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by
Tom Hinz, Wildlife Biologist
Montana Department of Fish and Game
Miles City, Montana
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 7
conducted by the
Water Resources Division
Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation
32 S. Ewinq
Helena, MT 59601
Bob Anderson, Project Administrator
Dave Lambert, Editor
for the
Old West Regional Commission
228 Hedden Empire Building
Billings, MT 59101
Kenneth A. Blackburn, Project Coordinator
July 1977
Q3 D. 570 7: lfXS ?
·1730 K Street, ~-W.
Suite 426
The Old West Regional Commission is a Federal-State
pannership designed to solve regional economic
problems and stimulate orderly economic growth in
the states of Montana, Nebraska, Nonh Dakota,
South Dakota and Wyoming. Established in 1972
under the Public Works and Economic Development
Act of 1965, it is one of seven identical commissions
throughout the country engaged in formulating and
carrying oui coordinated action plans for regional
economic development.
COMMISSION MEMBERS
State Cochairman
Gov. Thomas L. Judge of Montana
Alternate: Dean Hart
Federal Cochairman
George D. McCarthy
State Members
Gov. Edgar J. Herschler of Wyoming
Alternate: Steve F. Freudenthal
Gov. J. James Exon of Nebraska
Alternate: Jon H. Oberg
Gov. Arthur A. Link of North Dakota
Alternate: Woody Gagnon
Gov. Richard F. Kneip of South Dakota
Alternate: Theodore R. Muenster
COMMISSION OFFICES
201 Main Street
Suite D
Washington, D. C. 20006
202/967-3491
Rapid City, South Dakota 57701
605/348-6310
Suite 228
Heddon-Empire Building
Billings, Montana 59101
406/657-6665
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FOREWORD
The Old West Regional Commission wishes to express its appreciation for
this report to the Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation,
and more specifically to those Department staff members who participated
directly in the project and in preparation of various reports, to Dr. Kenneth A.
Blackburn of the Commission staff who coordinated the project, and to the
subcontractors who also participated. The Yellowstone Impact Study was one
of the first major projects funded by the Commission that was directed at
investigating the potential environmental impacts relating to energy develop-
ment. The Commission is pleased to have been a part of this important research.
George D. McCarthy
Federal Cochairman
FIGURES
TABLES
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS REPORT
PREFACE . . . . .
The River
The Conflict
The Study .
Acknowledgments
INTRODUCTION
Purpose
Scope .
Study Area
METHODS
River Study Sections
Major Bird Studies .
Canada Geese
Dabbling Ducks . . . . .
Common Mergansers and Common Goldeneyes
Bald Eagles ...
Great Blue Herons
White Pelicans
Other Migratory Bird Studies .
Island and Vegetation Analysis
EXISTING SