE2.PERTINENTALASKAN'FAULTS(A.E.I.D.C.~ISOUTHCENTRALREGION,1974).,I:,.",...-GEOLOGYLEGENDA =ALLUVIUMG =GLACIOFLUVIALGc=GLACIOLACUSTRINEM =MORAINEI =INTRUSIVESMc=MET~lORPHOSEDCLASTICSS =SANDSTONES,SHALES&INTERBEDDEDVOLCANICSP=PALEOZOICCONTINENTALTERRANE16;I,II\ii!i,;\!iI,!It,!I".,IIi/i (11111~"....]fJ.',])]]JJJ17GEOLOGYOFTim'UPPER-SUSITNARI~~f"- CLIHATEFew.systematicrecordsofclimateareavailablefortheUpperSusitnabasinitself,but·theregionis·bracketedbythesta·tionsatTalkeetna,Summit,PaxsonandGulkana•..TheclimateoftheareaisTransitional,beingsometimesundertheinfluenceofocean-moderated;moistHaritime.Zoneweather,'andatotherperi'ods::subjecttothetemperatureextremesofthedryContinentalZoneclimate.TemperatureextremesaregenerallysomewhatlessthanintheContinental.Zone,andaveragemaximums.and.minimumsshowconsiderably'lessrangethanContinentalaverages.Nevertheless,theclimateissevereandfreeze-thaw(periglacial)processesplayamajorroleinmasswasting,accentuatedbysolaraspect,ele~ation,andproximitytotheAlaskaRange.HYDROLOGY'ThestudyarealieswithintheSouthcentralRegion,thefifthofsixhydrologicregionsdefinedinAlaskaonthe'basisofdrainageandclimate.Inthiscase·theclimateisamixtureofMaritimeandTransitional,andthedividerunsupthecrestoftheWrangells,alongtheAlaskaRange,.anddowntheAlaskaPeninsula.ThethreemajordrainageswithinthisregionareKodiakIslandandthenarrowstripoflandalongtheeasternedgeofthePeninsula,theSusitnaandthe'CopperRivers.TheUpperSusitnaRiveritselfdrainsanareaofsome5930squaremilesbetweentheheadwaterdividesandtheGoldCreekbridge.Countingthethreetributaryforksseparately,thereareapproxlmately200linearmiles19 ofriverinthisarea.Theriverisswiftandsilt--laden,butmostof-itstributarie?areclear,except-forthe.turbid11.aclarenandtheOshetna.ThestreamsbelowtheTyonedropdowntotheSusitnafromitsancientterraces,carryingmassesofcobblesand'small.boulderswiththem.Above,atterracelevel,manyofthese,streamsarequiteflatandevenmeandering.:.Thislowerportionof.thewatershedispredominantlywell-drained.·soilsorrocky,uplands;.permafrost..0"0-isthereforediscontinuous..andli·ttlegroundwaterisavailable.>.Inthe·lakebed-andmorainedepositsbegin-ningaboveVeeCanyon,permafrostiscontinuousandgroundwater.suppliesarealsorelativelylow,althoughsurfacewateriseverywhereinevidence.Soilsareyoungandlittledeveloped,dominatedbydrainage,slopeandparent.material.Intheflatlakebedup-riverareas,drainageispoorduebothtothefinenessoftheparentmaterialandtopermafrost,andextensivepeaty,wetareasoccur.Theseareascouldposeproblemsforroadandrecrea·tionfacilityconstruction.VEGETATIONThepatternofstudyareavegetationsimpli-_->fiesbothwithaltitudeand~.,ithdistanceup-river..At.GoldCreek;thebottomland(MajorEcosystemsofAlaska)forest.ofwhitespruceandblackcottonwoodisverymuchinevidenceonwell-drainedbanks.Allofthemajorassociationtypes,withtheexceptionofthecoas·talhemlock-spruceforest,occurinlargeorsmallareasalonggradientsofdrainageoraltitude.Ascen-dingtheriver,blackcottonwooddropsouttobereplaced20I!t1!!ti!,.,.i-, bybalsampoplararoundFogandTsusenaCreeks.Thenhardwoodsandwhitesprucebecomelessandlessinevidence,butstilloccurinsmallstandson,.e11-drained,riverbarsandtributaryfansuntilButteCreek.Pastthistributaryonlyblacksprucestandsoccur,up,to,.theglaciersthemselves.TheImqerhill-sidesarecoveredinlowbrushwithmoisttundrainlowareas.Theperiodicallyfloodedriverflatsare-.-.inwillowandsedges~highbrushandwettundra.Sin~eso~uchofthedrainage--basinisuplands,'alpinetundraisone'ofthemostprominentvegetationtypes:-FAUNA..-'-,..-.,'..',',-.'PerhapsthemostsignificantwildliferesourceinthestudyareaistheNelchinacaribouherd,apopulationdefinedbyitscommoncalvinggroundonthesouthsideoftheSusitnaintheuplandsabovetheKosinaCreekconfluence.Thisnerd,amajorrecre-ationalresourceintheSouthcentralReglon,declin~dintenyearsfromapopulationhighofaround71,000in1962(Bos,1972)tobetween6500(McIlroy,1974)and8100,(Bas,'1974).This.spectaculardeclineis.tracedtoanumberoffactors;'initialoutmigrationmay'hav~startedtheprocess(Bos,1972).Badweatherand,overhuntingappeartohavebeenthemajorfactorsintheaccelerationofthedecline.Accesstothebackcountryimproveddramaticallywiththe.introductionofthesnowmobileandhunterswereabletoincreaseandstabilizetheirkillinthefaceofarapidlydecliningpopulation.Finally,drasticallyreducedhuntingseasonswereimposedwhicheffectivelyprecludeuseofsnovmobiles.Baglimitswerealsoreducedtooneanimalandsomeareasofthegamemanagementunitclosed21 tohuntingentirelyonaneme~gencybasis.Anincreas-ingnumberofhuntersuseall-'terrainvehicles'toget'inandoutoftheback-coun'try,frequen'tlytravelingseveraldaystoreachtheirintendedhuntingarea;eventually,thismodeofaccessmayhavetobecon--,.trolled"aswell(theCleanlater110untitinsarealready,closedtohuntersdependingonmotorizedtransport).«.;.Mooseareprominent<inthe'''watershed,buttoohave.declinedsharplyfrompreviouspopulation.,,highs.Weather,wolfpredation,.andunbalancedage-,.'-sexratioshaveallbeenblamedforthedecline.SeveralsmallpopulationsofDallsheepclingtolocalizedhabitatsintheareawhilemountaingoatsapparentlydonotoccuratallwi,thinthe'\va'ter-shed.Grizzliesarefairlynumerousdespitetheabsenceofsa]~on,andwolves,wolverine,blackbears,etc.areknmvntoexist'\vithinthewa'tershed,al'thoughlittl,edetailedinformationisavailable.Thesmallerfur-bearersarealsopresent.The'east-weststretchoftheSusitnaisusedasafly>vaybywaterfowl,butthemajorwaterfowlnestingareasareonthelakesoftheCopperRiver,Lowland(lakebed)regionandinthedrainedpondsandlakesoftheflatGooseIslandareajustabove'the,terminalmorainewheretheDenalidamisnowproposed.Abroadvarietyofwaterfowlusethisarea,probably,includingsometrumpeterswans.~..."':" '!~I!,if,I..!,!,,cRaptorsoccurthroughoutthestudyarea,bu·tindecreasingnumbersinthelmvers'tre'tchesoftheriver(-thesestre'tchesarelessproductiveof\·,ildlifeingeneral).Asurveyofcliff-nestingraptorsdeterminedthatpopu-i,22 lationdensitiesofthesebirdsarelowandthatnoperegrinefalconsappeartonestalongtheUpperSusitna.SalmonspawninnumbersinIndianRiverandPortageCreekbutcannottraverseDevilCanyon.Whilesomefreshwaterfishapparentlyinhabitthe·mainstemoftheSusitnaabovethispoint,its··,tribu-.,.~..-.~..,tariesaretoosteepforsignificantfishpopulations~...~-."-untiltheTyoneisreached,.whe.r.etheSusitnai.sonlyshallowlyentrenched.Someoftheuppersectionsofthesetributarieshowever,suchasDeadmanCreek,supportveryfinegraylingpopulations.Laketroutarealsoprominentinmanyoftheterraceanduplandlakesanddrainedponds.LakeLouise,whichdrainsintotheSusitnaviaSusitnaLakeandtheTyoneRiver,isespeciallynotedforitslaketroutandburbotpopu-·lations.AlloftheriversandstreamsfromtheTyonetoNindy··Creeksupportfishpopulations;severalminorunnamedstreamswithflatgradientsin·theheadwa·tersareacontainquitesuprisingnumbersofgrayling.HISTORYTheUpperSusitnahasal·ongbu·tonly_.partiallyknot~prehistory.ExtensivearcheologicalremainshavebeenfoundintheTangleLakesareaontheMaclaren,andtheareahasbeenenteredontheNationalHistoricRegister.Theremainsareapparently,associatedt.,iththelargeproglaciallake·thatexistedduringandafterthelastglaciationandaccordinglyda·tebacksome10·to12,000years.Itisreasonable~toexpectfurtherremainstobefoundaroundthelake-bedmarginswheninvestigationsareeventuallymade.23 IntheperiodjustbeforecontactwithEuropeans,.theUpperSusitna~v-asapparentlya·mee·tinggroundormarginalareabetweenthreegroupsofAthapaskanpeoples-theTanaina,UpperTanana,andAhtna,\'Ihileallthreegroupsundoubtedlyhuntedcaribouthrough-outthearea,asdidthefirstresidents,··theydidnotinhabittheareaperma~ently,.TheTanaina·werethemostseden-taryofallAthapaskanpeoples,havingadoptedmanyofthe-c'ulturalpa·tterns·ofth~riverine'-'EskimoswhoweretheirneighborsonCookInlet'(Osgood)"Theygainedmuchoftheirsustenancefromthe.seaandanotherlargeportionfromthesalmonoftheSusitnaandMatanuska,TheUpperTananaandAhtnawereappar-ently"restricted,v-anderers"(Vanstone)~v-hotraveledover.theirterritoryinamoreorlessfixedseasonalround.Whilecaribouwereanimportantpartoftheirdiet,salmonfiguredasevenmoreimportant.AccordinglytheUpperSusitnawasvisitedonlyforrelatively.shortperiods.TheRussiandiscoveryofAlaskafundamentallybutindirectlychangedthelivesofthesepeoples.TheAhtnaalongtheCopperandtheTanainaontheSusi~naforciblyresistedRussiansettlementintheirareas,ButtheydidacceptRussiantradegoodsandgraduallygaveuptheirmaterialcultureforEuropeanutensils,clothing,andtoacertainextent~.food.Theyobtainedthesegoodsbyshiftingfromsubsistencehuntingoffoodanimalstothetrappingoffurbearers,manyspeciesofwhichwererelativelyvaluelessforfood,.Theyalsosettledpermanentlyneartradingpostsandutilizeddistantportionsoftheir·terri·torylessfrequently.24II('1IIif.,[[I,Iit,I!.[!,,.Ii!fi,;,.! ,",,TheAmericanpurchaseofAlaskadidnot..'.~changethepa'tternofthis'"stabilizedfurtradeandmissionperiod;'"'infactitdidnotendun'tilafterWorldWarII(Vanstone)whenthefurmarketfinallycollapsed.Hmvever,graduallyatfirstand'then,vitharush;-AmericansmovedintothelandsoftheTanainaanduppe~Tana~~='..-."TheRusslanshadneverfullyexploredthehead',yatersofthe'coppera:~dsusitn~(andAmericanArmyexpeditions'fi~allyopeneduptheseregio~stogeneral,knowledge,beginningwithAlle~'sexpeditionup'the,.Copper'in1885.:'Theprospectorsfollowedandsubstan-tialamountsofgoldwerediscoveredatValdezCreekin1903,wherethetownofDenaliwasestablished.GoldwasalsominedonthesouthernedgeoftheOshetnadrainagenearNelchinaandatGoldCreek.Economicconditionsgraduallyclosedtheworkingsinthe30rsbeforethegoldranout,andrenewedactivityisnowtakingplace.In1920theAlaskaRailroadwascompleted,givinggeneralaccesstoMountMcKinleyPark,createdin1917,intheprocess.Highwaysfollowedinthe40'sand50'sandtheprimaryuseoftheareabecamerecreational,theroadapproachtoMcKinleybeingalongthe'gravelDenaliHigh,,,ayuntiltherecentcomple'tionoftheAnchorage-FairbanksHighway.CURRENTLANDUSEANDLANDSTATUSTheusesmadeofthestudyareanowarepredomina.ntlyrecreationalandarehighlyseasonal.No25 significantyear-roundhabitationisknown'toexistinthewatershedaboveGoldCreek.SeverallodgesarescatteredalongtheshoresofLakeLouiseandthatareahasbeenopened'torecrea-tionaldevelopment.Susi-tnaLodgeandGraciousHousearesitedattheDenaliSusitnarivercrossing;thesecaterprimarilytohunters,fishermenandgeological,partiessince'theMt.McKinleytraffichasfallen,off.However,considerablechan~esinlandu~emayoccursoon,spurredbytheAlaskaNativeClaimsSettle-,mentActof1971.ThelandalongtheAnchorage-FairbanksHighwayhasbeenselectedbytheStateandhasbeendesignatedastheNewCapital,corridor(fig.4).Threesiteclustershavebeenidentified,atPalmer,TalkeetnaandNenana.AnAnchorage-Fairbankspbwerintertie,tb~getherwiththeCapitalRelocation,willundoubtedlyspurdevelopmentinthiscorridorandintensifyrecre-ationalandotherusepressuresintheUpperSusitnabasin.ThelandaroundtheDenalicrossingmaywellbeavailableforuse,sinceitisind-lstatusandwillbeclassifiedandmanagedbytheB.L.M.However,.theuseofthelandalongtherivercorridorbetweentheDenaliHighwaydownstreamalmosttoGoldCreekisproblematical,forthislandisnoweligiblefornativeselection,muchofitbytherelativelyland-shortCookInletNativeAssociation,Inc.(fig.5).Ifhydroelectricdevelopment-takesplace,jurisdictionalquestionswillhavetoberesolved,preferablyincooper-ationwithne,..privatem..ners.Developmen'tofrecre-ationqpportunitiesmaytakequiteoppositedirections,dependingonthefinaljurisdictionaldispositionof26i,,!ltc:,:If.;t-,,( ;FIGURE4.REGIONALACCESSIItheselands.·Therivercorridorcouldbecomeafocusofrelativelyhigh-intensityrecreationaldevelopment\ringedbymountainchainspreservedinwildernesscondition.Ortherivercorridor.mightbemaintainedinastateofsemi-wilderness,managedbyaccessrestric-tions.27 oFIGURE5.1974LANDO\~ERSHIPSTATUS28!~..,-~.i.~.-c{ III.~ffiTHODOLOGYThemethodologyofthisstudy,theseriesofstepsbywhichitsconclusionshavebeenreached,isdiagrammedinfigure"6.Thediscussionofmethod-ologyinthischapterfollowsthisoutline.Therewere,ofcourse;"feedbackloopsbebveenmanyofthestepswhichare"omittedinthediagramforclarity:..-.~fuilethemethodologydiddevelopandevolveduringthestudyas"specificstepswerecarriedout,theoutlineandorderofthestepsis"accurate.STUDYAREA.::;.This"assessmentdealswiththeresourcesoftheupperSusitnaRiver,fromitsheadwatersatthemouthsofthreeglaciersintheAlaskaRangetotheGoldCreekrailroadbridge,some200rivermilesdown-stream."Therecreationalandaes"theticimpactsoftheproposedhydroelectricdamsandtheirreservoirsareco"nfinedtothisportionoftheriver,asaremos"t.'oftheenvironmentaleffects.TheremaybeenvironmentalimpactsassociatedwithchangesinriverflowregimebelowtheDevilCanyondam,bothwithinthestudy"areaandfurtherdownstream;however,theseareexcludedfromthisassessment,asaretheeffectsofthepowertransmissionsystemwhich,muldbranchofffromGold""CreektowardAnchorageandFairbanks(seethesectionFutureConditionsAssessed).Withinthisleng"thof"theSusitna,theresourcesoflandsinfluencingorinfluencedbytheriverare29 jc,,IjI,~FIGURE6.STUDYMETHODOLOGY,c,c,( evaluated~Physically,thisincludesalllandsdrainingintotheupperSusitna:itswatershed.Hmvever,_inordertoincludeallterrain\"hichcontri-butestoriverexperience,wemustlookbeyondthephy~icalterritoryofthewa-tershedto-thevisualdomainoftheriveraswell.Thisvisualdomainwewilltermtheviewshed.Boththewatershedandtheviewshedcanbemappedspa-tially,.andthehlOtogetherdefinetheouterlimitsofthestudyarea.:,;.~;'..-RIVERCLASSIFICATIONToprovideaframeworkforassessment,theriverhasbeensubdividedandclassified_intosegments.Thisframeworkmakesitpossibletospatiallylocateresourcesandvaluesbeforeandafterconsiderationofthedams;thisinturnisnecessarytocomparetheeffectsofthelowdamsandtobegintosuggestlocationsfortheancillaryfacilitiesthatmust_eventuallybeplannedfortheproject.Theclassificationofriversegmentsis"organizedintofourhierarchicallevels,andisbasedonthecharacteristicsoftheriveritselfandthelandscapewhichitdrainsandthroughwhichitpasses.Thefirstandhighestlevelistha-tof-therealmoftheentireupperSusitna,consideredasawhole.Atthesecondlevel,theriverhasbeendividedinto_regions,basedonthephysiographyofthesurroundingterrain.HerewehavefollowedWahrhaf-tig,,-,hohasdividedAlaskainto12physiographicprovinceswith60phy-siographicsections.TheSusitnalieswithinthecoastalT~oughProvinceandportionsof6sectionsfall31; withinthewatershedoftheupperriver(seefigure7).Thesesectionsaresetapartbycharacteristictopographyandlandforms,inferringadegreeofuniformityinthelithologyandgeologichis·torywithineachuni·t....(thecorrelationbetweenphysiographyandgeologycanbe'no·tedbycomparingfigures.7and3')•..Eachriverregionhasbeengiventhe.nameofthephysiographicsectionthroughwhichitflows.Thereachisthethirdlevelofriverclassificationandisdefinedbytheinteractionbetweenphysiographyandriverchannelpattern.Anunderstandingofthefourbasicrecognizedchannelpa·tternsorzones(Leopold,etaI,i964)isfilndamentalto:any'classificationofriverenvironments.Eachdistinctchannelpatternisbasedontherelationshipbetweenthe.cohesivenessofthematerialthroughwhichthechanneLiscut,andthestream'sdischarge.Everyriverintheworldmaynotexhibiteachofthefourchannelpatternzonesandthezonesarenotalwaysinthesamesequence:thefixedchannel~maynotappearinamatureriverflowingacrossaplain,abraidedchannelzonemayflowintoafixedchannelzoneatawaterfall,oraloopedmeanderchannelzonemaybecomeasteeperbraidedchannel~downstream,thebranched.channelzonemaynotoccuratallinyoungriverstumblingdirectlyintoseasorlakes.Further,eachchannel.zonecontainsitsown'characteristicresourcesandcannotbedirectlycomparedwithanotherzone.'Someof"-thetypical'attributesofthefourzonesare:'FixedChannelZoneseriesofnearlys·traight,non-meandering'channelpaths32(\. 11111JJ]1JJJIFIGURE7.PHYSTOGRAPHICSECTIONSlW'DRfv'd'CHAmJELTYPES.' islandsveryrar.enarrowvalleyfloor,littleornofloodplaincobblesandbouldersprevalentturbulent,noisystreamflow,rapidsandwaterfalls,movingbouldersandcobblesofconsiderablesizefrequentlyveryenclosedlandscapeofhighcontrastsoftensteep,scenicheadwatersinmountainous°area..,:....BraidedChannelZonebraidedchannelsandsmallmeandersmanyislandsvalleyfloorwidensfromFixedZone,floodplaindevelops°moderatestreamgradientsands,gravelandcobblesprevalent,bankserodiblepoolsoandriffles,infrequentrapids,materialinsuspension,transportationexpansivevie\.sacrosswidestreamwaibeachesandbarsidealforrecreation,canoeingandboating-0LoopedMeanderChannelZoneSinuousmeanderingsinglechannel,mayhaveshortstraightportionsoccasionalislandswidefloodplainvalleymoderatetolowstreamgradientsiltandsanddepositionsmooth,quietrivercurrentopenviewspaths,biketrailsandpicnicspotspossiblealongriver'sedge35 BranchedChannelZoneseveraldistributingtidalchannelsmanywatercourseswidefloodplainandtidalflats,oftenestuarinemarshesnearlyflatstreamgradientmudflatsandsilts,infrequentlysandscurrentmaychangedirections,backflowingwithrisingtides,finaldepositionof.loadwideopenviewsacrossflatwetlandswaterfowl,fish,andotherwildlIfe;highlyproductivenaturalareaOntheupperS~sitria(figure7 )thereareseveraldeparturesfromtheclassicsequenceoffixed-braided-loopedmeander-branchedchannel.zones.Theseapparentanomaliesreflecttheriver'sownindividual-izedcharacter.Theyarealsoclues,aspreviouslydiscussed,.tothegeologichistoryofthelandscape·throughwhichtheSusitnapassesandwhichithashelpedtoform.Inbrief,theriverrisesinaproglacialchannel(invertedfari)zone,visuallyanalogous·tothe·branchedchannelzone.ThisisadeparturenotunusualamongAlaskanriversemergingfromglaciers.Thegradientsinthiszoneofheadwatercollectorchannelsareamongthesteepestontheriver,theexactoppositeofthosetypicalofestuarinedistributariesatrivermouths;however,the,gradientsareveryevenand.thiszonelooksverybroadandflattotheeye.TheSusitna·thenpassesthroughbraidedandmeanderedzones,butbecomesingrowninthelakebedsedimentsoftheCopperRiverLowland,hintingatrela-tivelyrecentupliftinthisregion.Theriverflowsin36(~ afixedchannelzonethroughVeeCanyon,whereitissubjecttostructuralcontrol,andthenbraidsephemerallyinitsdeepV-shapedvalleywhereitmaybeaggradingi-tsbed.Inperiodsoflmvwa-tertheriverissomewha-tundersizedforitsstreamwayandflowsinseveralshiftingchannels.Thegradientthensteepensagain_andtheSusltnarushesforwardintoDevilCanyon,atextbookexampleofafixedchannel.TheriverresumesitsephemeralbraidinguponemergingfromtheCanyonandfinallytakesuptheconven-tionalchannelzonesequencefromhere-tothesea.Fourteenriverreacheshavebeenidentifiedbysuperimposingthissequenceofchannelzonesontopoftheriverregionsdefinedbyphysiography.Thefourthandmostfine-grainedlevelofriverclassificationistherun.Theidentificationofrunsisbasedonananalysisoftributarys-treamorders,furtherrefinedbyconsiderationoftheorienta-tionoftherivercorridoranditsspa-tialcharacter.Hherever,inareach,the"sense-of-place"becomesdistinctlydiffer-ent,anindividualrunhasbeenidentified.Itisnotablethatthedifferentiationbetweenrunswithinareachisusuallytraceabletoeitherageologicfeature(forexample,avalleyfault)ortheentranceofamajortri-butary.TheUpperSusitnahasbeenclassifiedinto28runs(seetable1).37 iITABLE1("SUSITNARIVERCLASSIFICATIONRegion/ReachRunLengthGradient(milo'(ft/mi)FOGLA..T<ESUPLANDGOLDCREEKINDIANRIVER8.0015.0PORTAGECREEK5.2517.1DEVILCANYONLOWERDEVIL..6.25.'20.8UPPERDEVIL'.4.5015.6o.STEPHANLASTCHANCE4.50.31.1STEPHAN°LAKE8.5014.1TSUSENA/FOGCRKS.6.3012.7FOGLAKESDEADM..l\.NCREEK4.7012.8WATANACREEK7.509..3CENTRALTALKEETNAMTNS.(.WATANAMT.NATANA5.5010.9'-.KOSINACREEK6.0010.0CLARENCEL.'l.KEUPLANDCLARENCEJAYCREEK7.5013.3VEECANYON9.5016.8COPPERRIVERLOWLANDTYONEOSHETNARIVERTYONERIVER10.609.8018.9.9.2 SUSITNARIVERCLASSIFICATION(Con-tinued)--Re-gion/ReachBROADPASSDEPRESSIONDENALICLEARWATERMTNS.MIDDLEFORKEASTFORKWESTFORKRunWINDY/BUTTECRKS.VALDEZCREEKRUSTYHILLBOULDERCREEKSUSITNAGLACIERLOWERE.FORKUPPERE.FORKLOWERW.FORKUPPERW.FORKLen-gth(mi)4.247.2510.503.758.507.255.256.50_5.50Gradient(ft/mi)4.7---5.55.75.315.320.7- -34.312.341.86 /l428199.85mi10.5ft/miThelandsalongtheriveralsohadtobedemarcatedintozonestotransformthislinearriversegmentationinto-aspatialframeworkforanalysis.Twooverlappingspatialframeworkswereactuallydeveloped,oneforthematerialinventoryofnaturalandculturalresources,andonefor_theperceptualinventoryofaestheticresources.Assuggestedearlier,thebasesforthesetwoinventorieswerethewatershedandtheviewshed.Thelatterwasdefinedasthevisualdomainoftheriver.Morespecifically~itincludesalllandswhichcanbeseenfromtheriverviewingcorridor.39 Theselandslieinseveraldiscretezones(figure8).Includedinthecoterminousviewshedzoneareallvisiblelandswhicharecontiguous,i.e.,thelandscapeextendingfromtherivertothefirsttopographicsigh"tlineinter~ruptionorcrestoneachsideoftheriver.Withinthiszone,thoselandsvisiblefromtheriverweretermedtheprimaryviewshed.Giventheprominenceof,terracesontheUpperSusitna,theimportanceofthewildlifeand"otherresourcesortheseterracestothe"visualexperi-enceoftheriver,andtheprevalenceoflight"aircraftinAlaskantransportation,""thedefinitionof"theviewingcorridorwasexpandedtoincludetheairspacewithintherivervalleyfromtherivertoanelevation.justabovetherimofthefirstterrace.Theadditionalcoterminousterracelandscapenotvisiblefromthesurfaceoftheriveritselfiscalledthesupportingviewshed(muchofthissub-zonewouldbecomepartoftheprimaryviewshedfromthe,proposedreservoirs).Thevisualresourcesofthecoterminouszone,comprisingthesetwosub-zones,areallocatedtotheriverruntowhichthelandsareadjacent.FIGURE8.VIEWSHEDSTRUCTURE40'(\.(( ,/,Thesecondaryviewshedzoneincludesallthenon-contiguouslandsvisiblefromtheviewingcorridorwhicharewithinthestudyareawatershed;fromagivenrun,italsoincludesthevisibleportionsofthecoter-minouszonesofadjacentruns.Thetertiaryviewshedisdefinedsimilarlyforvisiblelandsoutsidethe,watershedoftheUpperSusitna.Viewshedzoneshavebeenfurtherdifferentiatedbythesideoftheriveronwhichtheyoccur,lookingdownstream.Neitherthesecondarynortertiaryzoneshavebeenallocatedtoindividualriverruns,althoughthiscanbedonebymappingtheviewshedofeachrunsepara'tely.Thiswasunnecessaryforthisstudybecausethevisualeffectsof'thedamsandreservoirswillbeconfinedtotherivercorridor.However,itwouldbeadvisabletomaketheadditionaldifferentiationwhenassessingthevisualeffectsofalternativeaccessroador'trans-missionlinecorridors.TheviewshedclassificationoftheUpper'Susitnahasbeenmappedinfigure9.Theinnerboundarylineisthatofthecoterminousviewshedanditsconti-guityisevident.Someapparentlycontiguouslandsarenotvisiblefromtherunadjacentandarethereforenotincludedwithinthecoterminouszone.Dashedlinesindicateanindefiniteboundary,andoutwardpointingarrowsindicatetheexpansivenessofcertaincoterminousviewsheds,delimitedonlybyveryslighttopography.Theouterwatershedboundaryisindicated,differenti-atingthesecondaryandtertiaryviewsheds.Theleftsideoftheriverisonthenorthandwest.41 figure10sided,was.riverrunThewatershedclassifica-tionismappedinThisclassifica-tion,alsoleftandright:-derivedbymapping·thewatershedofeachalongtheUpperSusitna.Thewatershedsofthe28runswerefurtherdifferentiatedintoprimary-.'and.secondarywa-tershedzones,basedon-their_rela-tiveinfluenceontheriverandviceversa.Thepri~~ry-'watershedzonewasdefined'asthatportionofthewatershedoverlapped,bythecoterminousviewshedofthatrun.Thus,consideringleftandrightsides,thereare28x 2~56primarywater;hedzonesin:theclassificati~n.Ofthese,14zonesareentirelycontainedwithinthecoterminousviewshed,sothereare42secondarywater-shedzones.42i,,(( _Riverviewshed·legend(LOOKINGDOWNRIVER)RIGHTSIDE--,--:LEFTSIDEI10UN'l'1\ItIS(BORDERING)/-~---~,,-....~.....rII1-,'-......PlI\Il--J\-~v'.\'-,\,,I)//..../1-C;'\...\•(\"--'\.\\\\1,I\~.f\I'-'-.,--.".,/I.,._--J-\1I"\\_--/-l.r-----.JTALKEETNAOVERALL~ATERSHBDBOUHDARYTERTIARYVIEWSHED-----,(DISTANTPEAKSORRM1GES)SECONDARYVIEWSHED--------,(tlIDGROUNDRELIEF)COTERHHlOUSVIE\'1SHED_,.42-1 Riverwatershed.legend((LOOKINGDOWNRIVER).LEFTSECONDARYZONE~__LEFTPRIMARYZONERIGHTPRIMARYZONE------------~RIGHTSECONDARYZONE--------~OVERALLWATERSHEDBOUNDARY--~42-2 JJFIGURE9R~RVIEWSHEDCLASSIFICATIQN RIVERWATERSHEDEiSSIFTCAcTIC>NFIGURE1045 DATABASENatural/CulturalResourcesandVisualResources.Havingdevelopedahierarchyofriversegmentsrit,vaspossibletoproceedeffectivelywiththeiiJ.ven'toryofUpperSusitnaresources.Theseweredividedattheou'tse'toftheinven'toryin'totwogroups:visualresourcesandnatural/culturalresources.Informationonthefirstgroup,thedatabasefortheaestheticaspessmentrhadtobegatheredprimarilyinthefieldahdfromanexten-sivesliderecordofthefieldreconnaissance.Dataonthesecondgroupofresources,thebasefordeter-miningna'turalandculturalvaluerwereacquiredinlargedegreefrompublishedmaterialandinterviews.Theorganizationofeachdatabaseisverysimilar,derivingfromtheconceptualdatastructuredisplayedinfigure11.Thegeneralorganizationofthedatabasesforthenatural/culturalresourcesandvisualresourcesisshowninfigures12and13.Flour"11CONCEPTUALDATASTRUC,UREL A N D SC A P ETERRAINIC0VE RPhysical,BiologicalCulturalgeologicIelimaticlhYdrOlogicedaphicIbotanicIZOOlogicstruct~rcllsocialFigure1?NATURALICULTURALRESOURCESDATABASE;Physical.IBiologicalCulturalgeol09iclclimatic!hydrOlo~Phiclbotani~TzoologichumanuseFiaure13VISUALRESOURCESDATABASETERRAIN1COVER,INatural,IICulturallandformskyform~lwaterformvege,tationIwildlifestructures47 Resourceswereinventoriedatfourordinallevelsofmagni,tude,andthisinforma'tionwas'recorded,again,intwomatrices.Thedatavariablesforeachwereorganizedaccordingtothestructuresdisplayedinfigures12and13;112individualvariableswereincludedinthenatural/culturalresourceinventoryand27intheaestheticresource,inventory.Theverticalaxisofbothmatriceswastheriverrun,buttheactualdataun,itwas,the"l'7atershedor,'viewshedzone.'Inthematrices,theseWerearrangedabout,averticalcenterlineforeachdatavariableandthiscenter-:\linemaybethoughtofastheriver.Forexample,inthenatural/culturalresourcematrix,thezones,readingacross,aretheleftsecondary(LS),leftprimary(LP),rightprimary(RP)andrightsecondary(RS).Therecordofeachindividualdatavariableisthusorganizedasadiagram-maticstripmapoftheriver.,Thecomple'tematricescanbeexaminedinAppendixC,attheendofthisreport.Theinventoryofresourcessoughtto'beascomprehensiveinde'tailaspossible,vi,thinthe,'t;ifl\e'con-straintsofthestudy.Theresourcedatacharacteristicsandthemagnituderatingscalesusedintheinventoryarefoundintables2and3.FurtherinformationonmethodsusedtorateresourcemagnitudeareincludedinAppendix~.Asmentioned,thenatural/culturalresourcesweretobeacquiredprimarilyfromavailableliterature,andseveralareasofsparseinformationsoonrevealedthemselves.Manyofthesedatagaps',verefilledbydiscussionswithknowledgeablestateandfederalagencystaffaswellasseveralAlaskanprivatecitizens.Consultantswerealsore'tainedtofillincertainareas.However,theinformationcoveragestillremainsthininsomerespects,notablyforcertaintypesof'-7ildlife.48((,, Abriefoutlineoftheprincipalsourcesandscalesofinformation-inventoriedunder"na-turalandcul-turalresources"follows:a.Geology;thegenerallyavailablepublishedmaterialisscanty,soaconsultantwasretained~b.Climate;observationswitl1inthes-tudyareawereunavailable,andda-taweregeneralizedfromavailablerecordsinaccordancewithgenerally'acceptedclimatologicalprinciples.c.Hydrology;A.P.A.andCorpsdata,U.S.G.S.-maps,andfieldreconnaissancewerethesourcesusedexceptforthewhitewaterclassification.Mr.andMrs.JulesTilestonoftheKnikCanoeClubadvisedontheI.A.C.whitewaterratingsassignedtotheriverruns.d.Soils(edaphicunits);theL.U.P.C.1/250,000soilmapsandAlaskaRegionalProfiles:Sou-thcen-tralRegionwerethesourcesemployed.e.Botany;sincetheL.U.P.C.mapsarenotyetcompleteforthestudyarea,aconsultantwasre-tainedtoidentifyvegetationassociationtypesfromairphotographyandslides,.supplementedbygroundverificationsmadeduringfieldreconnaissance.f.Zoology;heavyreliancewasplacedonAlaska'swildlifeandHabitat,supplementedbynumerousA.D.F.&G.reportsandSkoog'sEcologyof-theCaribou,fortheungulatesandlargecarnivores.However,muchworkremainstobedoneinthisareaanddistributionaldatais-almos-tentirelylackingforsmallmaIT~alsandseveralofthelargecarnivores.Birddis-tributionsandpopula-tionsarealsolittleknm,ninthes-tudyarea,althoughsomegeneralizedwa-terfowlinformationisavailable49 and·anon-si·teinvestigationofrap·tors·wascommis-sioned·intherivercorridor·bythe·U.S.FishandwildlifeService.Fishpopulationsinthestudyareaare..alsoundercon·tinuinginvestiga·tionbythatagencyandtheAlaskaDepartmentofFishandGame.Pastreportsweresupplementedbythefortu-nateopportunitytoobservefieldinvestigations·and·todiscussthison-goingworkwith·someofthebiologists:invblved.g..Humanuse;U.S.G.S.maps,theSou·thcentralProfile,.fieldreconnaissance,.anddiscussionwiththeoperatorsofalodgeonthe.riverservedtoidentifymuch,.butnotall,ofthelanduseinthestudyarea.Thesecondarywatershedzonesontheleftside·oftherivermaythereforecontain.somelow-intensityusesinadditionto·thoseinven-toried.Numerousfederal,stateandlocalagencyreportswerestudiedforcluestothefutureuseandownershipoftheareaanditspotentialforrecreationaluse.Thearcheology.ofthestudyarea-itspastuse-isonlypartiallyknown;publishedmaterialanddiscussionswith.anarche-ologistattachedtotheAlaskaDivisionofParks·providedtheinformationrecordedintheinventory.50((( TABLE 2 l'lAGNITUDE OF EXPRESSION RATING SCALES I NATRUAL·AND·CULTURAL·RESo.URCES * I.PHYSICAL High Moderate La,v Absent A.GEOLOGIC l.FAULTING·-TECTONICS a.Bedrock l.Linear Valleys Prominent Moderate Minor Absent example example example V1 2.Alpine Regions-.""" "f-'Basins -Faults ""11 11 b.Fluvio -Glacial l.Hanging Valleys 11 11 11 " c.Glacial l.Offest Glaciers 11 11 11 11 2.SOLIFLUCTION a.Fluvio -Proglacial l.Pa·tterned Ground 11 "11 11 Ground Creep 11 11 11 11 b.Fluvio -Glacial· l.l\symmetric ValJ.eys 11 11 "11 :,i *Hote:See Appendix C for details of magnitude rating methods. I.PHYSICAL High Moderate LO~T .Absent 3.PERI0iLACIAL a.Bedrock Prominent Moderate Minor .'", l.Vallons de Gelivation example example example Absent Talus Accumulations II II II ,II Rock Glaciers II II II II 2.Asyn~etric Valleys II II II II b.Fluvio -Proglacial l.Patterned Ground II II II II c.Glacial l.Patterned Ground II II II II 4.GLACIAL a.Bedrock l.U-shaped Valleys II II II II U'1 tv 2 •Cirques-Hanging Val.II II II II Roches Moutonees II II II 11 b.Fluvio -Pro glacial l.Drift Mantle 11 II II II c.Glacial' l.Drumlins-Moraines II II II II Ice-cored Moraines II II II II 5.FLUVIAL a.Bedrock l.V-shaped Valleys 11 II II II 2.Canyons II II,II II 3.Gorges II .II II II 4.Terraces-Rill Channels II II II ,II ..•..,..........'~."-,.,.~,...._,•.."......'._'~'..:.......,...._...._.."..~.,......"_......- ,~":,.'\ I.PHYSICAL (Continued) b.Fluvio -Proglacial .1.Meander Scars c.Glacial 1.Eskers-Kames B.CLIMATIC 1.SURFACE HEATING 2.LOCAL CLIMATIC STRESS ~C.HYDROLOGICw 1.MAINSTEl>l High Prominent example II High HH Moderate Moderate example II Moderate MM-LMH Low Minor example II Lo,., LL Absent Absent II N/A N/A a.Hydrology' 1.I ..A.C.Class 2.Volume 3.Average Gradient 4.Offset Stream 5.St.reamform Incision V,VI Over 6300 'c'fs ' Over 25 ft/mi Prom.example a.Entrenched loop/meander b.Incised :. fixed III,IV I,II Slack water 6300-2700 cfs ':.Under.2700'cfs N/A 25-15 ft/rni ,'15-2.5 ft/mi 2.5-0 ft/m: Mod.example ..Ninor example Absent a.Braided a.Fixed or Slack watei b.Looped meander branched .b.Elphemerally braided b.Channel Features 1.Drops-Whirlpools Prom.example Mod.example Minor example Slack ",ateJ 2 .Rapids II II II II 3 •Cutbanks-Outcrops II II II Absent 4.Pools-Riffles II II II Slack wateJ 5.Islands (Vegetated)2/3,3/2,3/3 2/1,2/2,~/1 1/1,1/2 Absent 6.River Bars (Unvegetated)II II II II 7•Point Bars-Beaches Prom.Gxample Hod.example Minor:example II " )', I.PHYSICAL (continued)High 'Hoderate Lol'/Absent 2.M,i\JOR TRIBUTARIES Second .First or zero 15-2.5 ft/rdL 2.5-0 ft/mi a.Hydrology 1.Stream Order 2.Maximum Gradient (Primary Zone) 3.Turbidity 4.Watershed Area 'Fourth Over 25 ft/mi Clear '1000-100 sq mi Third 25-15 ft/mi Sl.turbid 100-10 sq llti Hod.turbid 10-1 sq mi Very turbid N/A Mod.example Minor example Absent Hod.example Hinor example Two Channels One Channel 11 11 11 II " It II It II " " .NoneOne It" TI'/o 2/1,2/2,3/1 1/1,1/2 '11 11 b.Channel Features 1.Nuniller of Major Three or more Tribu't.aries 2.Waterfalls " 3.Rapids Prom.example 4.Pools-Riffles " 5.Cutbanks-Outcrops " 6.Islands (Vegetated)2/3,3/2,3/3 7.River Bars(Unvegetated)It 8.Point Bars-Beaches Prom.example 9.Confluence Delta(s)Several Chan. U1... 3.WATERSHED FEATURES a.Lakes b.Ponds (Drained), c.Ponds (Undrained) d.Oxbovi Lakes e.Sloughs 2/3,3/2,3/3 Three or more It "" 2/1,2/2,3/1 TI'/o " " " 1/1,1/2 One " " " " " " It " -,..,""-.'-",:...""--,,,.-.,,,.","..--,~-:..:,,---'._'.'.,..-.._-•... ,<~:~. II.BIOLOGIC High Moderate Low Absent A.EDAPHIC l.WELL DRAINED More than 75%75-25%25%":trace Absent 2.WELL DRAINED vlITH """" PERHAFROST 3.POORLY DRAINED """" , 4.STEEP-ROCKY/ICELANDS ."""". B.BOTANIC IJ1 l.BOTTOMLAND SPRUCE-POPLAR More than 25%25-12.5%12:5%-trace Absent IJ1 2.UPLAND SPRUCE-HARDWOOD """" 3.UPLAND HARDWOOD-SPRUCE ""."" 4.HIGH BRUSH """" 5 .LOWLAND SPRUCE-}~RDWOOD """" 6.LOWLAND SPRUCE BOG "";1:" 7 •LOW BRUSH 11 ".II II 8.MUSKEG II II "II 9.MOIST TUNDRA II II II II 10.WET TUNDRA II II "II 11.ALPINE TUNDRA'II "II " II.BIOLOGIC (Continued)High.Moderate Low Absent C.ZOOLOGIC· 1.HAMMALS a.Ungulates 1 ..Dall Sheep 100%Q9-50%50%-trace 0% 2.loiountain Goat \I \I \I 11 3.1<loose (presence)N/A N/A Presence N/A 4.Hoose (,'linter)100%99-50%50%-trace 0% 5.Hoose (spring)\I 11 11 11 6.Noose (summer)11 \I \I 11 7.Hoose (fall)\I •\I \I 11 8 . Caribou (presence)N/A N/A Presence N/A 9.Caribou (winter)100%99-50%50%-trace 0% 10.Caribou (spring)\I \I \I \I 11.Caribou (summer)\I "\I 11 U1 CJ\12.Caribou (fall)\I \I \I " 13.Caribou (migration Mapped Inferred N/A Absent routes)routes r o u t e s b.Carnivores 1.wolf N/A N/A Presence N/A 2.Wolverine \I \I \I \I 3.)3lack Bear \I 11 \I \I 4.Grizzly Bear Presence \I 11 \I \I 5.Grizzly Bear Denning .Extensive 2 or more 1 small den Absent sites small dens 6 . Grizzly Bear Fishing More than 0.5-0.25 mi 0.25-trace mi 11 0.5 mi c.Small Hammals N/A N/A Presence N/A ..~"'..,-''.~,. ..~.."", II.BIOLOGIC (Continued)High Moderate Low Absent 2.BIRDS a.Raptors Mapped sightings N/A Presence N/A b.Waterfowl Nesting &Mod.Concen-Low Concen-Absent moulting trations trations 3.FISH a.Anadromous Spawnirlg.Present possible Absent b.Freshvrater Spawning &""" wintering III.CULTURAL lJ1 -..J A.HUMAN USE l.SETTLEMENT a.Archeological Sites Surveyed Known possible Prob.absent b.Campsites.30r·more 2 known 1 knovm .Unknown known c.Cabins-Cottages """"d.Resorts-Lodges Hajor Hoderate Primitive Absent e.Tovms-Villages N/A N/A Small·Absent 2.ACCESSIBILITY . :' a.Facility Dependent 1.Rail 100-66%66-33%33%-trace Absent 2.Auto All-weather Unimproved N/A H highway high\1ay ."'.'",...~~".-....'......,....~...... Highlimi til ",'Very dangl Kayak Impossibll High limits II II 11 III.CULTURAL (Continued) 3.Air b.Facility Independent 1.Air 2.Boat 3.A.T.V.' 4.Sled 5.Foot 3.UTILITIES High Airfield. Low limits Power Lm~limits' " " ,Moderate Airstrip Mod.limits Raft Hod.limits " " Low N/A II Absent Absent " U1co a.Major b.Secondary c.Overhead d.Underground 4.EXTRACTION Very prominent Undetermined l>1aj or 100-66% Hod.prominent Minor Undetermined Undetermined Intermediate Minor 66-33%33%-trace Absent, " " " a.Surface, b.Subsurface 5.OIVNERSHIP Hajor workings Several mod.1 or 2 minor Absent/un II .,II 11 II a.Federal Withdrawals b.State Selections c.Native withdrawals 100-66% " " 66-33%' II " 33%-trace " " Absent II II .1 ' r-- ...."...','',,-.'."'-~"'.,~..~""'--'.~..""-~.,-.•.•~ "'"' '- TABLE 3 ~'lAGNITUDE OF EXPRESSION RATING SCALES,AESTHETIC RESOURCES 1.LANDFORM High Moderate Low Absent A.SPATIAL DEFINITION 1.EXPANSIVENESS,in: a.Coterminous viewshed Prol1.ounced Moderate Slight Absent b.Secondary viewshed 11 11 11 " c.Tertiary viewshed """" V1 2.ENCLOSURE,in:'" a.Coterminous viewshed --, l.primary zone Pronounced Moderate Slight Absent 2.supporting zone ""11 " b.Secondary viewshed 11 "11 " B.SURFACE PATTERN/EDGE DEFINITION 1.SURFACE DEFINITION OR Pronounced Moderate Slight Absent DISSECTION 2.OVERLAPPING LANDFORMS OR 11 11 _II 11 PLANAR ZONES 3.SKYLINE AND BASAL'BOUDARY 11 11- -"" DEFINITION TABLE 3 ~ffiGNITUDE OF EXPRESSION RATING SCALES,AESTHETIC RESOURCES 1.LANDFORM High Moderate Lov'Absent A.SPATIAL DEFINITION l.EXPANSIVENESS,in: 'a.Coterminous viewshed ProIl,ounced Moderate Slight Absent b.Secondary viewshed II II II II c.Tertiary viewshed II It It II lJ1 2.ENCLOSURE,in:ID a.Coterminous viewshed 1.primary zone Pronounced 1'1oderate Slight Absent 2.supporting zone It It II It b.Secondary view shed "It II II B.SURFACE PATTERN/EDGE DEFINITION l.SURFACE DEFINITION OR Pronounced Moderate Slight Absent DISSECTION 2.OVERLAPPING LANDFORl>1S OR II II II II PLANAR ZONES 3.SKYLINE AND BASAL'BOUDARY II ll',II II DEFINITION /'.......'\ "....,.."''''~""~'."."~".".......-._.....-.- ,~-, I.LANDFO~~(Continued) E.SEQUENCE 1.DIRECTIONAL SEQUENCE 2.SPATIAL SEQUENCE 3.END CLOSURE OF RUN II.SKYFORM High High Complexity II II Moderate Moderate Complexity II If LOI;1 Low Complexity II II Absent No Complexity If If ~ f-' A.CHARACTERISTIC CLOUDFORH B.EXPANSIVENESS III.WATERFORM A.RIVER ~~INSTEM Overcast Broken Pronounced Moderate Scattered Clear Slight Absent 1.water edge definition Steep Moderate Gentle Absent 2.Waterform pattern 3.Waterform texture B.V~JOR TRIBUTARIES High Complexity II b10derate Complexity If .Low No Complexity Complexity If 11 1.Water edge definition 2.Waterform pattern. 3.W'aterform texture 4.Confluence visibility Steep High Complexity II . High. b10derate ~Ioderate Complexity II Hoderate Gentle Low Complexity II Low Absent No Complexity " Absent ..","".~"',--..-~'~'-'-,.~.'-" .'.~..'~~-.,"..-..' III.WATERFORM (Continued)High Mode'r'ate .LOI".'Absent--. C.WATERSHED FEATURES Highly .Moderately L'east Absent .Prominent Prominent Prominent IV.VEGETATION FORM A.ENCLOSURE High Hoderate LOI"Absent B.PATTER..J-l High Moderate Low Absent Complexity Complexity Complexity C.PROFILE High Irre-Noderate Ir-Low Irreg-Absent gularity regularity ularity D.CONTRAST BETWEEN High Moderate Low Absent C"\VEGETATION TYPESN V.WILDLIFE,FOlli1 A.NUMBERS:PRESENCE OF High Moderate Low Unlikely SEASONAL CONCENTRATIONS Probability Probability Probability B.VARIETY OF SPECIES """ " ATTRACTING VISUAL INTEREST VI.MAN-MADE FORM A.STRUCTURES Highly Moderately Least Absent Prominent Prominent·.Prominent ~..~\:-.., RECREATIONRESOURCES·TherecreationresourcesinherentIvithinthestudyareaaresubsumedwithinthevisualandna·tural/culturalresourcedatabasesjustdescribed.Theseincluderesourcesthata·t·tract·recreationaluse,resourcesthatmakeusepossible,andresourcesthat.constrainuse.Constraintsandusabilityfactorsareingeneral~ndogenoustoastudyarea,whileattrac-tionsmustbeconsideredwithinaregionalcontext.Further,attractivenessforrecreationisnotonlybasedonthesupplyofsiteresourcesvaluedinawiderregion,butalsoontheprovisionofman-madefacilities.Therefore,anyresourceanalysisofrecre-ationattractivenessmustbedevelopedconcurrentlywitharecreationplanwhichconsiders·competingresourcesoff-site,regionalrecreationpatterns,andproposedsitefacilities.Thisassessment,whichdoesnotincludearecreationplan,isprimarilyconcernedwiththecon-straintandusabilityaspectsofstudyarearecreationresources,i.e"recreation.suitability,althoughthedatabasealsoinventories·thoseresourcesIVhich·?-ttractrecreationusenolVandthoseIVhichlVillattractitin.thefuture,iftheproposedhydroelectricsystemisbuilt.63 NATUR~LANDCULTURALMEASURESOFIMPORTANCEANDTHEDETERYIINATIONOFNATURAL'VALUEMeasuresofImportanceandNaturalValueTheindividualna'turalandculturalresourcesofcomparablyscaledriverunitscanno'tbedirectlycompared,evenonthebasisofathoroughinven-toryoftheoccurrenceandmagnitudeoftheseriverandriver-scapecharacteristics.Thisisthecasebecausethecharacteristicresourcebasediffersforeachphysio--graphicsection{region}andeachriverchannelpattern(reach).;ingeneral,nocommonbaseofcomparabilityexistsatthelevelofthequantitativedata'inventory,sincetheverysegmentationoftheriverisbasedondistinctivecomplexes_ofresources.Inordertocompareunits,wemustevaluatethequalityofthenaturalandculturalresourcesdefiningeachriverunit.Thechosenscaleofevalu-ationistha-tofthesmallestdistinctiveuni-tiden-ti-fiedinthisstudy,theriverrun,anditsprimaryandsecondaryzones.Thebasisforcomparisionisthedegreetowhichcharacteristicnaturalprocessesareoperativeinthesezones,asevidencedbycharacteristicforms:thatis,howstronglytheriveranditslandscapeex-pressthemselves.Tothedegreethatthecharacteristicprocesseshavenotbeenobstructedorobscured,wemayspeakoflandscapehealthandintegrity.Themeasureoflandscapeintegrity'andhealthcanbetakenbyconsideringthreedimensionsofthe64( , ,'resourcebase:fragility(F),diversity(D)andnaturalintactness,(NI).Whenadjusted,bythenaturaLuniqueness(NU)ofeachresourcecomplex,a'culturallyimportantfactor,weobtainaquantifica'tion,"ormodel,ofthenatural':value(NV),of,eachriverrunin'termsofthestrengthandintegrity',ofitscharacteristicnaturalprocesses:NV=F+D+NI~NU3Riverrunscannowbecomparedalongthisqualitative.''baseline.Thedefinitionsoffragility,diversity,naturalin'tactnessandna'turaluniqueness,andthesimplemodelswithwhicheachwas,measuredfromtheresourcebasefollowin,thenextsection.'TI'lOadditionalmeasures,seasonalavailabilityandaccessibility,arealsodefinedanddescribed;thesearemeasuresoftheresourcebaserela'tingtoi,tsusabilityforhuman'purposes,andtheirutilityindeterminingrecreationsuitabilityisex-plainedinthesectiondealingwiththatanalysis.FragilityFragilityisdefinedhereasameasureofthesensitivityofbiologicresourcestochangeandtheabilitytosurviveenvironmentalstress.Generally,asanareaisprogressivelyimpacted,itsnaturalsystemsbecomelessandlessfragileastheybecomemorecoarse;e.g.,aparkinglotislessfragilethananalpinemeadow.Thepresenceofintolerantspeciessuggestsminimalinterferencewi,thna'turalsys'tems,andhighfragilityisthereforeconsideredevidenceofland-scapeintegri,ty.65 Fragilitywasmeasured'onaseven-levelintervalscaleoverthebiologicalportionofthenaturalandculturalresourcesdatabase:FRAGILlTV~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:O:::===-==-i"-=------""'-""'--=--:;-------------===tII!Icultural!humanuse.IIIz]!Therewerefourstepsin.theprocess:a.Rateindividualbiologicalresourcefragility.b.Tabulatelevelsoffragilitywithinthethreebiologicalresourcecategoriesineachwatershedzone.c.Determinecategoryfragilityd.Determineoverallbiologicalfragility(indicatedbythesummationsigninthediagramabove).ResourcefragilitywasratedHigh,ModerateorLow,basedontheinherentsensitivityof.theresourceanditspowersofsurvival.Typicalexamplesofratingin'eachofthethreebiologicalresourcecategoriesatHigh(H),Moderate(M),orLow(L)magnitudesofindividualresourcevariablesare:1II((EdaphicBo·tanicZoologicLowFragilitywell-drainedsoils(HML)uplandspruce(HHL)Haterfmvl(L)Mod.Fragilitypoorlydrained'soils(L)moisttundra(m,iL)caribou;·Jinter-ing(H1'lL)66HighFragili·typoorlydrainedsoils(HM)alpinetundra(HHL);·Ta·terfmvl(H)! Thefragilityof.eachbiologicalcategory"las.determinedbyuseofasteppedma·trixbasedineachinstanceontherangeofexistingoccurrencesoffrag-ile..resourcesontheriver.Thehighestlevelattain-edinthismatrixpredominated.Thematrixforzoo-logicfragilityintheprimaryzoneisreproducedhereasanexample:ResourceZoologicFragilityFragilityVHHMHMMLLVLHigh3 21.:.,-.Mod.5,432,1'''.:.Low321Here·itisseenthatzoologicfragilityismeasuredonaseven-levelscale,rangingfromVeryHigh(\Tn)toVeryLow(VL).Thenumbersinthismatrixrefertonumberoftimesresourcesatagivenfragilityleveloccurwithintheleftorrightprimarywatershedzoneofeachrun.Overallbiologicalfragilitywasdeterminedbytabulatingthelevelofedaphic,botanicandzoologicfragilityineachzoneofeachrunandreferringtothefollowingmatrix,againwiththehighestlevelattainedpredominating:Ca·tegoryOve·rallBiologicalFragilityFragilityVHHNHMMLLVLVH3,21R3,21HR·3,21f.t3,21NL3,21L3,21(VL367 DiversityAkeyindicatoroftheheal"thofagivenenvironmen:t;diversityaccoun"tsfortheadaptabili"ty,resilience,andrichnessofnaturalsystems.I"trelatestotheabundance;·"variety~andcomplexityoftheresourcesoftheriverandtheriverscape.Diver-sityhelpstomaintainstabilitywithinecosystemsandalsohasaculturalutility~alue:itpromote~mentalwell-beinginpeoplebyprovidingdifferentkindsofopportunitiesandsurroundingsforself-expressionandcreativity.C""";Diversity,'lasmeasuredseparatelyin"theprimaryandsecondaryzones,acrossallnatural"resources,i.e.,thephysicalandbiologicalportionsoftheresourcematrix:DI\]~~_~l_!.!'__.~=-===::=~c=~======~§'~.:c:.=--=:=~~=5==~=~:-====_=~=-JIIII1physical"Iibiologicalilcultural!gzotogicclimaticJlhydrologic~le.dc.phicbotaniczoologic:,~;rno_;L,Ji'"0,"0","";'~J£ij,t.;"..f(Thefivestepsintheprocesswere:a.Tabulate"andSili~resourceoccurrence,atanylevelofmagnitude,"inthefourresourceca"tegories.b.Normalizethesumsintosevenlevels,correspondingtotherangeVeryHightoVeryLow.c.Rankeachwatershedzoneforeachofthefourcategories.d.Addthefourranksineachzone.e.Determinetotaldiversityofeachzone.68 Thetotalnaturaldiversityofeachzonewasdeterminedbyreference-tothis-table:SumofRanksTo-talNat_uralDiversity4,0-7.3VH=VeryHigh_7~4-10.8H=High10.9-14.2-HH=Hod.High14.3-17.6H=Noderate17.7-21.0HL=Nod.Low21.1-24.5L=Low24.6-28.0VL=VeryLowNaturalIntactnessResourceintactnessisameasureoftheextenttowhichnaturalprocessesarenotobscuredorobstruc-ted,andthereforeisameasureoflandscapeintegrity.Itsinverseisencroachment,thedegreeofintrusionuponthelandscaperesourcebase.Naturalintactnesswasinferredbymeasuringthelevelofhumanuse,foundintheculturalportionoftheresourcematrix:.gli.potentlQlusepyNATURALlNTAC-j\JrSS-----------------------------------iI....-----------------------------------~J,,,physicalbiologicalculturalJ-,I,,geologicIClimaticIhydrologicedaphicbotcniczoologichumanus<zI,I,I1111II II IrvII.Ii!,II.oj;ne.rsh,pTIL{-archaeologicsitesexclud";~excluded."':;facilitindeendentaccessasrepresenttn,.',Thestepsinmeasuremen-t,·Iere:a.Ratehumanusesforencroachment.b.Tabulatenumberofusesoccurringineach69 watershed.zoneateachlevelofencroachmen·c.c.Determinenaturalin·tactness.Certaincategoriesofculturaldatawerenotconsideredencroachingatall,becausetheyrepre-sentpastuseorpotentialuse.Theseincludearcheolog-icalsitesandthecategoriesoffacilityindependentaccessandownership.Examplesofusesconsideredencroachingare:".r\I\!{;1\Ii~1"\1i(Icabins(L)cabins(~I)towns(HML)underground(L)underground(HM)overnead(HM)SettlementUtilitiesLowEn·c·r·o·a·chin·e"n.t·ModerateEnCro'a:chrrientHighEncroachment•j..','.JI~.Thelevelofnaturalintactnesswastakenfromthefollowingmatrix,withthemostencroachingusesde·terminingthelevelforanygiven'zone:(-EncroachmentbyHumanUseHighHod.LowNa·turalIn·tactnessVHHMHMML.L·VL1-34-67-91-45-78-100-123-4'.Therangeofin·tactnessencompassedby·thisma·trixisdefinedbythemaximumpossiblefutureencroachmen·tontheonehand,andcomplete.absenceof.encroachmen·tontheother.NaturalUniqueness.Therelativeavailabilityorrarityofphysicalandbiologicalresources,measuredbythe70(\ '.frequencywithwhichscarceresourcesarefoundatmoderatetohighlevelsofexpressioninanyriverrun,istermednaturaluniqueness.Thisistreatedasa"7eightingfactor,sincethe.perceivedvalue.ofalandscaperesourceusuallyrisesasitbecomesmorescarce,''Ivhileothermeasuresofnatural.·importancemayremainstaticorevendecline.Relativeuniquenessprovidesanexcellentmeansofassigninglanduseprioritiesamong.otherwiseequallandscapes;Thisdimensionoflandscapevaluewasmeasuredacrossthephysicalandbiologicalportionsoftheresourcema·trix,plusarcheologicalsitesfromtheculturalsection:NATU~UNIQUENES~~~==-::'-==-=-1--------T-===--=--------:---iIII·Iiphysi~alibiologkal:iculturalfordisplayonly)ctimatichydrologiqedaphiclbotanic\IIhumetnliseThestepsinarrivingatthenaturaluniquenessofeachriverrunwere:a.Determinerelativescarcityofeachresource;inprimaryandsecondaryzones.b.Tabula'teoccurrenceofuniqueresourcesFbylevelofrelativescarcity,'ineachwatershedzone.c.Determinenaturaluniquenessofeachwatershedzone.Thedeterminationof'therela'th"escarcityofresourceswasbasedonatallyofthenumberof71 occurrencesofeach1;iI"ithinthes-tudyareaa-tmodera'teorhighmagnitude.Occurrenceswi,thin-theprimaryandsecondaryzonesweretalliedseparately.Allresourcesthatoccurredatthesemagnitudesinles~thanone-third(33%)of-thestudyarea1;iI"atershedzonesweredeemed'-tobescarce;rela-tivescarci-tywasfurther,differentiatedin-to-threelevels:/-;,Occurrence23-33%12-22%,1-11%RelativeScarcityLowModerateHigh::::"i-r..,Afterthenumberofoccurrencesateachlevelofrelativescarcityweretotaledforeachwatershedzone,naturaluniquenesswithinthestudyareawasdeterminedwiththeaidof_asteppedmatrixbasedontheactualrangesofoccurrenceacrosstheentireresourcebaseconsidered,withinthethreelevelsofrelativescarcity,Separa-tematricesresultedfortheprimaryandsecondaryzones,whichwereconsiderednotstrictlycomparableintermsofdatastructure;thematrixforprimaryzoneuniqueness:RelativeNaturalUniquenessScarcityVHHMH-HMLLVLHigh5,432,1.,l~od.8-65,43-1Low8-65-32-0Inaddition,therelativeuniquenessofeachzonewasdeterminedinmajorphysicalandbiologicalresourcecategoriesfordisplayinthefullresourcematrixasanaidinloca-tingtheclass72..-, ofresourcesinwhichanindividualriverrun'suniquenessresides.SeasonalAvailabilityThisfactorisadimensionofresourceutilityforhumanpurposes,hereprimarilyrecreation.I-I:isameasure_ofpotentialopportunityand/orsupply,interpretedintermsoftherelativelengthoftimethevariousresourcesinthevariousruns-are_availableforhumanuse,includingappreciation.Seasonalavailablitywasassessedfortheresourcesinthelandscapecover;forthepurpose,-ofrecreationuse,edaphicresourceswereconsideredapartoftheterrainratherthanitscover:SEASONALAVAILABILlTY===:==~-=::::::'-=--::'::::-=J------------I____~~__1:..-.-____IThemeasurementprocesswas:a.Ratetheseasonalavailabilityofresourcesonasimplenumericscale.b.Sumforeachwatershedzone,withinthefourresourcecategories.c.Normalizethesumsintosevenlevels.d.Rankeachwatershedzoneforseasonalavailabilitybyca-I:egory.e.Addtheranks.f.Determinetotalseasonalavailabilityforeachzone.73 SeasonalavailabilityofresourceswasratedHigh(=2),Hoderate(=4),Low(=6),Absent(=7),orNonApplicable-(=0)basedon-therelativeavailabilityofeachresource-toprincipalrecreationaluses.Examplesoftypicalratingsare:!II -,...,AbsentS~A.Lm-lS.A.Mod.S.A.HighS.A.\----Climaticsolarsolarsolar._.'.'~-heating(L)hea-tingcr·:!)heating(H)Hydrologiclakes(0)lakes(L)lakes(H)lakes(H)Botanicbottomland-alpinelowland-bottomland-..spruce(0)tundra(HM.L)spruce(HNL)spruce(HM.L)Zoologicmooseconc.mooseconc.mooseconc.mooseconc.(fall)(0)(fall)(L)(fall)(M)(fall)(H)Totalseasonalavailabilitywasde-terminedwiththistable(alsousedfordiversity):SumofRanksTo-talSea-sonalAvailabili-ty4.0-7.3VH=VeryHigh7.4-10.8H=High10.9-14.2HH=Mod.High14.3-17.611=!-1oderate17.7-21.0II[L=Nod.Low21.1-24.5L=Low24.6-28.0VL=VeryLowAccessibilityAnotherdimensionofresourceutility,thisisameasureoftheseasonali-tyofhumanaccesstoeachwa-tershedzone,intermsofthe-relative-timeeachisavailabletotheaccessmodesinven-toried.74 ->Accessibilitywasextractedfromtheaccessinventorysectionofthecul-turalportionoftheresourcematrix:ACCESSlB1LlTY---------------------------------------------;-------------------------------.,II,IIphysicalbiologicalcultur.al-IIIgeologicclimatichydrologicedaphicbotaniczoologichuman:use.I- II11IIIIII!IIIIIIaccessI]£~~-The_measurementprocesswassimilar.tothatusedforseasonalavailability:a.Ra-t:etherelativelengthofaccessseasonforeachoftheaccessmodes.b.Sumforeachwatershedzone.c.Normalizethesumsintosevenlevels.d.Rankeachwatershedzone.Theratingsforrelativeseasonalityoftheaccessmodeswereslightlyelaboratedoverthoseusedforseasonalavailability.TheadditionsareNodera-telyHigh(=3),ModeratelyLow(=5).Examplesare:Facili-tyDependen-t:RailAbsentLm-lHoderate-HighFacilityIndependent:AirLengthofSeasonAbsent(=7)Nod.(=4)-High(=2)High(=2)Absen-tAbsen-t(=7)Lm"Hod.Lo,-l(=5)ModerateMod_High(=3)HighHod.High(=3)75 Innormalizingthesums,thesamerangewasusedforprimaryandsecondaryzonesbecause·theda·tabaseswerecomparable.Wa·tershedzones"lereranked.fromVeryHightoVeryLowonthestrengthofthisnormalization.NaturalValueAholisticmeasureoflandscapeintegrity,.health,anddistinctivenessmaybeobtainedfromconsid-eringthefragility,diversi·ty,na·turalintactn~ss,andnaturaluniquenessmodelsdescribedabove.Thismeasureistermednaturalvalue,.andwasdefinedaboveforeachwatershedzonebytheequation:~W=F+D+NI7NU3Theinputvaluesforfragility,diversityandnaturalintactnessarederivedfromequatingtheVeryHigh~VeryLowratingstoa1-7nlli~ericscale.Theaverageofthesethreevaluesisdisplayedin·theresourcematrixas"unadjustedna·turalvalue."Forpurposesofcomparisonandscaling,thisvalue,vasconvertedtoa1to100scale(cf.Burnhametal.,1974;Hendricksonetal.,1974),withlowscoresequatedtohighvalue.Theunadjustedaveragewasthenweightedfornaturaluniqueness,whichhasbeenconvertedtoacoeff.icien·t:76...1,(( NaturalRatingVHHHHHHLLVLUniquenessCoefficient1.61.51.41.31.21.1·1.0Themaximumweightingthuswouldimprovethenaturalvaluescoreofthelowestpossiblevalue-area.by40%,from100to62.5.The~veightingeffecttapersoff,.withveryhighLmadjustednaturalvaluesbeingincreasedsligh-tly,ifatall.The1to100scaleforadjustednaturalva]meisthebaseforcompu·ta-tionofchangedescribedbelow.Forgraphicdisplayin.theresourcesmatrixandforsurnw~~ydiscussion,ithasbeenconvertedbacktotheVeryHigh-VeryLowseven-levelscale.77.f AESTHETICMEASURESOFI11PORTANCEAi~DAESTHETICVALUELikethenaturalandculturalresources,theaestheticresourcesofonereachcannot_bedirectlycomparedwiththoseofanotherreach,evenwithinonereach,onerunmayhavesodistinctiveacharacterasnottobetrulycomparable"~dothitsneighbor.Compari-sonsofvisualcharac-termus-talsorestonqualitativeevaluationsofthevisualresourcesofeachunit.Thesequalitativeevaluationsofthevisual_resourcesofdifferentlandscapeunitsmustbebasedoninherentcapacitytoevokepercep-tualresponseratherthanonthesubjective"preferencesoftheinvesti-gator,orevenofthepublicatlarge.PreferencesarecUlturallyandhistoricallyconditioned,andassucharetransitory:"themoun-tainscenery,forins-tance,whichmanypeoplenowadmireaboveallother,wasoncedetestedasdreary,vastes"(Fairbro,ther,1974,p.4).,Preferencetestingishighlyappropriatewhenusedtopriori-tizetheresultsofaresource-basedlandscapeassessment.Theresource-basedassessmentitselfcanattainahighdegreeofobjectivitybybreakingvisualcharacterintocomponentelements,performingquali,ta--tiveevaluationsonthese,,andthenre-combiningtheresultsintoanoverallmeasureofcharac'terorvalue.Aconsiderabledegreeofconsistencyinquali-tativejudgemen'tsbetweengroups"ithmarkedlydifferentpreferenceshasbeenachievedwiththismethod,"hichmaybeinterpretedasanempiricaldemonstrationofsuccess(Burnham,etal.,1974,Hendrickson,etal.,1974).Theelementsofaestheticvaluetnathavebeenidentifiedintheseandothers,tudies,qereusedintheassessmentoftheaesthe'ticresourcesofthe78II\,,!{,,,..!,(,,I SusitnaRiver.Theseelementsarevividness(V),visualin'tac'tness(VI),andlinity(U).Afour,thelemen-t,visualuniqueness(VU),isusedasamodifier,andaesthe'ticvalue(AV)isdefinedby-thisequa'tion:V+VT+U_·.VUAV=3Thisdefinitionofaestheticvaluewillbeseentomeetthecriteriaofcomparabilityandobjectivity,inthesensethatriverruns,thesmallestunitsofdistinctivecharacteridentifiedontheriver,arecomparedintermsoftheuniquecapacityofeachtoevokeaestheticresponse,ratherthanintermsoftheirapproximationtoanidealizedlandscapetype.VividnessVividnessisdefinedasthes'trengthof'the-visualimpression,orthe"memorability"ofthevisualexperienceofferedbyalandscapeoritselements.Thirteenfac'torsareconsideredhereas'theycon'tributetothevividnessofthelandscapeswithinthestudyarea:TERRAINCOVERLandformspatialdefini,tion:expansivenessLandformspatialdefinition:enC'losureLandformsurfacepatternandedgedefinitionLano.formreliefLandformlandmarksLandformsequenceSkyformWaterformoftherunanalyzed\'TaterformofthemajortributariestotherunliTa'tershedfeatures79 Vege'tationWildlifeStructures(man-madeform)Eachrunisassessedona'seven-levelscaleforeachofthesefactors.Overallvividnessofeachunitisafinalqualitativeassessmentthattakesintoaccountthevividnessofallcontributingvisualresources(bothnaturalandman:"'made)as'theyin'teractinconcerttoformamemorablevisualimpressionoftheplace.Over-allvividnessismeasuredonthefollowingscale(asare,alltheabovevividnesscategories):NumericValueVividn'ess1VeryHigh2High,,'3Mod.High\.,4Moderate5Hod.Low6Low7VeryLmvVisualIntactnessVisualintactnessisdefinedastherelativedegreeofapparentnaturalconditionofthelandscapeoritselements.To/determinethelevelofintactnessofalandscape,onemustconsidertwofactors:itslevelofdevelopmentandthepresenceorabsenceofdisturbingvisualencroachment.Asboothhavebeenfoundtodiminishlandscapequality(Zube,March,1973),bothareevalua'tedaselemen'tsofintactness.80 Visualencroachmenotisthepresenceorabsenceofvisuallydisturbingforeignlandscapeelemenots,suchasjunkyardsordistractingbillboards,aswellastheapparentlevelofman'sphysicalalterationorscarringofnaturallandformsorvegetation,suchasroadcutsandfills,gravelpiots,orclearcuotting.Thedegreeofencroachmentisaglobalassessmentfortheentire"natural"portionoftheaestheoticresourcesmatrix:InotactnessVHHMH11HLLVLDegreeofVisualEncroachmentPristinelandscape.Veryminorvisualdisturbance/physical°alteration.Hinorvisualdisturbance/physicalaloteraotion.Hoderatevisualdisturbance/physicalalteration...Moderaotelysubstanotialvisualdistur-bance/physicalalteration.Substantialvisualdisturbance/physicalalteration.Highlyvisually/physicallyaltered.Thelevelofdevelopmentisanassessmentofthe"culotural"portionoftheaestheticresourcesmaotrix.Itrepresenotstheapparentdegreeofnaoturalconditionorlevelofpresenceofman-madedevelopmentinthelandscape:81 IntactnessVHHMHt1LLVLLevelofDevelopmen'tWilderness,noapparentman-madedevelopmen't.Highlynatural,fewsignsofman-madedevelopment.Hoderatelyhighlyna'tural,fewsignsofman-madedevelopmen't.Moderatelyna'tural,scatteredlow-densitydevelopment.Moderatelyhighdegreeofman-madedevelopment.'Notverynatural,highdegreeofman-madedevelopment.Han-madedevelopmentdominatesland~scape...(Bothassessmentswerecarriedoutseparatelyfortheleftandrightsidesofthecoterminousviewshedofeachrun.Thesummaryvalueforvisualintactnessenteredintheresourcesmatrixrepresentsanaverageofthesetwocomponentmeasures.UnityUnityisameasureofthedegreetowhichthevisualresourcesofalandscapejointoge'thertoform'asingle,coherent,harmoniousvisualunit.Unityreferstothecompositionalharmonyorintercompatabilityofthevisualresourcescomprisedineachriverrun.Unitydoesnotnecessarilydemandthatallinteractingvisualresourcesbesimilarorbland,butmayratherdependupon,thepresenceofanorganizedbalancebetweendominantandsubordinatevisualresources.Unityismeasuredintwocomponents.First,thedegreeofunitybetweenman-made82.;.( andnaturalvisualresourcesisra-tedin-the"cultural"portionoftheresourcesmatrix.Thisevaluationofunitydiffersfromtheevaluationsofintactnessandthevividnessof"man-madeelements;itisnotc~ncernedwi-ththeabunda..'lceofman-madeelements(asinin'tact-ness)nor\vi-ththeirlevelofdistinctionorvisualcontrast(asinvividness)-.Thiscomponen-tofunityisonlyconcernedwiththelevelofvisualintegrationofman-madeelements\vi-ththena-turalse-tting,or--thedegreetowhichtheycontributetoordetractfromthevisualcomposition.Thedegreeofunitybetweenman-madeandnaturalelementsis,measuredon_-thefollowingscale:UnityVHIIMHMMLLVLMan-madeElementsVeryhighlyunifiedwithnatural(orabsent).Highlyunifiedwithnatural.Moderatelyhighlyunifiedwithnatural.Moderatelyunifiedwithnatural.Moderatelylowunitywithnatural.Lowunitywithnatural.Verylowunitywithnatural.Second,theunityoftheoveralllandscapeisratedonasimilarseven-levelscale.Bothassessmentsagainarecarriedoutseparatelyforthetwosidesofeachrun.Thetwoarethenaveragedtoobtainthefinalevaluationoflands~apeunity.VisualUniquenessVisualuniquenessofdistinctlandscapeelementswhichmaybescarceenoughtowarranthigher83 thannormalconsiderationisidentifiedhere.Thelevelof·uniquenessofeachlandscapeelementdependsuponthenumberoftimesitoccursineachruninrela'tion'tothenumberoftimesitoccurswi,thinthestudy~rea.(,;I:;eop0l.d.andHarch!'l-nd)·,As·withna:turaluniqueness,thisis'aculturallysignificantweightingfactor,anditsvalueforeachside·ofeachcoterminousviewshedzoneisdeterminedbythemethoddescribedinthe1\.(discussionof.naturaluniqueness.'Onevariation,however,istha'tonlycharacteris,ticsoccurringatahighmagnitudeofexpressionareconsideredinevaluating.therelativescarcityofindividualresources.Anotheristhatthematrixusedtodeterminethevisualunique-nessofeachrunaftertheoccurrencesofscarceresourceshavebeen'talliedisslightlydifferent,becausetherangesofoccurrenceateachlevel.aredifferentforthevisualresources:RelativeVisualUniquenessScarci'tyVHHHHNMLLVLHigh321Mod.321Low7,65-32-0Paralleltonaturaluniqueness,therelativeuniquenessofviewshedresourcesinmajorcategoriesisdisplayedinthefullaestheticresourcematrix:terrainandcover.AestheticValueAesthe'ticvalue'I-laSdefinedabove.bytheequation:.,(,~.r,AV=V+VI+U3';'VU84 Theinputvaluesforvividness,visualin-tact-nessandunityarederivedin-thesame"rayasthosefornaturalvalueandtheresultingaverageagainconvertedtoa 1to100scale.Thevisualuniquenessevaluationalsowasconvertedtoacoefficientsimilarto.na-turaluniqueness,andtheadjustedaes-theticvalueisalsothebasisforthecomputationofchange.Again,forgraphicdisplayintherna-trices,aesthetic.valuewasconvertedbacktoaVeryHigh-VeryLowscale:85 ENVIRONHENTALQUALITYThediscussionsofaestheticandnaturalvalueshavebeenparallelinseveralrespects;inparticular,bothdefinitionsofvaluehavebeencouchedintermsofstrengthorvigor,and,intermsofintegrity.Inariverrunwi,thhigh,na'turalvalue,thecharacteristicnaturalprocessesandsystemsarebothpronouncedandunimpaired;similariy,inarunwithhighaestheticvalue,thevisualimpressionisbothstrongandwhole.Alandscapethatishealthy,andisalsoseentobehealthy-thatistheworkingdefinitionofenvironmen'talqualityadvancedhere:(AV+NV2=EQThereareotherdimensionsofenvironmentalqualitythatmust'beconsideredinmoredevelopedareas~forexample,airqualityandambientsoundornoiselevels.Inthisstudy,however,thelevelofexistingdevelop-mentandthetypeofproposeddevelopmentmakeitreasonabletoassumetha'tthesequalitiesaresohighthattheymaybetakenascons'tantsanddroppedfromtheanalysis.Waterquality,anotherfrequentdimen-sionencountered,isincludedunder"na'turalvalue"inthisdefinitionofenvironmentalquality.86 RECRE~TIONSQITA~ILITY::.:'.....Projection'ofRecreationa,l.·Use,TheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEnginee~shasawelldefinedmethodforestimatingtherecreationaluseofaproposedreservoir(D.A.Crane,1974).'This.me·thodutilizestime-distanceanalysis,examina·tionofal-t~rnative'recreationalopportuni·ties,andananalysisoftheprojectedreservoir'srecreationalpossibilities.However,themethod'sapplica·tionhingesontheuseofa"similarproject"analog(Le.,ana.lysisofpercapitarecreationalusebasedonanexistinganalogousreservoirandregion)and,therefore,isofdoubtful.valueintheAlaskancontext,wheresituationssimilartotheproposedDevilCanyonandDenalireservoirsareunavailable.Nonetheless,theCorps'experiencewithover50reservoirsnatiomvidewithinthelower48s·tateshasled',tosomevaluablegeneralconclusions:a.About50%ofreservoirusecanbeexplainedpurelyintermsofdistanceinrelationtopopulationcenters.b.Eachreservoir'suniquerecreationalopportunitieswillhelpdeterminetherangeofuse.c.Thedegreeofdevelopmentisnotastrongindicatorofuse.d.Al·terna'tives(compe·tition)willoftenaffectrecrea'tionaluse.e.Socio-economicfactorsareoflimitedvalue.f.Soilandwaterqualityaffectuseonlywheretheyarequiteunsuitable.Nationwideanalysisofreservoirshascomeupwithusefulindica'torsfordayuseandcampinguse:a.Areservoir's"marke·tarea"radiusfor'day-use87 (80%ofallvisitation)ispredominantlyunder75miles.Apracticalday-uselimi.tisabou·tlOOmiles.b.Areservoir'scamping(weekenduse)marketarearadiusispredominantlyfrom100to200miles.Theimportanceofaccessibilityisfurthernotedinthetypical:one-\'/aydis·tancestraveledforcertaintypesofoutdoorrecreationinthecontinentalunitedStates~(ClawsonandKnetsch,p.98)a.,Afterwork,foradultsUp'to,Smiles.seekingspecialoppor-tunities.cb.One-dayoutings.c..Weekendouting.d.Shortvacation(twow'eeksorless).e.Longervacation(morethanbvoweeks).20-50miles(fartherif'trafficislightandattractiveareasareunavailablenearer}.100to150miles.400to600.miles.1000milesormore.TheAnchoragearea(popula'tion115,0001974Milepost)isbyfarthegreatestsourceofrecreationaluseintheRailbeltarea.Theprojectarea(eastoftheAnchorage/FairbanksHighwayand88i," southoftheDenaliHighway)isfrom150-to200milesfrombothFairbanksandAnchorage.ThustheupperSusitnaValleycurrentlylacksanearby(day-use)recreational"market"(figure4).FortheDenaliReservoir,thisisunlikelytosubstantiallychangeinthefuture:noneofthethreepotentialNewCapitalzoneswillexertclose-in(100miles)pressure.TheDevilCanyonReservoircould_presentanotherpicture.TheNewCapital(rep-resentingapopulationofunder20,000by2000A.D.)mayverywellbesitedintheTalkeetnaZone.Ifthisisthecase,theDevilCanyonReservoirwillbeinitsday-userange.Forboothreservoirs,thecampingand.weekendusemarke-tarea\"illcontainabou-t170,000people(Fairbanks,Anchorage,andMatanuskaSusitnaBorough).Percapitauserelativetothereservoirshasyettobedetermined,andwillrequiremuchfurtherstudy.Someadditionalconsiderationsinprojecting_potentialday-useandweekend-usepressuresatDevilCanyoninclude:theinherentdifficul-ty_ofu-tilizingnarrmvs-teep-sidedreservoirsforrecrea-tion:thecompetitionofDenaliStatePark,ChugachState.Park,theexpandedMountMcKinleyNationalPark;thesplen~didKenaiPeninsula(southofAnchorage),otherregionaiattractions;andthedegreeofaccessdevelopedtothereservoir(i.e.-,gravelledroadsvspaved,steepvsgen-tleroadgrades,thepresenceorabsenceofboatlclUnchesandmoorages,orthedevelopmentoffishingaccessesandtrails).Theopera-tionandmaintenanceofDevilCanyonfacilitieswillbeanotherfactor:89 theCorpshasTinotherstatesTturnedovervariouscompletedreservoirparksformanagemen'tass'ta'teparkunits.IfthiswerethecaseTDevilCanyonfacilitiesmightbemanagedasaremoteunitofDenaliSta'tePark.(Themoreisola'tedDenaliReservoirwouldrequireasepara'terecrea'tionalmanagementprogramT'possiblybasedonhuntingTfishingTboatingTandnatureconservancy).Hanagemen'tofrecrea'tionfacilitiesby'theAlaskaDivisionofParkswouldprovidea,basisforoneprojectionofrecreationuse.However,theeventualo,¥nershipoflandsadjoiningthereservoirsmightpre-cludestatesponsorshipoffacilitiesandins'teadopenthepossibilityofsponsorshipbyanativecorporationwithquitedifferentpoliciesTgeneratingalternativeprojectionsofrecreationuse.Theactualprojectionofrecreationuseisoutsidethescopeofthisstudy;neverthelessTthisassessmentisintendedtobeofuseinthatprojection.-Tothat'endthefocusoftherecrea'tionalassessmentwillbetoidentifytheinherentsuitabilityofeachriverrunforspeci,ficlevelsofrecreationuseTintermsoftherun'scapacitytoacceptrecreationimpacts.RecreationalCarryingCapaci,tyThesimplestmeaningofthisconceptistheabilityofanareatoabsorboutsideinfluenceandstillretainitsessence.WhencarryingcapacityisexceededTthatessenceislos,t.Theoriginsofcarryingcapacitytheoryandapplicationarefound90(( ,.inthefieldsof\"ildlife,rangemanagemen't,agricul-tureandforestry.Toacertaindegree,thissametheorycanbeapp)iedtorecreationalcarryingcapacitybecause"asin'thecaseofgrazingandforestry,'thereissome'limitbeyondwhichusecannotincreasewithoutseriousdeteriorationin'thequali,ty'oftherecreationalexperience-andfrequently,seriousphysicaldeteriora-tionofanareaaswell."(ClawsonandKnetsch,p.176).Foradefinitionofrecreationcarryingcapacitytobeusefulandcompiete,itmustcoverallaspectsofcapacity-physical,ecological,psychological,andsocial,whichthefollowingseemstodo:",therecre-ationalcarryingcapacityisthecharacterofusethatcanbesupportedoveraspecifiedtimebyanareadevelopedatacertainlevelwithoutcausingexcessivedamagetoeitherthephysicalenvironmentorexperienceofthevisitor."(StankeycihdLime,p.175).Howmuchusecananareasupportwithoutdetractingfromor'destroy-ingtheveryenvironmentalresourcesandqualities'thatinitiallyattracted,recreation'use?Recreationalcarryingcapacityiscomposedoftwobasicfactors:1)physical/ecologicalcapacity,and2)social/psychologicalcapacity.1.Thephysical/ecologicalcapacityofarecreationareapertainstotheamountandcharacterofusebeyondwhichthephysicalresourcewillbeunaccep'tablyaltered.Generally,thephysicalandecologicalcarrying,capacityofarecreationareaisconcernedwiththechangeinthenaturalenvironmentbrough,taboutbybo,thnaturalprocessesandhumanimpacts.91 \.......,.Impactsassociatedwithrecreationalusehavetangibleeffectsontheenvironment.Forexample,campingcanhavethefollowingeffectsinvaryingdegrees:cResourceSoil:Vegetation:AnimalLife:Water:Air:EffectSoilcompaction,erosion,lossoforganiclayers,changesinsoilacidity.,Lossofvegetationthrough'trampling,fire,removal,rootcompaction,ordisease;changesin'vege'tation-types.Lossordisruptionofresiden'tandmigratoryspeciesthroughhabita-t'loss,fire,diseaseordestruction;changesinspeciestypes.Impairedwaterquality(increasedsedimentation,eutrophication,orpetrochemicalcontamination);in-'creasedrunoffthroughsoilcompac-tionorpaving.Impairedairquality(smoke,dust,autoemissions);increasednoiselevels.(Theintensityofuseisoftenfarmoreimportantthanthe-typeofuse,althoughcertainusesareintrinsicallymoredetrimentalthanothers(e.g.,horsebackridingimpactsontrailormeadowaremoreseverethanfoottraffic).92 Thegrossmagni·tudeofimpactisdependentonthenumberandfrequencyofusersmorethananyotherdeterminant.Thenumberandfrequencyofusersisdetermined.bysitequalities,access,populationpressure,anddevelopment.\Particularareasofconcernrelativetospecificrecreationalusesaretabulatedinfigure14.lI I IIiII IiI II I I_L....L.LL!'Iffl!_.'II...L-.?I I IilII!TIj~_~iIIi:l-4'11lI']..iI..L..L.__IU..ULLII_L~.LI 'ILLI IJz~:7iu~7.:\~~ILI!.£-~2L-/r~ouru.W'1!!er1l.7rela.hm!-IvreertafiotJ.ttlU?e.C£tU?<?'~=vr1!p;{ft-recarduJVf\-A-Y&¥ofIto-4.1'hVHW~:7M.Q,41,,{'1'{fl/r:tfJ_7o.f·7i&l'ki~wnun::'jth<tf-~,MW;~~cl7wi;icl<-?t\O'M.~P,lIi,i"iJ."»-..£<tWA.n.mvZ:.;i>ji.k4if'f~-fO.'U\.I.\?<-'(tvfWHr.c,ua,VrA:O'(A'£If'.ono1~)17inJYd~crY1Y-Oj~,r,'.M.FIG~RE14.RECREATIONALUSEANDRESOURCECONCERNS93 experience.""I~QualityofExperience~__2.Thesocial/psychologicalcapacity-ofarecreationareainvolvesthequalityoftherecre-ationalexperienceasperceivedbytheuserandrela-testotheeffectofsuchfactorsasovercrowdingandtheconditionofphysicalresourcesonusersatisfaction.Sociologicalconsiderationalsorelate"to-theeffectsofpeopleonpeopleaswellasthoseof"thenaturalenvironmentonpeople.Theseimpactsaremanifestedinadverseeffectsofdifferenttypesofrecreationalactivitiesuponeachother.Levelsoftoleranceforo"therpeople'srecreationalactivitiesvary.Atoneextremeisthepersonforwhomthesightoreventheknowledgeofotherpersons"inthevicinitydetractsfromthequali-tyof)Numberofpeopleencountered"'Attheotherextremearethosewhoseprimarydelightinrecreationalexperiencecomesfromtheirassociationwithcompanions("socialization")ortheirrecreati~:malequipmen-t("artifactualism")ratherthanthenaturalresourceitself._Quality"of11~"ExperienceIl~~======;=~Nlli~erofp~opleencounteredConflictsarebothpsychological(e.g.,thenoiseofmo"torizedequipmen"teffec"tivelynegatingasensitiveuser's~'lildlandexperience)andphysical(e.g.,motorboatingcrea"tinghazardousconditionsforcanoeing).Conflictsmayariseduetouse-in"tensi-ty94(('-( conflicts,ormayoccurwithinagivenin·tensitylevel(e.g.,low-intensitytrailbikingconflictingwi·thlmv-intensi·tyhikingorcamping);hmvever,compatibleactivitiesgenerallyoccurwithinasimilarrangeofintensity.";.,....c,Seasonalavailabiiityaddsanotherdimension'to,conflict:theshortlate-summer-to-falluseseasonispressuredbyavarietyofincompatibleusessuchashunting,,camping,oroff-roadvehicleuse.Aseasonality9hart(figure15)presentsseasonalvariationsandrecreation-useoverlaps."Peakingisthetimefactorthatcausesmostmanagementproblems.Nearlyalloutdoorrecrea·tionactivitiesaresubjecttoextremepeaks,ofuseatcertaintimesandtoverylowlevelofuseatothertimes.Oneconsequenceofthisextremepeakingo~demandisthatnaturalresources,.capitalinvestments,andtoa .largeexten't,managementandotherpersonnel,areinefficientlyutilized."(Cla,vsonandKne·tsch,p.l70).InteractionbetweenPhysicalandSocialCarryingCapacity.Inconsideringthephysicalandsocialcarry-ingcapacity,it'becomesevidentthateachrecreationsiteorriverunitcanwithstandonlysomuchuseandabuse,andthattheusercantolerateonlysomuchcongestion.Allthesefactorsareinterdependent,anditisthelnteractionofthesevariablesthatmakestheunderstandingandquantificationofrecreationalcarryingcapacitydifficult.Wherephysicalandsocialcarryingareofdifferentvalues,"lhichshou'lo.govern?95capacitiesFormost -recreationalresources,thephysicalcapaci-tyis-theabsolutecapacity,andundernocircumstancesshouldrecreationalusebepermittedtoexceedi-toAlthoughinsomecases,damagetothenaturalresourcew-illno-!:-affect-theuser'ssa-tisfaction(i.e.,ATVactivi-ties),normallythephysicalcapacityshouldbeconsideredasth~upperlimitinplanningforrecrea-tionareas.(Alldredge,p.22).However,itisalsoentirely-possibletha-!:thesocialcapacitycanbeexceededwithnoseriousphysicaldamageresultingtothenaturalresourcesofanarea.Insuchsituationsthecontrollingorlimitingcapacityshouldbethatcapacity-'vhichhasthelowesttolerance.(Alldredge,p.22).Inother,vards,Uifthelevelofuseatwhichvisitorsatisfactionisexcessivelydiminishedisreachedbeforeunaccep-tablephysicaldamageoccurs,socialcarryingcapaci-!:yiscon-trolling.U(Treib,p.3).Usually,thedifferen-!:fact-orswhichaffectrecreationalqualityarenotsoeasilyisolatedandexaminedastheyareintheoreticaldiscussions.Often,itisacombinationofdifferentcapacities,invarying_degrees,-tha-testablishestherecrea-tionalcarryingcapacityofanarea.RecreationalCarryingCapacityLevelsThreelevelsofcarryingcapacityweredevelopedinanattempttodealwithHig~,Moderate,andLov!usein-tensities.Theprimaryzonesofeachrunareratedasbeingsui-tableforoneof-thesecarryingcapaci-tylevels_96 1.Highcarryingcapaci-tyareasareappropria-te-togenerallyhighimpactusesandarecharacterizedbysomeofthefollowing:a.Largenlli~ersofusers.b.Highdensityofusers.c.Highextentofrequiredmitigation(e.g.,regularmaintenance,control,orresourcerehabilitation).Theneedforhighaccessi-bilityandtolerance.d.Theneedforformalsupportfacilities.Examples:_Highlyaccessibledevelopedpublicparks(camping,picnicking,boatlaunching,fieldgames),highvolumepowerboating,highvolumehiking,horseback,ortrailbiketrails.2.Moderatecarryingcapacityareasrepresentabalancebetweenhighandlowimpactuses:a.Smallergroupsofusers.b.Moderatedensity.c.Lessneedformitigation.d.Lessneedforaccessibilityandtolerance.e.Low-keyfacilitiesExamples:Small-scalecampgroundsorpicnicareas,moderatevolumetrailuses,lowden~itypow-erboating.3.Lowcarryingcapacityareasrelatetothemostsensitiveriverunitsandlowimpactusessuchasthefollm.,ing:a.Smallnumberofusers.b.Lowdensity,dispersedusers.c.Littleornoneedformitigation(maintenance,--con-trolorrepair).d.Leas-taccessible,lesstolerantareas.e.VirtuallynosupportfacilitiesExamples:Lowdensity,long-rangetrailsof99) alltypes,individualorsmall-groupremotecampsites,wildlifepreserves,ecologicalstudyareas.Thegeneralcarryingcapacitylevelofeachriverrunshouldbeusedasaguideforf~turerecreationalplanningwithfurtheradjustmen'tsbasedon,thecompatibilityof.,,'po'tential'uses'witheachother.UsabilityAnelementofsuitabilityforrecreationisresourceusability.Thismeasure,developedforeachsideoftheprimarywatershedzones,isbasedontherelativeabundanceandlengthofseasonforrecreationresources;italsocapturestherelativephysicalavailabilityoftheresources.Itistheproductofseasonalavailabilityandaccessibility,bothevalu-ativemeasuresderivedfromthenaturalandculturalresources'inventoryanddescribedabove.Thesemeasureswereexpressedinaseven-pointnumericscale(l=VH),multiplied,andtheactualrangeoftheirproductstratifiedintothreelevelsofusability:f(,..'l(S.A.)x(Access)2 -11.311.4-20.720.8-30UsabilityHighModerateLowThismeasure,reflectstheutilityofresourcesforrecreationintermsofthehumanuser,andthereforeisameasureofthepoten'tialhumanpressureonresources.I'tdoesnotnecessarilycorrela'te''1ith,carryingcapacitylevels.\"100J RecreationResourceLevelsIndetermininglandscapesuitabilityforrecrea·tionaluses,itisnecessarytoassumeasastartingpointtha·tatleas·tsomeareasaresuitableforeachlevelofuseidentified.Thisassumption(I",\.canthenbemodifiedbyenvironmen·talconstrain·tsanduseconsiderations.Thestartingpointinthisstudywasasimplestratificationoftheriverruns(rightandlef·tsideskep·tseparate)intothreepreliminaryrecrea-.tion,.resource.·levels..eorrespqnd;Lngto'the'th't:ee:~reereationalcarryingcapacitylevels.Thiswasdonebynormalizingtherangeofexistingenvironmentalqualityscoresintothreelevets:RecreationResourceLevelsHighHoderateLowPreliminaryRecreationalCar'ry;ngCapacity'LowHodera·teHighThesamebreakpointswereusedtodistributetheenviron-men·talqualityscoresre-calculatedfor·af·ter-construc-tionconditions.Thebasicassumptionisthathighimpactuses,requiringhighrecreationalcarryingcapacity,areleas·tsui·tedtoareasofhighenviron-mentalquality.RecreationSuitabilityThepreliminaryidentificationofrecreationvalueabovedoesnotrespond·to·theevalua·tiveparametersmeasuredforeachrun.Thedeterminationofrecreationsuitabilityrequiresthisresponseandisdiagrammedini·tsen·tiretyinfigure16101 -..-\-;."._-.1.IV-f-VI-tU5-f~..~..V-1~I~~';1~~."-0<::~~~-.\~'"~"~i.~~-Jh~~.~.~~.~i~~l;;~AV~~~~>..:::R.~~.~~~~]~~~,i;f~~~.~~.li.~~~~~.,t~'~~:;;.~\§t1t~t~~~.tr-f!RRlIR.7..R7v......mI-fZR."~c-R7.rf3R7tA..".-fZRi,.R7HR.7fl'-'-FIGURE16,SU~~~TIONOFNATURAL,AESTHE~IC:-"ENVIRON~£N~AL&RECREATIONVALUES102....--:"(~~'tt.,)~'~ih.~".~1~~,~~~..".i..~....~~..(! Asthediagramdisplays,thereweretwos-tepsbetweenthede-terminations·ofrecrea-tionvalueandrecreationsuitability.Thefirstconsistedofcheckingthezonesineachpreliminaryrecreationresourcelevelagainstasetofenvironmentalcriteriaforthecorrespondingrecreationalcarryingcapaci-tylevel.Thesethree'setsofcriteriaare:Recrea-tionalCarryingCapacityLevelB-nvi-r-o'nrr;e-n-t-alCr-lteri-aFragilityN.IntactnessAesth.ValueLowHHHliMHoderate11HHHMHighLHNLHMLTheresultsof_thischeckaredisplayedasunadjustedrecreationsuitabilityinthesu~~arymatrix.Thesecondstepcheckedthisunadjustedsuitabilityagainstusability,consideredasameasureofpressure.Areasmarginallysuitedfora_givenrecrea-tionlevel-wereshiftedintoalowerimpactcapacityclassbyhighpressure,andintoahigherimpactclassbylowpressure(usability).Specifically,thefollowingmarginalsuitabili-tieswere-shifted:EnvironmentalRecrea-tionalCarryingCapaci-tyCriteriaL-owNode-ra--teHighFragilityHNHL(H)LN.In-tactnessHHHHHNLAesth.ValueHHm1HI'lLUsabilityL--}0-:-HL~~-H103 r·tisstressedagainthatthisdeterminationofrecreationsuitabilitydoesnotnecessarilymeanthatanareaisattractive.toagivenrecreationtype;thisanalysisisintended,.instead,·toidentifyareasabletotolera·tehigh-impactrecreation·types..Further,the·analysisassumesminimalrecreationfacilitiesandmanagement.Provisionoffacilitiesandmanagementwouldhaveamitigatingeffectandcouldincreasethecarryingcapacityoftheareasaffected.Nonetheless,thesuitabilitylevelsderivedherearebasedonconstraintsinherenttotherecreationresourcebaseandshoulddisciplineanyfuturerecreationplanning.104~;•(c EVALUATIONOFCHANGEResourceMagnitudeTheevaluationofchangesin.studyareaconditionsafterconstructionofthefourdamsbeginswithchangesin-thedatabase(seethesection"FutureConditionsAssessed").Thedams,,,ereloca-tedonthe1/250,000and1/63,360basemapsusedinthestudyandinundatedareasdelineated.Theroadsandpowerlinesforwhichcorridorshavebeendelinea-tedwerealsomapped(seethesection"FutureCondi-tionsAssessed").Theneveryresourcedatacharac-teristicin-therna-trices.wasre-examinedandallchangesinmagni-tudeentered.Resourceincreases(ecg.,lakes)werenoted,aswellasdecreases.Onlyresourcechangesdirectlyrelatingtodamconstructionorreservoirinundationwererecorded.Therefore,changesweregenerallynoten-teredin-thesecondarywa-tershedzones;-theexceptionwasLowerDevilCanyon,wherethenewroadandpowerlinesareslatedtocrosstheleftsecondaryzone.Theup-datestendtobeconservative,in-.tha·cnotallchangesintheresourcebaseweregreatenoughtobepickedupinthemagni-tudera-tings.Severalpotentiallysignificantchangescouldnotbequantifiedorspatially.located,andthesewerenotenteredintheupda-tedinvent:oriesa-tall:most·notably,potentialadverseeffectonwildlife,andparticularlycaribouandmoose.Bothspeciesrangewidelyandhabi-ca-t-lossesdue-toinunda-tionarerela-tivelyinsignifican-cintermsof·totalranges.'J:heconcernsover·thefu·tureoftheseanimalscenteroncriticalwinterrange_andbarrierstomigra-tion.Theseissues-couldonlybe105 raisedfordiscussionandconsideration,asnosolidda-taHereavailable-toresolvethesequestions.ResourceValueAllmeasuresofimportancewerereassessed(aestheticvalue)-orre-calculated-(naturalvalue)fromtheupdatedmagnitudeofresourcesupplymatrices.Thenaestheticvalue,naturalvalue,environmental}qualityandrecreationsuitabilityHerere-coInputedandre-mapped.Nlli"llericChangeThenumericaldifferencebetHeenaestheticvaluebeforeandaestheticvalueafterisadirectwayofexpressing-theniagnitudeofchange.Thisdifferencewastabulatedfornaturalvalueandenvironme~talqualityaswell.Forgraphicdisplay,therangeofdifferenceineachvalueorqualityHasnormalizedin-tosevenlevels,andthevariouszonesofeachrunrankedaccordingly.Thisisbothdisplayedinthe"after"rna-tricesandmapped.Recreationsui-tability'·lassligh-tlydifferen-t·_inthatitwasdeterminedatonlythreelevels.WhiletheanalysisHouldhaveallowedchangeineitherdirection,theactualchangesinrecreationvaluewerealltowardsuitabilityformoreintense,higherimpactuse.These!!\"ererankedandgraphicallydisplayedasfollo~"s:Recrea-tionSui-tabilityRelativeGrayBeforeAfterChan-geScaleLHHDarkMHHHediurnLHLLigh-tHHLnochangeVLV.JJight'.\106 ProportionalChangeThenumericalchangeinvaluedoesnutconveythedegreeofchangerelat.ivetooriginal"value.Forexample,thereisnoindicationwhethera16-pointreductioninaestheticvalueaffectsarunthevalueofwhichwasextremelyhighorfairlylowtobeginwith.IHowever,aratiowhichexpressedthechangeinvaluerela-tivetotherun'soriginalaesthe"ticvaluewillconvey"thesignificance_ofthechangeorimpact.Thisratio,termedproportionalchange(PC)isheredemonstratedforexistingaestheticvalue(AVE)andaestheticvalueafterdamconstruction(AVA):AVE-AVA,orNCPCAVEAVEThevalueofPCwillvaryaccordingtotherelativeseverityofchangeinaestheticvalue.IfthereisnochangePCwillequalzero.Threeexamplesofvaryingseverityofchangeare:PC=26-1010=1.60Pris"tineLandscape,16-poinlossinAV36-200.72Semi-developedlandscape,PC==2216-pointlossinAV56-40PC= =0.36In"tensivelydevelopedlandscaj4016-pointlossinAVTheuseofproportionalchangehereimpliesthevie\~thatagivenlossinaestheticvalueismos"tseyereatapristinesi"te,andreflectsthewidelyheldbeliefthathighqualityvisualresourcesshouldbepreserved.107 Proportionalchangehasbeencalculatedforaestheticvalue,naturalvalue,andenvironmentalquality(theconcep-tisno-tapplicable-to-therecrea-tionsui-tabilityde-termina-tions).Theseratioshavebeendisplayedandmappedgraphically,basedonaseven-levellogarithmicrankingofproportionalchange.108(( VI.RESOURCESOFREGIONALSIGNIFICfu~CE",..."..'i,li(GEOLOGYSeveralgeologicfeatures,oftheUpperSusitnaareuniqueandsignificantintheregionalcontext.within,theframeworkoftheglobaltectonictheory,thestudyareaoccupiesamiddlegroundbetweentheolderpre-CambriantoDevonianrocksnorthoftheDenaliFaultandyoungerintrusives,and,eugeosyncllnal,sedimentaryrockssouthoftheSusitnaRiverregion.Thismiddlegroundhasbeentranslated400kmrightlaterallyalongthe'DenaliFault,suggestingthatoriginaldepositionofthebasement'terranerocksmayhaveoccurredintheKluaneLakearea.Thismiddlegroundmustrepresentthedepositionaltransi,tionzonebebveenthecontinen'tal,terraneandtheoceaniccrustandmaysomedayyieldcluesessentialtoamorepreciseunderstandingofSouthcentralAlaskageologichistory.Ultimately,thisareamayprovideinformationvitaltothefurtheringofglobaltectonictheory.Alargeportionoftheareaisnowcoveredbyproglaciallakedeposits.ThesesedimentsweredepositedduringLatePleistocenetime(figurelf).OnlythreesignificantproglaciallakesarerecordedinAlaska:AsmalllakeoccupiedanareaofwesternKodiakIsland;CookInletwasinundatedbywaterduringpartofthe,Pleistocene;thesoutheastthirdoftheUpperSusitnaRiverregionandportionsoftheCopperRiverBasinwerefloodedduringtheKnikandNaptmvneglacia'tions(AlaskaGlacialMapCOTh~ittee,1965).\179 ........:ThelowerportionoftheUpperSusitnavalleyappearstobeentirelystreamcut;ananomalousfeatureinaregiondominatedbyglaciallycarvedU~shapedvalleys.Numerousunderfitstreamsat-testto-thepredominanceofglacialscouringinthetributaryvalleys,butthevalleyoftheeast-westportionoftheUpperSusitnadisplaysaV-shapedprofile:subs-tantiallyunmodified\byglacialaction...>.WHITEWATERNotonlydoesmuchoftheUpperSusitnaRiveroccupyastream-cutvalley,buttherapidsinDevilCanyonaresoexceptionallyviolen-tandspectacularastoconstituteanearlyuniqueaestheticandrecreationalresource.MostAlaskanriversoccupybroadglaciallyscouredvalley~andwhitewaterbeyondclassIIIisrare(conversationswithmembersoftheU.S.D.I.AlaskaTaskForceresponsiblefor_recommendationsonadditionstotheNationalWildandScenicRiversSystem,1974).OnlythreemajorwhitewaterriversareknowninAlaska:theSusitnaand-theBremnerin-theSouthcen-tralRegion,-andtheAlsekintheSoutheast.AllareclassVIrivers(I.A.C.rating),atthelimitofnavigability,andcannotbeattemptedwithoutriskoflife.Allthreeareglacialrivers;thenear-freezing'vateranditsopacityfurtheraddto-thedangerposedbytheturbulenceoftheirrapids.TheSusitnaandAlsekwererecentlybothsuccessfullykayakedbyDr.WaltBlackadarforthefirsttime.Itisnotknownifanyonehasyetattempt:edtheBremner,atributaryoftheCopper.Accordingto"lhite,va-terboa-ters,thecharacteristicsofthethreearequitedifferent,althoughequallyviolent.TheBremneris-asmall,180- I-I!.'(,( steepriverinanexceptionallynarrowslot-likegorge;theAlsekis"ashort;.verys'teep,turbulentriver;theSusitnahasarelativelyflatgradientandowesitsviolencetoitsgreatvolume,theconstrictionofitschannelinDevilCanyon,andtherockyobs,tructions.initsbed.BlackadarhasdescribedDevilCanyonasm~chmoredifficultthantheGrandCanyonandasthe"11ountEverest"ofkayaking(AnchorageDailyTimes,March28,1973).FAUNATheUpperSusitnaprojectmaybeseenashavingattaineditspresentprioritythroughaseriesofcomparisonsofitswildlifeeffectswlththoseofotherhydroelectricprojects.MostnotableofthesewastheRampartProject,whichwouldhaveentailedgreatwildlifelosses;theSusitnaprojectwassingledou'tasanalternative"wi,thnosignificantfish'andwildlifeproblems"(U.S.D.I.,AlaskaNaturalResourcesandTheRampartProject,1967,p.29).Whileananalysisof,therelativeeffectsofinundationofUpperSusitnaRiverrunsdisplaysdifferentialeffectsrangingfromverylowtoveryhigh,aregionaloverviewdoestendtobearthisearlierconclusionoutin,somer~spectsbutnotall.MammalsCaribouaretheprincipalpotentialexceptiontotheconclusion,reachedabove.TheNelchinaHerdisd~finedbyi,tshabitualcalvinggroundscenteringon'thesecondaryHa'tershedzoneofRosinaCreekanc1occupiesthemostfavorableportion,or"centerofhabi,tation,"ofthecaribouregioncomprisingsouthcen'tralAlaska181 (Skoog,p.212).Thisherdis-themostaccessibleof-themajorAlaskanherdsandisamajorrecreationresource,al-thoughi-tispresentlyinamuchreducedsta-tefromitspopulationhighintheearly1960's.Theeffectsofthedamsandreservoirsontheherdcouldnotbequantifiedforthisstudy,butitisknownthatadverseeffectsarepossible(Villmo1972,Klein1973and1971).While-thedangerposedtothecalvingmigrationbyice-moatedreservoirsmaybemitigated:(see""reductionofconflicts"inthenextchapter),theremaywellbealong-termde-pressionofcariboupopulationlevelsthroughthe"compart-mentalization"oftheNelchinaherd'srange.Subarcticecosystemsarecharacterizedbyextremeoscillationandlargegeographicscaleappearstohaveasurvivalfunctioninaveragingoutlocaloscillations(Dunbar,1973).Thus,thegreatmobilityofthecaribouappearstobeanadapta-tionallowingtheherdtoflourish,independentoflocallyadverseweatherandrangeconditions(Skoog,p.125).-ShouldroadandtransmissionlineconstructioninhibitcariboumovementastheyhavethemovementofferalreindeerinScandinavia,smalleraveragepopulationsappeartheinevitableresultinthestudyareaandthroughoutdevelopingAlaska.Unlikecaribourange,thebestmooserangeappearstobetheearlysuccessionalvegetationtypes.Moosemaythereforebesaidtobeinhabitantsof"disturbedlandscapes"andarefairlytoleran-tofman'sactivi-tyand-itsconsequences,even,toadegree,includingfire.Whilemoosepopulationsinthes-tudyareamaybereduced(theextentofthepossiblereduc-tion"hasye-ttobeestablished),thelong-termprognosisformooseinAlaskaappearstobegood.IntheSouth-centralRegion,however,becauseofhuntingpressure,anyreductionmaybeviewedwithconcern.i'j;JIif,,( Dallsheeparemuchlessnumerousthan"theabovetwospecies;thepopulationsinthestudyareaarerela"tivelysmall,heavilyhun"ted,andthereforevulnerable.Grizzlybear,blackbear,andwolfpopulationsinhabitthestudyarea,butnospecialsignificanceorvU"lnerabilityisknownforanyof"these.Mountaingoatsapparentlydonotinhabitthestudyareaatall.BirdsAccordingtothesurveyco~~issionedbytheFishandwildlifeService,nosignificantraptorpopula-tionsinhabittheimpoundmentareas.NumerouswaterfowlnestintheDenaliimpoundmentarea,butinregionalterms(AlaskaRegionalProfiles:SouthcentralRegion,"1974,p.158)thisisasmallportionofamedium~densityrangeextendingthroughouttheCopperRiverLowland.ThisrangeisinturnovershadowedbyhighdensityandveryhighdensityrangesinthelowerSusitnaandCopperrivers.AsignificantpartofthelatterwouldbeinundatedbytheWoodCanyondam,ahydropoweralternativetotheUpperSusitnaproject.FishAprincipalreasonforattentiontotheUpperSusitnaasahydropowerresourceappearstobetheabsenceofsalmonrunsbeyondthehydraulicblockatDevilCanyon.Currents"tudiesappeartosuggestthatearlierreportsmayhavebeentooop"timisticindiscountingeffectsondm"nstrea"mspa\Vning,bu"t"theUpperSusitnaprojec"ts"tillappearstohavetheleasteffectonsalmonofanymid-rangeorlong-range183 hydropoweralternative.The-tribu-tariesupstreamofDevilCanyonarealsotooswiftforsignificantfreshwaterfishhabi-ta-tun-tiltheTyoneisreached.GraylingpopulationsfromhereuptotheLowerWest~orkwouldbeimpactedbythereservoirsandalteredriverflows.Theregionalsignificanceof-thesepopula-tionsisnotknown,althoughtheTyonedoeshavesomereputationasafishingstream.('-RECREATION.~;,:\-iTherecreationaluseofAlaska's365million\,acresislimitedonlybythestate'senormoustraveldistances,-scantroadsystem,itsclimateandbioticlimitations.MostofAlaska'srecreationaldevelopmentservespre-dominan-tlyeither_thebv6primeurbancenters_(Anchorage,75,000;Fairbanks,18,600)orthenorth-southhighwaysys-tem'whichconnectsthem.These-twocentersengross-themajorityof-Alaskarspopula-tionandwillprobablycontinuetodoso,withtheadditionofthenewcapitalsomewherealongtherail/highwaylinkbe-ti,veenthem.TheupperSusitnaRiverValleyisoverwhelminglycharacterizedbylowvolumeusesassociatedwithhunting,fishing,rockhoundingandthelike.RaftingorkayakingontheSusitna(especiallyon-theDevilCanyonRapids)'requireshardinessandadegreeofskillpossessedbyfew.TheupperSusitnaissurroundedbypotentrecreationalattractions:thecoastalChugachMoun-tainsand-theKenaiPeninsulatothesouth,th~LakeLouiseareatotheeast,MountHcKinleyNationalParkclosebyto-thenorth~vestrthene\VDenaliSta-teParkimrnedia-telytothewestinthelowerSusitnaValley,andNancyLakeStateRecreationArea.Themaponthefollowingpageillustrates184:/ theregions'sprimaryrecreationalfeatures(figure34).Theprimaryorientationof-theseis-tmvardIm.v-impact'\vilderness-experiencerecreation.It.couldbeargued'thataplaceforhigherintensityrecreationshouldbedefinedin-thetheNelchinabasin,surroundedasitisbymountainous-areasheldCorproposed)asparklands~FIGURE34.REGIONALRECREATION;;iMountMcKinleyNatibhalParkisthelargestrecreationalattractioninthevicinity,and'\vouldbedoubledinsizebycurrentproposals.ThevehicularaccesspointontheAnchorage-FairbanksHighway(oppositeMcKinleyStationontheAlaskaRailroad)hascorefacilit{essuchasamaintransporta-tionstagingpoint,camping,visitorservices,airtours,interpretation;andtrailheads.185 ChugachstatePark,within10milesof.-Anchorage,isa495,000acreparkwithcamping(91.units),canoeing,~ishing,hikingandwinteruses.DenaliStateParkisa282,000acreareaapproximately130milesnorthofAnchoragewhichisplannedforawiderange0fintensitylevels.TheforecastatByersLakeisforacommercialho·telcomplexandlodge,camping(initially200sites),boatlaunching;wintersports,andanairport.NancyLakeStateRecrea-tionAreaisa23·,000acre areaintheSusitnaValley,about70roadmilesnorthofAnchorage.NancyLakeprovidescamping(over100units),picnicking,anda12mileinterlakecanoe-trailwithportages.LakeLouise(withadjoiningSusitnaLake)isamajorfishing,huntingandboatingcen-termostlyinprivateownership;itis-thesourceoftheTyoneRiver,a.Susitnatributary.LakeLouiseisapproachedfromthesouthviatheGlennHighway.!KenaiPeninsulaRegion.About100roadmilessouthofAnchorage,theworldfamousKenaiPeninsulaisavailableforthewidestpossiblerangeofAlaskanrecreation:superiorfishing,big-gamehunting,scenicdriving,skiing,lakeandsalb.;aterrecreationareallavailable.FeaturesincludetheKenaiNationalMooseRange,KachemakBaySta-teParkandW'ildernessPark(accessiblebyairorboatonly),andnumerousprivatelodges.186c(\ Tangl·eLakesArchaeoTogicDis,t'rict_Inrecentyearsover220'archaeol?gicsiteshavebeenfoundadjacenttotheDenaliHighwayeastoftheSusitnaRivercrossing;·TangleLakesArchaeologicDistrict,"'lasthusrecordedintheNationalRegisterinlate1971.WithintheTangleLakesComplexare,morearchaeologicalsitesthaninanyotherknownarea'ofcomparablesizeintheAmericasubarctic.Evidenceof.occupationreachesbacksome12to15,000years;thusTangleLakesisalikelycandidatefortheearliestobcupations~in";.'.'-;....theAmericanhemisphere,-showingaffinitywithCentralSiberian·occupations.Theintact"LandmarkGapChertQuarryllappearstobeoneoftheonlychertquarriesandtoolworkshopsknowninAlaska.Someoftheearliestinhabitants('~DenaliComplex,IJLatePaleolithic)occupiedtheshoreofalargeproglaciallake;theydisappearedwi-tho.itssuddendrainage(perhapscoupledwithothercatastrophicchanges),leavingnotraceoftheircul-tureamongsucceedingoccupants.Fearingvandalism,_archaeologistsarekeepingthearearelativelyunpublicized.Eventually,inter-pretiveprogramsandopenairin-situdisplays(pa~ticularlythechertworkshop)maybecomepossible.Talkeetnaisa"recreationtown,"acenterforairtours,huntingexpeditions,andclimbingparties.TalJ<eetnacouldbecor...eagatewaytotheexpandedna'tionalpark'SsouthernareasaswellasaservicecenterfortheDenali.parkcomplox-and~nyrecreationalfeaturesarisingfrom~~D¢vi~~nyonDam. alongtheDenaliandotherhighways~SincethecompletionoftheAnchorage-FairbanksHighwayin1972,theseareasareprincipallyusedbysportsmenr-HuntingandFishingareperhapsthemostdominantusesoftheregionbetweentheAlaskaRange,andtheTalkeetnaHoun-tains.Caribouando-thergamearecommonlytakenadjacent-totheDenaliHighway;furtheraccessrequir~stheuseofaircraft,snowvehicle,oroff-roadvehicle.Waterfowlhuntingandfishing-fortrout,grayling,andburbotcentersonthe_glacialoutwashregionneartheupperriverreaches,southoftheDenaliHighway.Manylarger'lakes(e.g.,SusitnaLakeandLakeLouise)andhundredsofsmaller'lakesandpondsprovidenestinggroundsformigratorywaterfowl.Elevendefactowlldandscenicriverslie\vithin200milesofAnchorage;sixteenarealso\yithinthesamedistancefromFairbanks(table5).AmongtheelevenaccessiblefromAnchorage,however,onlytheBremnerRiverissimilartotheSusitna;italsooffersanarrowcanyonexperiencewithasimilar'whitewatercharacter.Fourscenicandwildriversliewithin100milesofAnchorage:theSwansonRiver,theKenaiRiver,theRussianRiver,andtheSusitna.Theseareamongthe40riversrecommendedfordetailedstudyaspossibleadditionstotheNationalwildandScenicRiversSystemin1973.ThequalityofriverexperiencemeetsthestandardsoftheSys'temon188i(I,,{r-,.\1(\.~I\J_i),};!-il allofthese,butforavarietyofreasons,manybasedonlanduseandownershipconsiderations,only20ofthe40riverswereactuallyrecommendedforinclusionintheSys"temby"theSecre"taryoftheIn"teriorin1974.(figure35).-------.~cwt:wl1Al,.~iWk.'--------,Ai'"~~o.!(.(}t..cuFIGURE35.ALASK.2\NRIVERSSELECTEDFORINCLUSIONINTHENATIONALWILDANDSCENICRIVERSSYSTEM1891I!iiii'".IIIIIiI!r,!i,:!fiiljII!!ii1i TABLE5SCEN~CANDHILDRIVERSNEARHAJORPOPULATIONCENTERSi,I,.(l,icAir';;".,.,'ChatanikaR.AlatnaR.+Mileage50mi.100mi.'200mi.AnchorageSwansonR.KenaiR.{2}SusitnaR.RussianR.(2)DeltaR.GulkanaR.Talkeetna,SusitnaR.(IIo(0)NQwitnaR.+FairbanksChatanikaR.BeaverCr.+(2)BirchCr.+(1)NowitnaR.+,•".]!{1,,~!-ij,I '~CopperR.DeltaR.ChitinaR.+Gu~kanaR.BremnerR.+*CopperR.IliamnaR.ChitinaR.+HoholitnaR.SwansonR.KenaiR.RussianR.WildR.~inaygukR.+SheenjekR.+KandikR.UpperY,ukonR.+CharleyR.+FortyHileR.'+((10)HoholitnaR.DeltaR.GulkanaR.CopperR.SusitnaR.(13}TOTAL111116+RecornmendedforinclusionintheNationalwildandScenicRiversSystem.*SimilarcanyontoSusi-tna.190 "f':"_••'•APPENDIXC:'::NATURAL/CULTURALRESOURCEDATACODING'GEOLOGY'Thegeologiccharacteristicsoftheriverrunswereorganizedattwolevels,firstbygroupingprocesses{faulting/tectonics;solifluction;peri-giacial;glacial;fluvial)andthenbygroupingthematerialsaffected'(bedrock;fluvio-proglaci~i;fluvial;glacial)pThemagnitudeofexpressionofthesecharact-eristicswasthenratedbyageologistasAbsent"Low(aminorexample),Moderate(amoderateexample),orHigh,(aprominentexample).TheprimaryzonesoftheKosinaCreekRuncontainexamplesoffiveofthe30geologiccharacteri-istics(figureA~l)_TheminorVallondeGelivationandtheasymmetricvalleywallontherightsideoftheriverwereproducedbyperiglacial(frost)actiononbedrock.Theprominenceofnei,therwillbeaffectedbythenewwaterlevel.TheSusitnahascutamoderatelypromine~tV-shapedvalleyintherun.Thedammingwillcause,somelossofprominenceofthischaracteristic,par-ticularlyintherightprimaryzone~TheratingtheredropsfromModeratetoAbsent,whiletheleftprimaryfallsonlyfromModeratetoLow.,Allofthemeanderscars(abandonedriverchannels)willbecoveredbythehighwater,completelyeliminatingeventheprominen-texampleinthelef,tpri-_maryzone.'257 Rillchannelsareveryminor(considered(absen-t)inthisrun,bu-tterraces-(indicatingformerriverlevels)aremoderatelytoprominen-tlydisplayed.TheprojectedWatanaReservoirwouldcoverallbutminorevidenceofthischaracteristic.,I!I{I.l(;:.FIGURE-·A-I.GEOLOGY258 CLI~L:I\TEThemajorclimatevariablesweregroupedintotwocharacteristicsforevaluationinthestudy.Solarheating,thefirstcharacteristic,encompassestheeffectofdiurnalandseasonalchangesinsuntrackonslopeangleandaspect.Atthescaletheseweremapped,E;"1opeangle.d;roppedoutof.considera'tionas".animportan't.'factor,:even'thoughit;.isof.cons:j..derabieimportancea't..,.useful;hiometeorologi~,:scales..,:.Thesecondcharacteristic;local'climatics'tress,isacomposi,teofthreemajorvar'iables:;":-..tempe~ature,precipitation,andairmovement(wind).'Extremeswereused,ratherthanranges.Sincetherearenoweatherstationsinthestudyarea,regionaldatafromtheSouthcentralRegion:Pcofileandothersourcesvlasweighed\vithbasicmeteorologicalprinciplestoproduceworkingmapsofthethreevariablesfortheentires~udyarea.FigureA-2illustratesthesevariablesfor,theValdezCreekrun.Temperaturewasmapp~dasafunctionof~apserate(locally,about3.40F/IOOOft.~timeselevation.Thetopographicrangewithinthestudyareawasdividedinto.threeroughlyequalzonestowhichthevaluesHigh(H),Moderate(M),andLow(L)were'assigned.Windwasconsidered,tobeprevailinglyfromtheN.E.inthestudyarea,withconsiderablelocaltopographicmodification.Windstress'\vasmappedonthebasisofprevailingwindasmodifiedbylocalizedtopographicchannelingorsheltering.259 PrecipitationextremesoccurwhenstormSdriveinfromthes.w.TheorographiceffectofI\(i/i,I,ieleva-ted_.'landformscrea:te;3"adistribu·tionofprecipi-",:,--,'-tationknownpopularlyas-thellrainshadow."Theformofprecipitationisanadditionalfunctionofelevationandthelapserate,sincelowertemperaturesproducesnow.Ratingsaredistributednon-uniformlyfroms.w.toN.K.,basedonelevationandrain-shadowing.:.-o[4-Jf1<I -III'·1II;-IiiiIl-IiI._~~_.....'::,_=IFIGUREA-2.LOCALCLIMATICSTRESSTheValdezCreekRunillustrateshowthefinalcompositemagnitudeofclimaticstresswasobtained.Bydefinition,therecannotbeanabsenceofclimate.withthreelevels(H,N,L )ofthreevariables(temperature,precipita·tion,andwind)therearetenpossiblecombinationsoffactors(orderimmaterial).260 Azone\Vasconsideredsubjecttohighclimatics·tressifi-thadtwoHIs,Imvclimaticstressifit.hadt\VoLIs,andmoderateclimaticstressifitreceivedeithertwo11tsar-thecornbina·tionLMH..• 0,,-_Agivenlevelofanyvariablemustcovermorethanhalfofazanetabeconsidereddominant.Hence,intheleftsecondaryzoneoftheValdezCreek·RunprecipitationreceivedanH,windanHandtemp-oeraturean;H.Thecomposi-teoccurrenceratingthatappearsinthem~trix(fortwoHis)isHigh.Theleftpr.imaryzonewas.givenanLfortemperaturerMforwindandLforprecipitation.Thefinalrating(fortwoLIs)isLow.RatingsofModerateweretheresultforbothrightprimaryandsecondaryz9nes.Althoughbothsolarheatingandlocalclimaticstresswillchangeafterconstructionofthedamsand·thefillingofthereservoirs,thesechangescouldnotbecapturedatthescaleofthisstudy.261 ......(.~.}{\,I,IHYDROLOGY',.ThehydrologicportionoftheNaturalandCulturalResourcesMatrixisdividedintothreemajorsections:themainstem;majortributaries(if'any)andotherwa·tershedfeatures..Bo·ththemainstemandmajor.;"-~.....,".tributarysectionsweredividedintohydrologiccharacter-isticsofthewa·terflowitselfandchannelfeatures.The.ratingmeasuresusedfortheformerareself-explan-atoryas.listedinthedatalegend(Table'2).:.\Informationsourcesforthethirtychar-1."acteristicsincludedunderhydrologyarediscussedinthebodyofthisreport,butseve~alch~racteristicsareusedhereintheKosinaCreekRuntoillustra·tetheresourcemagni:tuderatings(figureA-3).Thisdiscussion\-lilltouchontheratingofeightcharacteristics~fou~from(themainstem,threefromthetributariesandonefromwatershedfeatures.Cut1?anksrepresen·tthe'erosionwalloftheactivelyworkingriver,whileoutcropsareprominen·t,.moreresistantportionsofbedrock,notnecessarilyin'apredictablelocation.Ratingswerebasedontherelativemagnitudeofexpressionontheentireriverwithinthestudyarea.TntheKosinaCreekRun,cu·tbanks,onthemainstemwereconsideredModerateexamplesandwereratedassuch.Oneisillustrated.Thenewwaterlevelcompletelycoverstheevidenceofactivestreamerosion,andtheratingfalls-toAbsent.262 FIGUREA-3.HYDROLOGY'II.\III.!II,"fI.IIIII,.II.'!;.'"/Poolsandrifflesareregularlyalternatingshallowbars(riffles)anddeeper"holes"orpools_Theratingwasalsobasedonmagnitudeofexpression.HeretheinainstemisonlyratedLowfurpoolsandriffles,.andwillofcourselosethementirelywheninundated.IslandsareratedusingasystemdevelopedinTheNooksackRiverstudy(Jones&Jones,1973).Acompositenumber(A/B)isemployed,thefirstpart'recordingsizerelativetothewholeriver(l=srnall,2=mediQm,3=large),andthesecond,thefrequencyofoGcurrence.Wordsoffairlygeneralcharacterwereused(Low,Hoderate,High)-toavoidanisland-by...;..islandinventory.Thecompositenumbersweregroupedtoprovidethemagnituderatingrecordedinthematrix:Absent.=0/0Low=1/1;1/2Moderate=3/1,2/1,2/2High=2/3,3/2,3/3\263J/ ',.,.,,"..',.."'.'.'KosinaCreekRunwasde'termined'tohave'twosmallislandsandwasgiventhecompositescoreof1/2.Itsratingforislandsthus\'lasLow.ThiswouldfalltoJI...bsentafterconstructionofWatanaDam.'Pointbarsandbeachesaresimilarinmanyrespects,sincetheyarebothdepositionalfeatures,producedbytheactiveriver.Beaches,,however,'tendtobetransientorseasonalexpr~ssionsonsuchariver,whilepointbarsarequitestable,changingsizeaswaterlevelsriseandrecede,butgenerallystayinginorielocationformanyyears.fl(.[~tI\,.:t!!.iI..";'1i,1,"TheKosinaCreekRunhas,onequitedominantpointbarintheleftbankofthemainstem.OntherelativemagnitudeofexpressionscalethatparticularbarbroughtaHighratingtotheleftprimaryzone.Aftertheadventofthereservoir,the,barwouldbecovered,droppingthescoretoAbsent.Whileallunitshadseveralminordrainagesenteringthemonbothsides,17ofthe28riverruns,were'jUdgedtohave.a~ajortributary.Ofthese,only5runshavetwomajortributaries,andonlytheOshetn~RiverRunhasbothononeside.Ratingswerebasedonnumberoftributariesonly'forthischaracteristic,sincerelatingtributarymagnitUdewascoveredbythewatershedarearating.,Thenumberoftributarieswould,ofcourse,notbechangedbyraising,the\'laterlevel.Therearemanyphysicalcausesforrapids,buttwoareco~monontheSusitnaRiveranditstributaries.Rapidsinthetributaryitselfarenormallythetypical"boulderzone"rapidsfoundinyoungactivelycutting'264'..''(' "moun"tainstreams~Whensuchastreamentersalargerwaterbody,itdropsitsbedloadofboulders,causingrapidsinthemainstem~"Springfloodssweepawaythese"blockages,onlytohavethemreplaced."Ratingswerebased!again,onrelativemagnitudeofexpression\'1ithintheriver"bothtypesareillustratedhere.Therapidsonthetributarywouldnotbeaffectedbythenewwaterlevels,butthoseinthernainsternwouldbecomeAbsent.FortheKosinaCreekRun,thernainstemrapidswereratedModeratebeforethedams,asweretherapidsonKosinaCreekitself.MagnituderatingsofHighwereofcoursegivento"therapids\'lithinthetwoDevilCanyonruns,forexample.Theserapidsare""duetot.heconstrictionoftheriverchannelandtothefracturedblocksofbedrockthroughwhichthemainsternisactivelycuttinginthatareaofsteepenedgradient.Theonlycharacteristicfromthewatershedfeaturessectiontobeillustratedwillbeponds(drained).Thesewereratedbyquantity,andthusthesinglesuchpondintherightprimaryzonereceivedaLowrating.~vowouldhavebeengivenaModerateandthreeormore,aHigh.Afterthedams,thispondwouldbecoveredand"theresulting"after"rating\vasAbsen"t.265 SOILS(EDAPHIC)TheL.U.P.C.1/250,000soiltypemapswereexamined;andfoursoilclasseswereagg;¢eg-atedfortheNaturalandCul-turalResourceMa-trix:(1)"'leI1.drained,.(2)welldrainedwithsomepermafrost,(3)poorlydrained,and(4)steepslopes/rockyland/icelands.Ratingswerebasedonthepercentageofazonecoveredbyeachsoilclass.Thoseclassescoveringfromatraceupto25%ofthezonereceiveda_Lowoccurencerating.-Twenty-fiveto_seventy-fivepercentcoveragewasratedModerate,andoverseventy-fivepercent,High._Completeabsenceofasoilclass·wasrepresented-assuch.VeeCanyonRunisusedasanexampleofthe'ra-tings(figureA-4).Therearenosteep/rocky/icelandsintherun,sothi~classwasratedAbsentinallfourzones(leftsecondary,leftprimary,rightprimary,rightsecondary).Welldrainedsoilgroupsappearintw~locationsin-theleftsecondaryzone-butonlytherecoveringabout40%ofthearea,sothis-classwasratedModerateinthatzone.Poorlydrainedsoilsarefoundinsmallareasofbothprimaryzones,andsoareratedLow.Welldrainedsoilcontainingsomepermafrostisfoundextensivelyinallfourzones,soallwererated.Highforthisclass,excepttheleftsecondarywhichwaslessthan75%,thereforeHoderate.Maximumnewhighwaterlevelswouldnottotallyeliminateanysoilclass,norreduceanytoalowerareacoveragerating,sonomagnitudeofoccurrencechangeswererecordedforVeeCanyonsoilsintheIIaf-ter"matrix.266(( FIGUREA-4.SOILS2671--. BOTANY'ThevegetationtypologyfollowsthatemployedinMajorEcosystemsofAlaska,whichinturnisbasedonViereckandLittle.However,thetypo~ogywasslightlyexpanded.todifferen·tiatebetween"upland"forestsdominatedbywhitespruceandthosedominatedbyhardwoods.Also,blacksprucebogshavebeendifferentiatedf.romtheblackspruce-hardwoodtypewithin··"lowland"forests.TheL.U.P.C.1/250,000vegetationmapswereincompleteforthestudyarea,andinpart.mappedwithadifferenttypologyfromthatofMajor.Ecosystems,soanAlaskanecologist/foresterwas·retainedtomapthevegetationtypesat1/63,360fromoblique35mmslidesandcommercialaerialphoto-graphy,whichwasavailableformostoftheprimaryzone.fromIndianRiveruptoJayCreek.Typeidenti-ficationwasverifiedduringfieldreconnaissance.Becauseoftheheavyrelianceonobliquephotography,vegetationboundariesaretobeconsideredproportion-allyorrelatively(ratherthanprecisely)accura-te.Someassociationsweremosaicedtoofinelytoseparateatthisscale,'andaremappedasconcurrent.AnassociationreceivedanAbsentratingonlyifitwasnotfoundinazoneatall.Theothermagni~tuderatingswerebasedonareacoverage.A·typefoundinmorethan25%ofthearea'l,vasratedHigh.'Be·tween12.5%and25%,themagnitudegivenwasModerate.Anassociationcoveringlessthan12.5%ofazonewascon-sideredtohaveaLowmagnitudeofoccurrence.268(\. TheKosinaCreekRun.wasselectedtoillus-..tra·tethebotanicra'tingprocessin'theprimaryzones(figureA-5).Sevenoftheelevenassocia'tionsreceivedLoworhigher,andseveralofthesewillbeaffectedjbythehigh""vaterlevelafterthedam.Thelowlandspruce-hardwoodassociationandthelowbrushassociationaremostpromin~nt,ratingHigh.Onesmalllowlandsprucebogintheleftprimaryzonereceiveda'Low.Bottomlandspruce~poplaranduplandspruce-hardwooddonotcoveroverl2.5%.ofeithersideoftheprimaryzoneandwereratedLow,aswashighbrush.Uplandhardwood-spruce'isextensiveenoughtohavebeenratedModerateonbothsides.Thenewhighwaterlevelwillaffectneitherthelowlandspruce-hardwoodassociationnorthelowbrushtype.However,muchof·thelowlandhardwood-spruceassociationwillbeflooded,reducingitsareacoveragetoLowonbothsides.Alloftheotherassociations(bottomlandspruce-poplar,upland.spruce-hardwood,highbrushandsprucebog)willbeinundatedand,,therefore,wereratedAbsentinthe.~'after"matrix.269' HammalsMa~malsweredividedintothreemajorgroups:ungulates,carnivoresandsmallmammals.Nodis-tinc-tivedataforanyofthesmallmammals(beaver,fox,etc.)wasfound,butthegroupwasincludedintheinventory\'lithaLowratinginallzones,simplytorecordthepresenceofsmallmammalsthroughou-tthestudyarea.-SeveralspeciesofcarnivoresweremappedinAlaska'sWildlifeandHabitat(theprincipalinventorysourceofdistributionaldata)aspresentthroughoutthestudyarea,withoutspecialhabit-delimitations.Giventhemobilityofthesespecies-wolf,wolverine,andblackbearitwasalsodecidedtoindicatetheirpresencewithaLowratinginallzones.Grizzlybeararealsolikelytobefound,anyw-hereinthestudyareaandthereforereceivedatleastaLowratinginallzones.Thewildlifeatlasdoesmapsomeofthedenningandfishingsitesusedbythisspecies,.andtheseknownsites(others...undoubtedlyexist)\Vereratedformagni-tudeas.describedinthedatalegendincludedearlierinthetext.Withintheungulategroup,-~t9hlyarea-specificrangemapswere-availableforDallsheep,whichhavestringenthabi.tatrequirer(lents.Ratingswerebasedonhowmuchofadiscretesheeprangewascontainedinagivenzone,orviceversa.TheRaftCreekRun,usedhereforillustratiori(figureA~6)rcontainsa271 FIGUREA-5.VEGETATIONI;j270.-..i'i'.'~(!~iIIiIit,"{ portionofaratherisolatedQallsheeprangeboundedbytheW'atana-ButteCreeks',faul,tvalleyandtheJay-..,'....'Coalcreek~::y;3,lley.Onlypartoftherangeiscontainedineithertherightprimaryorrightsecondary,andboth\Verera·tedLowinmagni-tude.Sincenorange,occursontheleftbankatall,sheepinbothleftzones\VereratedAbsent.Amagnitudera'tingofHoderatewouldhavebeenassignediftherangewerefoundlargelyinonezone,,andHighifitwereeithercontainedcom~pletelyinthezoneorthezonecontainedcompletelyinit.TheexistenceofaknownminerallickinazonealsoearneditaHighmagnituderating.I}{:.(!'.'\'iii..FIGUREA-G.~i}.\./-.1" I\,)(Themountaingoatwasinitiallyincludedasanimportantgamespecieswhichappearedtohavepossiblehabitatinthestudyarea.However,nopublisheddata'wasfoundtodocumentitspresenceintheupperSusitnawatershed,althoughitoccursintheTalkeetnasnotfarsouthofStephanLake.272 Itispossibletofindbothcaribouandmooseinanyzoneofanyrunofthestudyarea,andthisubiquityataLowlevelofmagnitudewasnoted.Specificloeationaldataisavailableforseasonal.concen·trationsIandthiswasrecordedbyzone.Ifazonewascompletelyconfinedinaseasonalrange,theanimal,vasconsideredtohaveaHighlikelihoodof..beingpresentthereinnumbersduringtheseason.Ifmorethanhalfofazoneoverlappedtherange,thelikeli-hoodwasratedModerate,andaLowratingwasusedforalloverlapslessthanonehalf.RaftCreekcontainsmoosewinterandfallrange,andcaribou\vinterandspringrange.Onlymoosewinterrangeisillustrated,forclarity.Theleftandrightprimaryzones\";rereratedHodera-teandLowforthisseasonalrange.Dataoncariboumigrationrouteswasdrawnfromseveralsourcesinadditiontothewildlifeatlas,notablySkoogandHern.-rning.AllmigrationroutesmappedinthesesourceswereratedashavingaHighprobabilityofuse,andtheinferencewasdra;;,m-thattheremaininginterveningprimaryzonesalsohadaModerateprobabilityofuse.TheillustrationofRaftCreekRunshowsb'lOknownrou·tes,oneusedduringthespringandoneduringthefallmigration.Itwasnotpossibletoquantifytheeffectsofthedamson,;.,ildlifepopulationsexcep-t\vhereknm'lTIhabit.atwasflooded.InthisexamplervirtuallyallmoosewinterrangeintheleftprimaryzonewillbefloClded;droppingthe"after"ratingfromHoderateto273 Low,whiletherightprimaryra·tingwasreducedto'Absent.WaterfowlBirdsweregroupedintotwoclassesforinclusionintheNaturalandCultural,ResourcesM~trix:raptorsandwaterfowl.Datawaslackingonthedistributionofuplandspecies,sothesewerenotincludedalthoughtheyareknowntooccurinthestudyarea.Raptorpopulationsarerelativelysparseinthisarea(Whi·te,.1974),.andapparentlywill,belitt,leaffectedbythedarns.Cliffheighthelicopterflightsintheprimaryzonebroughtseveralpositivesightings,ratedasHigh,andtherestoftheprimaryzoneswereratedLowtoreflectthegeneralpresenceofthisgroupdespiteitssparsedis·tribution.·Nodatawasavailableforsecondaryzones,sothesecolumnsinthema·trixhavebeenleftblankasIIunsurveyed11•Mappedwaterfowldistributiondatawastaken,.primarilyfromAlaska's~'lildlifeandHabitatandAlaska'RegionalProfiles:Sou,thcentralRegion.Lmvand'moderateconcen·trationsweresimplyratedasLowandHoderate~respectively.Highratingswereregisteredforthoseareasusedfornestingandmoulting.J\rIiI\i.!rrWaterfmvlwerefrequentlyfoundinbothprimaryandsecondaryzones~IntheRaftCreekRun,however,usedhereasanillustration(figureA-7),waterfowlareabsent,inbothsecondaryzones.RaftCreek'sprimaryzonesare274 predominantlynesting/moul,tingareas,andso"\-lereratedasHigh.TheDenaliReservoir,rising,eachsummer,wouldvirtuallyellminatethistypeofuserbutmoderateconcentrationsofwaterfowlcouldbeexpectedtouse,theopen'tvaterduringmigration,resul,tinginanIIafterIIratingofModera'teformagni-tudeofoccurenceofwaterfmvl."FIGUREA-7.';i[ATERFOWL275DeY#"l~{h»V~~L4Uk._iIiI-IiIIiiiII-I!IIIt, iHYDROLOGIC/'IAINSTEI'I::::::.......•.........•••"••-++•••••'+1'WATERSHEDFEATURESQZ::)0-!C"i~~i;~~Q;:)..J~~0"~..~~!~<II~~..<II<II~..~<II~..<III~~..~I~~..<II1<11~..~JJ~:~..J~%~j~«oJJ~ajj~:_oJ~:xi~j~%'jj««::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::!::::::::'::g::::::::::::::• •::~:::++::-:':';:••::~,;.::'• :::: : :••::::::1.+:::::t··~~::::l..:;:.:::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::1::::::,::::::,:::::::::::::::::::::::t::::::::::::::::::::::l:::::~::~::::::::I'::::::::•,•••+•••••••••••••••••••,••,.,.•••;....•,.••..•...••••....••...........•...., 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RECREATIONSUITABILITYAFTERTHEDAMSUSABILITYENVIRONMtNTALRECRfATlONAlVALUES&II':PACTQUALITYSUITABILITYUJ:3~zofiUJa::(.)~HIGHLOW/'lJDER4TEHIGHI'DDERATFlOW++++......i.>%o..<!'i~..'""'..tC..;III~••••••••••••••••••••••••..-••••==_.i.i•••••••••••••••••••••lIU:""...=1....:::::mWl"...-••••....••••••••••••••••....••••••••::11••••••••........................ens••....••••••••••••............lIUli..a•::all:ttl•••••••a••ga•••a••+•••+•...,.....•••+•••+......+i.i.••••••••••a4,.a.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••:m............+•••1m....••••++••+ 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.lIm'IANUSE.Settlement·Thefivecharacteristicsinven~oriedunderSettlementwereintendedtocapturetherangeofhumandwellingpatternsinthestudyareabeforeandafterconstructionofthedams.Theratingforarcheologicalsiteswasbasedonthedegreeofcertaintywithwhichthesitesandtheirresourcesareknown.Sitesalreadyatleastpartiallyinvestigatedandstudied,i.e.,theTangleLakessites,weregivenaprominenceratingofHigh.FromdiscussionwiththestaffarcheologistoftheAlask~,;DivisionofParks,KarenWorkman,severalsites,vereidentifiedwhereremainshadbeenfound,butnoformalinvestigationhasyetbeencarriedouttodefinetheextentorimportanceoftheseremains.ThesesiteswereconsideredModerateinprominence.TheTangleLakessiteshavebeenassociatedbytheirinvestigatorwiththeshoresoftheproglaciallakethatexistedintheCopperRiverLowlandregionduring,thelastglaciation,andwithcaribouhunting.There-.fore,otherzonesalong'theedgesofthisancientlakewereconsideredpossiblelocationsofarcheologicalsites,alongwi·ththeBroadPassDepressionregion,alikelymigrationrouteforbo·thcaribouandprehistoricman.Skoogrecordsinstancesofsystematizednative,caribouhuntsa'tClarenceI.ake,anditandStephanLakewerealsoconsideredpotentialarcheologicalsites.Ingeneral,siteswereconsideredtobeondrier,high.groundandnotsubjecttoinundationbytheprojectedreservoirs.276I(\\(•,i,I,i!I\,(i.~!i;/.:..;-;,, !"..,\\. Campsitelocationswerebasedonobservationduringfly-overs,anddiscussionwithlocallodgeoperator.Onthisbasisinformationislackingforthelowerleft,"secondaryzones.AsingleknowncampreceivedaLo"magniduterating.TwoknowncampsinazoneratedaModera'te,andthreeormore,aHigh."Campsi,tes"heremeanstentplatformsorotherimprovedcampsiteswithrepeatedandregularuse.Cabinsandcottageswereinventoriedsimilarly,fromU.S.G.S.'mapsandtheabovesources.ResortsandlodgesweretoreceiveaLowmagni,tuderatingif'a"primitive"facili,ty,,intended,tobereachedonlybyfoo,torsled.Theywerera'tedModeratewhenasmallormoderatesizedfacilitywithfacilitiesformechanizedaccess.MajorresortcomplexesweretoberatedHigh.Allresortsandlodgesinthe,s,tudyareaareinthe.Hodera'teclass.Existingtownsandvillagesinthewatershedareallsmall.Distinc,tions"beforenseemedtobeunnecessary,andallreceivedLm.magnituderatings.sincesecondarylanduseprojections'1.ereno'tapartofthisassessment,theratingsfornoneoftheabovefourclassesofsettlementwereincreasedaftercons'tructionofthedams,anddecreases""ereregisteredonlywhereafacilitywouldbeinundated.,277 Accessibili·ty(FacilityDependen·t)·Themagnitudeofrailaccesswithin·theareawasratedontheapproximateproportionofamadeaccessiblebythetracksystem.RailaccessreceivedaLowratingifone-·thirdofthezoneJorless}wasmadeaccessible.Moderateaccessibilitywasassessedforuptofiftypercentofthezone.ToreceiveaHighrating,virtuallyallthezonehadtobeaccessiblebyrail.'There,~illbenochangesafterthedams.Airaccesswasratedonthepermanenceofthegroundfacility.AirstripsreceivedModeratescores,,~hileairfields(withhangers,etc.)wereratedHigh.NoaircraftgroundfacilitieswereratedLowiftheyoccurredatall,sinceAlaskanbushpilotslandonawidevarietyofunpreparedsurfaces.Theproposedreservoirofwaterlevelswillnotaffectanyexistingaircraft'facilities.AutoaccessibilityalsoreceivednoLowratingsifroadswerepersent,since4-wheeldrivevehiclescananddotravelinroadlessareas.Hodera·teratingswereattachedtounimprovedhighways,suchastheDenaliHighway,whileallweatherhigh,vays,didanyexistin·thestudyarea,wouldhavereceivedHighscores.TheLmverDevilRunisused·toillus·tratethistypeofrating(figureA-8).DevilCanyonDamwillrequireanunimprovedaccessroadtobebuiltfromtheAnchorage-FairbanksHighwaytothedamsi·te,sofacility-dependen·tautoaccessra·tingsforboththeleftsecondaryand'primaryzoneschangefromAbsenttoHoderate.278'.(\ j;ifIII:,ItII,II,...',,,i,.,ieFIGUREA-B.FACILITY-DEPENDENTACCESSANDUTILITIES..JAccessibility.(FacilityIndependent)IntheAlaskanbackcountry,greatrelianceisplacedon·transportationmodesthatdonotrequirepreparedgroundsurfaces.Eachzonewasratedforaccessibilityintermsofthedegreetowhichitsterrainimposeslimitationsonfivedifferentfacility-independenttransportationmodes.Foreachmode,accessibilitylevelsweremappedforthe.entirestudyarea,watershedzoneswerethenassignedthehighestratingoccurringwithintheirboundaries.~llienratingaccessibilitybyair,helicopters,.erenotconsideredforseveralreasons:1)accessibilitywasanelementoftherecrea·tionanalysisandhelicoptersarelittleusedforrecrea·tionbecauseoftheirexpenseincomp·arisontofixed-\.ingaircraft;2)·theyareillegalfortransportationofhuntinggearandgame,aprinci-palrecreationaluseofaircraft;3)therearefewnon-279 \veatherlimita-tionsto-theiruse.Accessibili-tyviafixed-wingaircraft\Vasratedduring:theice-freemonths,althoughskiswereassumedtobeavailableforsummerglacierlandings.AccessibilitywasratedAbsentiflandingswerejudgedimpossibleorveryrisky.ALowrating--wasgiventozoneswithhighlimitations,e.g.,onlyonelake,fewusablestretchesofriverorterrainrequiringspecializedtechniques_orequipment(tundratires,glacierlandings,etc.)._Zoneswithseveralpoorlydistributedlakes,orotherlandingsiteswereratedModerate.AHighratingwasassignedtoanyzonehavingseveralwelldistributedlakes,orverygoodriveraccess\vi-thgravelbarsshowingrecen-t!,use.Thepresenceofimpoundmentswouldraisemanyprimary-zoneratingstoHigh,-sincethereservoirswouldprovideexcellentfloatplaneaccess._Nochangesinairaccessibilitywereprojectedforthesecondaryzones..BoataccesswouldalsoberatedHighonthene,vreservoirsaf-ter-damconstruction.Ratingsforexi-stingconditionsranfromAbsen-t(notenough-waterton~vigate,i._e_UpperWestForkRun)-toHigh,forzoneswherepowercraftmightreasonablybeexpectedtopassclassIIIrapids.Moderateratingswereassignedtothosezonespassablebyraft(classIVrapids),whilethefactthatseveralexperienced-andlucky-kayakershaverunDevilCanyonsuccespfullycausedclassVIrapidstobeassignedaLowaccessibilityra-ting,ratherthananAbsent.280('-c Accessibilitytoall-terrainvehiclesor-,ATV's,,'lasra-tedby-thelimi-ta-tionsposedtotravers-abili-tybyload-carryingwheeledortrackedvehiclesbefore_freeze-up.RecreationaluseofATV'sinthes-tudyareaispresentlyancillarytohun-tingandseemslikelytoremainsointhefuturebecauseoftraileringdistancestomajorpopulationcenters.Accessinsteep,brokenorb~ggyareas(impassabletothetypesof_ATVpresentlyavailableforrecreationaluse)wasrated-Absent.Lowratings,'lere.giventopotentially-traver-sableareasclosedbylawtotheuseofmotorized_huntingtransport.Moderateratings-weregiventolandsappearingtraversablebutrequiringmorethanadayortwooftravel-timefromthenearesthighwaytraileringpoint(e.g.,therollingterrainsou-thandeas-toftheSusitnaRiver).Highaccessibility_ratings~vereassignedtozoneswi-thknownATVroutesorinferredextensionsofsuchrouteswithinadayortwoofhighwayaccess.Informationonexistingroutes'.;asob-tainedfromthem-me.r/opera-torofSusi-tnaLodgeandfromfieldreconnaissance.RatingchangesafterthedamswerepredicatedondistancefromtheadditionalroadspresentlyproposedforDenaliandDevilCanyondams.Sincenofirmroadproposalshaveyetbeenmadefor-themiddlesectionoftheriver,nochangesinATVaccesswereprojectedhere.Thus,theseratings,.;illrequireadjustmentforanyroadextensionseventuallyplannedforVeeandHatanadams.sincesledaccessibilityratingswerebasedonwinterconditions,snOlvmobileaccesswasincludedinthisclass.Onlysteepslopes,brokenterrain,or281 barerockareinaccessibletothesemodesoftransport,andtheriverbecomesamainline.Highratingsweregivento.gentle.terrainwhichappearedlikelytohaveconsistentsnowcover.Moderateratingswereusedforsteeperterrainandmountainpassareassubjecttooccasionaldangerousconditions.Terrainofreasonableslope,butsubjecttolossofsnowcoverwasgivenascoreofLow..;'.TheLowerDevilRun(figureA-9)illustratesaportionofthe'ratingmapdevelopedforthischaract-eristic.TheleftsecondaryzoneisratedLowwhiletheotherthreezoneshavesomehighlyaccessibleareasandsoareratedHigh.II(.i\~.Yowt'%IJz.viLrtAl1.FIGUREA-9.FACILITY-INDEPENDENTACCESSAccessbyfootwasexaminedwiththeassump-tiontha·tmos·thuntersandhikersdonot\-lalkmorethantenmilesfromaroad,equaltoamaximumday-282- hikeof'twentymilesround'trip.No'trailconstructionwasassumed.TheAbsentratingwasusedforvery'wetareasconsideredimpassableonfoot.Lowratingsweregiventoalltraversableterrainmorethantenmilesfromroadsorrails.Moderatewasassigned'.todifficultland(i.e.,,vetormountainous)withintenmilesofarailraodorhighway.Highscoreswerereservedforeasyterrain(e~g.,alpinetundra)withinthetenmilezone.AllzonesofLowerDevilRunwereratedLowbeforethedams.Afterwards,thepresenceoftheaccessroadwouldraisetheprimaryzoneratings,toModerateandbothsecondaryzonescorestoHigh.utilities'utilitycharacteristicscouldpotentiallyfigureverystronglyintheevaluationofaestheticandenvironmentalimpactsoftheUpperSusitnahydro-electricprojectconsideredasacompletesystem,butmostofthenecessaryancillaryfacilitiestot~edamsandreservoirswereexcludedfromthescopeofthisassessment.Undergroundutilitieswereratedinasimilarmannertorailaccess.Therearenoexistingunder-groundutilitiesinthestudyarea,andnodataonsuchfacilities"after,"soallra·tingswereAbsent.Secondaryfacilities(such,thingsassubs,tations,s·toragedepots,etc.)areil),cleterminateatthistime,bu,twouldfigureinanyimpactanalysisofancillaryfacili-tiesandfunctions.Forthisreason,thecategorywas283i",,,.' re"tained;but,vasratedAbsentinallzonesfor"thiss"tudy.TheLowerDevilRunillustratestheoccurrenceofbothmajorfacili"tiesandoverheadfacilities(:figureA-8).Theformerareconsideredtobedarns-theprinci-pal"generatorofsecondaryfacilities.AllfourdamsbeingevaluatedwereratedHighasmajorutilities.ModerateorLowratingswoul~gotore-regulatingdamsorsmalldamsontributaries.OverheadutilitiespresentlyexistonlyintheIndianRiverRun,wherethepresent"telegraphlinereceivedaLowrating.TheLowerDevilRunshowsthepathoftheplanned230KVpowertransmissionlineassumedtorunparalleltothenewaccessroad.ThiswasratedHigh"inboththeleftprimaryandleftsecon-daryzones.AnyoverheadutilityofintermediatesizeandR.O.W.requirementswouldbeconsideredModerateinmagnitude.ExtractionExamolesofsurfaceextractionincludeplacer~"miningforgold,gravelextraction,quarryingandstripminingofcoal.Subsurfaceextractionreferstoundergroundminingofmetallicornon-metallic"mineralssuchasgold,copper,andcoal.Theprimaryobjectiveofhistoric"andexistingextractingactivityinthestudyareahasbeengold,bothplacerandlode,although"claimsfor'other.mineralshavebeenrecorded,andprospectingactivitycontinuesinthearea.Therehasalsobeenarecen·tre-activa"tionofgoldHorkings,asyetatasmallscale,notablyintheDenaliReach.284,,"."'.(( Themagnitudeofthisactivity,vasjudgedby'therelativenumberofdepositsmappedbyCobb(1972)andClarkandCobb(1972).OneortworeporteddepositsinazonereceivedaModeraterating,whilemorethanthatreceivedaHighmagnitudescore.Thesesourcesidentifyknowndepositsonlyanddonotdifferentiatebetween'activeandinactiveworkings;claimactivitymaybeseveraltimeshigher.Placerdeposits'wereconsideredtobesurfaceworkings,andlodedepositssubsurface.Therehasalsobeenamoderateamountofsandandgravelextraction,againin'theDenaliReach,fortheDenaliHigh,vay.'Thesematerialshavebeentakenfrom'eskersandotherfluvio-glacialdepositsandseveral.moderate-sizedpitsarelocatedinthevicinityofthebridgecrossing.Althoughgravelextractionmaybeamajorimpact,'duringconstructionofthedamsandancillaryfacilities,includingaccessroads,itslocationandextentcannotyetbeassessed.Nodecreasesinexistingextractionsareanticipatedduetohighwater,althoughtheworked-outgravelpitswillbeflooded,norareanyincreases,yetprojected,forthereasonjustgiven., i285 O,vriershipTheMarch1974revisionoftheBureauofLandManagement'sMapofAlaskanLandS"ta"tus",astheprimarysourceoflandownershipdata.LandstatusorD,vnershipwasconsideredinthreemajorclassesHithinthestudyarea:federal",i"thdraHals,s"ta"teselections,andlandswithdrawnfornativeselection.ThesubgroupsHithineachclasswerenotidentifiedseparatelyin"thematrixinventory;seetheearlierdiscussionoflandownershipinthebodyofthisreportfordetails.Whenone-thirdorlessofazonewascoveredbyaparticularownershipclass,thatclasswasratedLow.One-thirdtotwo-thirdscoverageHasconsideredModerate,andovertHo~thirds,High.TheIndianRiverRun(figureA-IO)illustra"tesaLowratingforfederalownership(d-lwithdrawals)intherightsecondaryzone.Landseligibleforna"tiveselectionreceivedLmvcoverageratingsforthetwoprimaryzones,aHighfortheleftsecondary,andaModeratefortherightsecondary.StatelandswereratedLowfortheleftsecondary,Moderatefortherightsecondary,andHighforbothprimaries.Inundationdoesnotaffecttheproportionalcoverageof"anyzoneinthes"i::udyarea,sonochangesareregis"teredafterconstructionof"thedamsinthissectionofthematrix.286[.!.(("" FIGUREA-lO.LANDSTATUS287 APPENDIXD:GEOLOGYINFERREDGEOLOGICHISTORYTheUpperSusi,tnaRiverliesinamiddlegroundbetweenolderrocks(pre-CambriantoDevonian)northoftheDenaliFaultandyoungerrocks(JurassicandCretaceous)southoftheSusitna.TheoldestknownrocksofthisareaarePennsylvanian{?)andPermianvolcanicsand'volcaniclastics.Thesearethebasementterraneorstratauponwhichtheregionalsequenceshavebeenbuilt.Theareareceivedmarinedeposition,probablyinatransi,tionalshelf/trencl1.environment,throughtheMiddleandLateTriassicandcontinuingthroughthe,'EarlyJurassic(figurela).Thiseventiscontempor-aneouswiththemassiveoutpouringofsubareallavasintheEasternAlaskaRange,resultinginasubsidenceof'theregion(Rich,terandJones,1973).Thesemarinesedimentsorclasticsareevidenttodayassandstonesandshalesinterbeddedwithvolcanicflowsandsediments.BatholithicintrusionsbeginningintheMiddleJurassicareprobablyresponsibleformuchoftheregionalupliftinganddeformation.ThisupliftingandmetamorphismoftheclasticscontinuedthroughtheendoftheCretaceousandintoTertiarytime(figureIb).Thesemetamorphosedclastics,predominantlyphyllite,are,.,ell,expos~din"the,canyonwallsatDevilsCanyonandalongtheslopesofValdezCreek.SometimeduringtheCretaceoustheSusitnaRivermusthavebeguntoform.TheLateCretaceousandTertiary periodsaremarkedbysevereerosionwhichmusthaverequiredadevelopeddrainagesystem.Blockfaulting,differentialuplift,andba-tholi:thicintrusiveforcesmakeitentirelypossiblethattheUpperSusi-tnaRiver,particularlytheapparentlymoreyouthfuleast-westseg-ment,haschangeditscourseanddirectionofflowmanytimessinceCretaceoustime.PaleozoicrocksexposedatthesurfaceinthecentralUpperSusitnaregionreflectthesignifican-tdegreeoferosionwhichhas-takenplace.Thisareamaya-Isorepresen-talocallyhigh_blockwhichwassubsequentlysubjectedtogreatererosion.TheTertiaryperiodwasprimarilydominatedbycon-tinuingupliftanderosion\vhiledeposi-tionwas-limited-tolocalizednon-marinesedimenta-tioninfaul-tblock-basins(figureIe).Bothintrusiveandextrusivevolcanicshavebeenno-tedduring-thisperiod.Thepos-t-Plioceneepochwasaperiodofgreatorogenicactivity,involving-tremendousupliftandfaulting(Payne,1955).ManyofthefaultsintheUpperSusitnaregionareprobablyrelated_tothepost-Plioceneorogenythoughapositivedateisunknown(figureId).The.Susi-tna-__Faultistruncatedby-theLateTertiaryandQuaternaryactivityoftheDenaliFaultandmustpredatetheDenaliFault.During-theCaribouHills/Mt.SusitnaandEklutnaglaciationsofthePleistoceneepochtheentireareawascoveredwithice(figureIe).Subsequentglaciations(KnikandNaptowne)werenotasextensiveas-the__earlieronesandoniythenorthernandwesternportionsweresubjectedtoglacialscouringandcarving,leavingthecentralandeasternportions-tobeoccupiedbyatremendousproglaciallake(AlaskaGlacialMapCo~~ittee,1965;figureIf).Proglaciallakedepositscoveralargeportionoftheareatoday.290([\,,(( ,"LITHOLOGYAND"STRUCTURETheGoldCreek,DevilCanyon,andlowerhalfoftheS"tephanreachesaredominatedbymediumtodarkgraymetamorphosedfinegrainedclasticsofMiddleJurassictoLateCretaceousage.Thesephyllitesaregenerallymassiveandcontainnumerous~uartzstringers."Incipien"tfracturescow~ontothephyllitehavebeenfilledby"calcite.ThenorthernportionoftheGoldCreekandDevilCanyonreacheshasbeenmantledwithglacialtillandgroundmoraine.Localizedglaciofluvialdepositscanbefoundinterracechannelsalongthesouthslope."Wi"thin"theselowerreachesbeddingisrelatively"uniform,approximatelystrikingeast-westanddipping50-600south.Severaljointsetshavebeennotedinthearea.ThemostHelldevelopedofthesesetss"trikesN.250W.anddips800east.Severallesserdevelopedsetshavebeennoted,strikingparallelorsub-paralleltothebeddingbutgenerallydippingnorthratherthansouth.ShearzoneshavealsobeennotedinthebedrockHalls.TheyareHelldeveloped,spacedfrom50to800feetapart,andtrendsimilartothemas"terjoin"tsystem(Kachadoorian,1974).TheStephan"reachisbisectedJ:iyaninferredrightla"teralstrikeslipfault.Inaddi"tion,theSusitnaFaultcrossesneartheeas"tendofthereachcausingasoutherlyshif"tintherivercourse.TheSusi"tnaFaul"cisa180kmlef"clateralfaultshowingatleas"t11kmofdisplacement.Itistrunca"tedbytheDenaliFaul"tneartheterminusoftheSusitnaGlacierandoffsetfrom291i itsnortherlysectionatKluaneLake,Yukon,N.W.Territoryby400kmofrightla-teraldisplacementalong-theDenaliFault(Richter,oralco~munication;figure2).TheupperStephan,FogLakes,I~atana-,andClarencereachesaredominatedbyPaleozoicbasementterranerocks.Thesearetheoldestknownrocksin-theareaandarethe-terrane"uponwhichla-terformationsaredepositedandintruded.ThesouthernflankoftheClarencereachisintrusiverock.NeartheClarence/Tyonereachborder,atVeeCanyon,amajorfaultintersectstherivervalley.Onthebasisofapparentoffsetoftheriveritappearstobealeftlateralstrike-slipfault.Thefaul"tisterminateda-ttheDenaliFaultonthenorthandtrendsN.300E.toapointsouthofLakelliamna_inwesternAlaska,approximately1000kmsouthwest(Lathram,1973).Offse-talong-thefaultisunknown,buti-tisexpected-tobesubstan-tial.Thisfaultintersectsthe-riveragainattheconfluenceoftheMaclarenRiver.AllofthereachesfromtheTyonenortharedominatedbydepositsrelatedtotheglacierswhichoccupiedthisareaduringPleistocenetime.Glaciolacus-trinedeposits,sedimentsdepositedinproglaciallakes,covertheTyone,Maclaren,andlowerGooseIslandreaches.Thesearethesamedepositswhichcoverthemajorityof"theCopperRiverBasin.TheremainderoftheGooseIslandreachiscoveredbyglaciofluvialdepositsandasmallmorainalbelt.'I'heDenalireachispredominantlyman-tiedbymoraineofpastglaciers.TheremainderofthereachesarelocatedinglaciofluvialdepositsandanintrusivebodyneartheupperEastForkreach.292,/(I\!i!l;I!.~,!1;,,~-,"..,"(c ~,ofaultscrosstheDenalireach:Thefirst,arigh-tla-teralstrike-flipfaultrbisects-thereach.Thisfaultisinferred-tocon-tinueinasou-thwesterlydirection,againintersec-tingtheriverintheeas-ternportionoftheFogLakesFeach.Theotherintersectstheriveratthenorthernboundaryofthereach(figure3).TOPOGRAPHYThelowerreachesoftheUpperSusitnaRiverarecharacteristicallyanuplandregionplanedtoarelativelysmoothsurfacebyglacierswhichinvadedtheareaduringthePleistoceneepoch.Theareaisdottedwithnumerouslakesandhillocksandiscu-tbythewestvlardtrendingSusitnaRivervalley.Thevalleyispredominantlyas~~etricalthroughthelowerreaches;thoughneitherthenorthnor_south-facingslopesareconsistentlysteeper,thesouth-facingslopesares-teeperinaggrega-te,ifallcross-sectionsarecompared.Numerousoccurencesofhillslopeshorteningwerenotedinsamplecross-sections.Duetotheacuteangleofthesunwiththehorizonanditswidearcuatetrackatthislatitude,theupperhillslopesreceiveasignificantlygreaterdegreeoflightandradiantheatandaresubjectedtoanearlierthawandsubsequentlygreaterdegreeoferosion.Thissolifluctionactionis-thoughtto-beresponsibleforthepredominanceofasymmetricalvalleys;asimilarconclusionwasreachedbyD.F.Currey(1964),studyingasyrometricvalleysinwesternAlaska(EmbletonandKing,1968).AlthoughtheCorioliseffect,manifestedinarightlateralshiftintheaxisofthestream,couldcreateanasywme-tricalstreamchannel,itisdoubtful-thatsuchaneffectcouldsculp-t-thevalleyformsseenhere.293 ,'DevilCanyonisentirelystreamcarvedandthewallsstillstandatgrea'ter,thanthenaturalangleofrepose,makingitanunusualfeatureinanareaoftheworlddominatedbyglaciallycarvedU-shapedvalleys.'!1:anyterracescanbeseenathigher,valleylevels.TheyaretheresultofearlierstagesofrivercuttingcombinedwithglacialstreamdrainagesofthePleistoceneepoch.:.".Attheupperreachesoftheriverthevalleyopens,.out,intoabroadnearlylevellowlandregion.Heretheriverisbraidedandmeanderedandappearstobeina'morematurestateandatagreaterapproximation'toequilibrium.'Oneofthemostunusualanduniquefeaturesoftheareaistheobtuseangleatwhichmanyofthetribu-tariesentertheSusitnaRiver.DevilCreekisthemostnotableexample.Itisentirelypossiblethatatone,timetheeast-wes'ttrendingportionoftheriverflowedin'aneasterlydirectionandjoined,thesoutherlyflowingportionataconfluenceintheTyonejOshetnaRiverareaanddrainedoutthroughtheCopperRiverdrainage,system.AsubsequentlocalupliftintheCopperRiverbasin,;-muldhavereversed,theflmvcreating'thedrainagepatternweseetoday.Theextremeupper,reachesoftheriver,partic-ularlytheWestForkreach,~retypicalofareasex-periencingextremeamountsofglaciofluvialdeposi,tion.TheWestForkreachiscomparabletotheLowerMatanuskaRiverarea- abroadsiltfla't,.,i,thbraidedfluvialpa'tterns.294(( Reconnaissancepho-tosshOl"apatternedgroundsuggestiveofin-tenseperiglacialactivi-tyintheseextremeupperreaches•.....}.,'.''.-,295,.".' 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STUDYAREA:PHYSICALP£SOURCESArcticEnvironmentalInformationandDataCenter,AlaskaRegionalProfiles:SouthcentralRegion,StateofAlaska,OfficeoftheGovernor,Juneau,1974.Xhisreferencealsocontainsmuchinformationonthe.biologicalandculturalresourcesofthestudyareaandthesurroundingregion.AlaskaResourceandLanduseOverlays,JointFederal-StateLandUsePlanningCo~~ission,ResourcePlanningTeam,Anchorage,1974.AlaskaGlacialNapCOID.'1littee,"Exten·tofGlaciationsinAlaska,"Nisc.Geol.Inv.NapI-415,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,1965.Capps,StephenR.,GeologyoftheAlaskaRailroadRegions,Bulletin907,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,1940.Chaplin,T.,TheNelchina-Susi·tnaRegion,Bulletin668,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,1918.Clark,A"L.,andCobb,EdwardH.,"!·le·tallicHineralResourcesoftheHealyQuadrangle,Alaska,"Hisc.FieldStudiesMapNF-394,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,1972.Cobb,EdwardH.,"NetallicMineralResourcesoftheTalkee·tnaHountains,"Misc.FieldstudiesHapNF-370,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,1972.Erickson,LeonS.,"ObservationsonDevilCanyon(SusitnaGorge)ProposedDamSiteandOtherAdjacent·Areas,"lettertoCol.Debelius,Dis·trictEngineer,CorpsofEngineers,AlaskaDistrict,April18,1974.Kachadoorian,R.,"GeologyoftheDevilCanyonDamSite,Alaska,"OpenFileReport74-40,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,Anchorage,1974.Lathram,E.H.,"TectonicframelvorkofNorthernandCentralAlaska,"ArcticGeology,!1em.19,AmericanAssociationofPetroleumGeologists,1973.308J\I)!"(,t''\ Moffit,F.H.,HeadwatersRegionoftheGulkanaandSusitnaRivers,Alaska,Bulletin498,u.s.GeologicalSurvey,1912.Payne,T.G.,"NesozoicandCenozoic-tec-tonicelementosofAlaska,"Hisc.Geol.Inv.MapI-84,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,1955.Richter,D.H.andJones,D.L.,"Structureandstrati-graphyofEasternAlaskaRange,Alaska,"ArcticGeologv,Mem.19,AmericanAssociationofPetroleumGeologists,1973.Ross,C.P.,TheValdezCreekMiningDistrict,Alaska,Bulletin849-H,u.S.GeologicalSurvey,1931~Smi-th,T.E.,"Goldresourcepoten-tial_ofthe-Denalibenchgravels,ValdezCreek;"ProfessionalPaper700-D,u.S.GeologicalSurvey,1970.-Tuck,Ralph,TheValdezCreekMiningDist~ict,Alaska,in1936,Bulletin897B,u.S.GeologicalSurvey,1938.Wahrhaftig,Clyde,PhysiographicProvincesofAlaska,ProfessionalPaper482,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,1965.309 STUDY.AREA;..BIOLOGICALRESOURCESAlaska'sNildlifeandHabita·t,AlaskaDepar·tmen"tofFishandGame,Juneau,Alaska,1973(reprin"ted1974).Allin,R.W.,"PreliminaryLakeSurveyofLakeLouiseand'LittleLakeLouise,"QuarterlyProg'res's'Report,FederalAidinFishRes·tora·tion,1957.AnnualReport:o"fSurvey-InventoryAc"tivities;"AlaskaDepartmentofFish&Game,.Juneau,.Alaska,.vol.III,1973,Vol.IV,1974..Bos,"GregoryN.,"NelchinaCaribouCalving,"AlaskaFishTalesandGameTrails,November-December1973.Bos,GregoryN.,"NelchinaCaribouReport,"ProjectProgressReport,FederalAidinWildlifeRestoration,AlaskaDepartmen"tofFishandGame,Juneau,Alaska,April1973.Bos,GregoryN.,"NelchinaandMen"tastaCaribouReports,"ProjectProgressReport,FederalAidinwildlifeRestoration,AlaskaDepartmentofFishandGame,Juneau,Alaska,September1974.Bos,GregoryN.,"APartial".AnalysisoftheCurren·tPopulationStatusoftheNelchinaCaribouHerd,"(proofcopy),ProceedingsoftheFirstInternationalReindeer-CaribouSymposi~~,Fairbanks,1972(stillinpress).ADetailedReportonFishandwildlifeResourcesAffectedbytheDevilCanyonProject,Alaska,USDI,FishandWildlifeService,Juneau,1960.ADe"tailedReportonFishandWildlifeResources·AffectedbyVeeProject,SusitnaRiver,Alaska,USDI,FishandNildlifeService,1965.1958FieldInvestigations,DenaliandVeeCanyonDam-sitesandReservoirl\reas,SusitnaRiverBasin,USDI,FishandWildlifeService,Juneau,1959.Hegg,KarlM.,ForestResourcesoftheSusitnaValley,Alaska,USDAForestService,Juneau,1970.Hemming,JamesE.,.::Tc::h.::e=-7D.;;i:.:s:..t=<,r.::i:::b=-:L::-l·.::t.::ic::oc::n-=-:-~:.:1:::o,--v,--e;:."m=e""n,..t~p'7'--a,-;-"t,-t=.e=r"",n;-s,ofCaribouinAlaska,AlaskaDepartmentofFishandGame,1971.310,•,,\\(c· 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STUDYAREA:CULTURALRESOURCESTheA.E.I.D.C.profilerSouthcentralRegion}andtheearlyU.S.G.S.BulletinscitedaboveunderPhysicalResourcesalsocontainconsiderablehistoricalinformationonthestudyarea.Blackadar,\val-t,-H.D.,Pho-tocopyofDevilCanyonlog(1973),.U.S.D.I.BureauofOutdoorRecreation,AlaskaPlanningGroup,Anchorage."DevilCanyonRapidsBeaten,"AnchorageDailyTimes,.March29,1973.Hadleigh-West,Frederick,"ArchaeologicalandPaleo-ecologicalResearchintheTangleLakes,CentralAlaska,1966-1972;AReportofProgress,"AlaskaMethodistUniversity,-Labora-toryof-Anthropology,Anchorage,December1972.-Hadleigh-West,Frederick,"ArchaeologicalReconnaissanceofDenaliStatePark,Alaska:ReporttotheDivisionofParks,StateofAlaska,"StateofAlaska,D.N.R.DivisionofParks,Anchorage,September21,1971_Hadleigh-west,Frederick,"AReportofArchaeologicalActivityintheTangleLakes,CentralAlaska,in1973,"AlaskaHethodistUniversity,LaboratoryforAn-thropology,Anchorage,July1,1974.Hadleigh-livest,Frederick,"TangleLakesArchaeologicalbistrict,"NationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesInven-tory-NominationForm,U.S.D.I.NationalParkService,.September10,1971.Osgood,Cornelius,TheE-thnographyoftheTanaina,YaleUniversityPublicationsinAnthropology,Number.16,NewHaven,1937(reprinted1966).ASpecialReportonEconomicAspectsoftheNelchina_CaribouHerd,U.S.D_I.,FishandWildlifeService,-·1954.Swanson,Dr.Kay,"Alaska'sDevilRiver,"Relax,September1973.U.S.D_I.NationalParkService,"NationalRegisterofHis·toricPlaces,"FederalRegister,Vol.39,No.34,February19,1974.312II~.II\'[!iIiI-•-,I-iIiI.iI!.-,,( 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ALASKANENVIRON11ENTAhtna,Inc.andArcticEnvirornnentalInforma-tionandDataCenter,'.rheAhtnaRegion,CopperCen-ter,_Alaska,1973.ArcticInstituteofNorth&~erica,AlaskaOffice~TheAlaskanArcticCoast;ABackgroundStudyofAvailableKnowledge,ArmyCorpsofEngineers,AlaskaDistrict,Anchorage,1974.-Carson,M.A.andKirkby;M.J.,Hillslope-FormandProcesses,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,England,1972.Child,Kenneth1'1.,TheReactionsofBarren-GroundCaribou(Rangifertarandusqranti)toSimula-tedPipelineandPipelineCrossingStructuresa~PrudhoeBay,Alaska,Comple-tionReport,AlaskaCooperativeWildlifeResearchUnit,1973.--Curatolo,JamesA.,"Environmen-talFactorsasanInflu-enceonSu~~er/FallMovementsandBehavioroftheSteese-FortymileCaribouHerd,"QuarterlyProgressReport:AlaskaCooperativeWildlifeResearchUnit,_Vol.25,No.1,October-December1973.Dunbar,'H.J.,"Stabilityand_FragilityinArcticEco-systems,"Arctic:-vol.26,No.3;September1973.Embleton,C"andKing,C.A.M.,GlacialandPeriglacial_Geomorphology,EdwardArnoldLtd.,London,1968.Fairbridge,morphology,RhodesW.,editor,TheEncyclopediaofGeo-ReinholdBookCorporation,NewYork,1968.Klein,DavidR.,"TheImpac-tofOilDevelopmentintheNorthernEnvironment,"ProceedingsoftheThirdInter-petrolCongress,Rome,i973.I<leinDavidR.,intheNorth,"January1972."ProblE.l~sinConservationof-Ha~~alsBiologicalConservation:Vol.4,No.2Klein,DavidR.,"ReactionofReindeertoObs-tructionsandDisturbances,"Science:Vol.173,30July1971.314_ Klein,DavidR.,"Reac·tionofWildlifetoAircraf·tDis·turbance,"QuarterlyProgressReport:AlaskaCooperativeWildlifeResearchUni·t,Vol.25,No.1,July-September1973,Leopold,WolmanGeomorphology,1964.andMiller,FluvialProcessesinW.H.Freeman&Co.,SanFrancisco,Lutz,H.J.,EcologicalEffectsofForestFiresintheInteriorofAlaska,TechnicalBulletin1133,USDA,1956.MajorEcosystemsofAlaska,JointFederal-StateLandUsePlanningCommissionforAlaska,Fairbanks,JUly1973.Murie,Adolph,TheWolvesofMt.McKinley,FaunaoftheNationalParksoftheU.S.,FaunaSeries5,USDI,NationalParkService,Washington,D.C.,1944.Murray~McCormickEnvironmentalGroup,LakeLouiseStudyArea-NaturalEnvironmen·tBaselineReport.Anchorage,1971.Price,Raymond,"EffectofHumanDisturbanceonnaIlSheep(FinalReportl,"QuarterlyProgressReport:AlaskaCooperativewildlifeResearchUnit,Vol.23,No.3,January-March1972.Slaughter,BarneyandHansen,edi·tors,FireintheNorthernEnvironment,aSymposium,USDAForestService,PacificNorth;;vesc.Fores·t&RangeExperimentSta·tionTPortland,1971.Thornbury,WilliamD.,RegionalGeomorphologyoftheUnitedStates,JohnWileyandSons,Inc.,NewYork,1965.Viereck,LeslieA.andLittle,ElbertL.,Jr.,AlaskaTreesandShrUbs,Handbook410,USDAForestService,Hashington,D.C.,1972.Viereck,LeslieA.andZasada,JohnC.,"AProposalforanEcologicalReserveSystemfortheTaigaandTundraofAlaska,"USDAForestService,Insti·tuteofNorthernForestry,College,Alaska,January14,1972.Villmo,Lloyd,"TheSccmdinavianVie-,vpoint,"(proofcopy),ProceedingsoftheFirstIn·ternationalReindeer-CaribouSymposium,Fairbanks,1972(stl11inpress).315 Weeden,RobertB.,"WildlifeHanagementandAlaskaLandUseDecisionsi-I!occasionalPaperNo.8,Insti-tu-teofSocia-,EconomicandGoverlli~entResearch,Fairbanks,1973.Williams,J.R.,GroundwaterinthePermafrostRegionsof-Alaska,Professlona1Paper696,USGS,1970.Zasada,JohnC.andGregory,RobertA.,"RegenerationofWhiteSprucewithReferencetoInteriorAlaska,"#PNW-79,USDAForestService,Juneau,1969."..316(( ENVIRONaENTALAND'RECRE~J:l.TIONPLANNINGI,NTHESOUTHCENTRALREGIONTheAlaskaEnvironmentalGroup,ChugachStatePark:ASummaryDevelopmentGuideforthePark,Anchorage,undated.TheAlaskaEnviroThuentalGroup,HatcherPassStudyArea~Anchorage,undated.TheAlaskaEnvironmentalGroup,LakeLouise:ASummaryDevelopmentGuidefortheLakeLouiseArea,,Anchorage,undated.AlaskaGameManagementPolicies,AlaskaDepartmentof~ishandGame,DivisionofGame,~2y1973.AlaskaNativesandtheLand,FederalFieldCommitteeforDevelopmentPlanninginAlaska,Anchorage,1968.AlaskaOutdoorRecreationPlan,4vols.,StateofAlaska,DepartmentofNaturalResources,1970."Alaska:-Econom'icsCommit:tee."f..I.'.• ••Recrea'tionandTourismResources,"In'terimDevelopmentPlanforAlaska,FederalFieldforDevelopmentPlanninginAlaska,1971."AlaskaS'ta'teParkSystem-DistrictandSi,te~lap,"StateofAlaska,D.N.R.DivisionofParks,March1973.BeaverCreekNationalWildRiver,U.S.D.I.Bureauof,OutdoorRecreation,AlaskaPlanningGroup,December1973.,'.BoeingComputerServicesandNaramore,Bain,BradyandJohanson,AlaskaStateCapitalRelocationS,tudy,Seattle,July1974.Breedlove,Bailey,"AnOverviewofEconomicStatisticsonAlaskanRecreationandTourism-ASelectionofCurrentBasicDa'ta,"U.S.D.I.,NationalParkService,'AlaskaTaskForce,Nov&uber1972.BureauofOutdoorRecreation,"RecreationUse,"Recre-ationImpactStudy:Trans-AlaskaPipeline,U.S.D.I.,BureauofLandManagement,April1971.317 lCahn,Robert,"Alaska:AHa-tterof80,000,000Acres,"Audobon,Vol.76,No.4,July1974.Cresap,HcCormickandPage-t,AProqrarnforIncreas;ngtheContributionofTourismtothe~laskanEconomy,3Vols.,U.S.DepartmentofCommerceandDepartInen-tofEconomicDevelopmentoftheStateofAlaska,1968.Cooley,RichardA.,Alaska;aChallengeinConservation,UniversityofWisconsinPress,Hadison,1966.Donovan,Kerry,Recreation-AnnotatedBibliograph~AlaskanArchaeology,Recreation,andBiology,U.S.D.I.,NationalParkService,AlaskaTaskForce,Anchorage,1972.AnEconomicOverviewofAlaska'sRecreationalResources,(draft),JointFederal-S-tateLandUsePlanningCOlllillission,-ResourcePlanningTeam,Anchorage,July1973.Forty-mileNationalwildandScenicRiver,Alaska:AStudy,U.S.D.I.,BureauOLOutdoorRecreation,AlaskaPlanningGroup,December1973.Harrison,GordonSco-tt,"ThePeopleandthePark:ReactiontoaSys-temofPublicTransporta-tioninHt.HcKinleyNa-tionalPark,Alaska,"InstituteofSocial,EconomicandGovernmentResearch,Fairbanks,1974.AHasterPlanforDenaliStatePark,(draf-t.),StateofAlaska,D.N.R.,DivisionofParks,1974.HasterPlan:HountMcKinleyNationalPark,Alaska,withProposedAdditions,U.S.D.l.,Na-t.ionalParkService,AlaskaPlanningGroup,December1973.Matanuska-SusitnaBorouqh-ComprehensiveDevelopmentPlan;PhaseI:SurveyandAnalysis,PhaseII:Recowmen-dations,AlaskaStateHousingAuthority,Anchorage,1968.TheMilepost,AlaskaNorthwestPublishingCompany,Anchorage,1974."Hul-timodalTransportationandUtilityCorridorSystemsinAlaska:-APreliminary,ConceptualAnalysis,"U.S.D.I.,BureauofLandManagement,AlaskaStateOffice,Anchor-age,Oc-tober1974.318(( "Nienhueser,Helen,55Waysto·theWildernessinSou·th-centra'lAlaska,TheNoun·taineers,Seattle,1972."Ou·tdoorRecreationandHistoricPreservationinAlaska1973:Par·tOne-SU!llffiaryandl.,nnualReport,"StateofAlaska,D.N.R.,DivisionofParks,1974.ProposedMountMcKinleyNationalPark,Alaska-DraftEnvironmental'Statemen·t,U.S.D.I.,AlaskaPlanningGroup,December1973.'."RecreationAlongAlaska1sDenali.Highvlayi".U.S.D.I.,BureauofLandNanagement.,1971.ReporttotheSecre·taryoftheInteriorofPotentialComponentsoftheNationalWildandScenicRiversSystem,Alaska,U.S.D.I.,BureauofOutdoorRecreation,AlaskaPlanningGroup,July1972."RoadCondi·tion!<lap-SouthCentralArea,"FiveYearConstructionProgram,S·ta·teofAlaska,Depar·tmentofHighways,1971.Shaine,Benjamin,etal.,TheWrangellMountains:TowardsanEnviron11ten·talPlan,EnvironmentalStudiesOffice,TheUniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz,California,1973.Stenmark,RichardJ.andSchoder,ThomasH.,ResourcesInventory-SouthcentralRegion:RecreationandPreservu'tionOpportunities,.(PreliminaryDraf't),Join·tFederal-S·tateLandUsePlann'ingCOTIL'1liss"ion',R'esourcePlanningTeam,Anchorage,1974."SummaryofVisitation,1974:AlaskaStateParkSystem,"StateofAlaska,D.N.R.,DivisionofParks,1974..Tour;sm-RecreationintheHatanuska-'Susi·tnaBoroughAnInterimReport,PartoftheComprehensivePlaninProjectAlaska,No.P-24fortheMatanuska-SusitnaBorough,AlaskaStateHousingAuthority,'1967.UnalakleetNa·tionalWildRiver:AStudy,U.S.D.I.,BureauofOutdoorRecreation,AlaskaPlanningGroup,December1973."I'hldandScenicRiversinAlaska,Ques·tionsandAnS\'lerS,£.larch1973,"U.S.D.I.,BureauofOutdoorRecrea·tion.319 RAILBELTHYDROPOWERAlaskaNaturalResourcesandtheRampartProject,U.S.DepartmentofInterior,Washington,D.C.,June1967.AlaskaPowerSurvey,FederalPowerCommission,Washington,D.C.,1969.1974AlaskaiPowerSurvey:EconomicAnalysisand·LoadProjections,FederalPowerCommission,Washington,D.C.,1974.(;.1974AlaskaPowerSurvey:EnvironmentalConsiderationsandConsumerAffairs,FederalPowerCommission,Washing-ton,D.C.,1974.;,1974AlaskaPowerSurvey:ResourcesandElectricPowerGeneration,FederalPowerCommission,Washing·ton,D.C.,1974..,DevilCanyonProject,USDIBureauofReclamation,\vashing-ton,D.C.,1961(reprinted,A.P.A.,1974).DevilCanyonStatusReport,USDI,AlaskaPowerAdminis-tration,Juneau,1974."ExcerptsfromRampartProject,AlaskaHarke·tforPOHerandEffectofProjectonNaturalResources,Vol.·2,ParksVIIandVIII,"FieldReport,U.S.Departmen·tofInterior,Juneau,January1965.VeeProjectS·tudies,U.S.DepartmentoftheIn·terior,·BureauofReclamation,1964.320((,---..._..•.._____··•·••·····__·.·.c_.··__---.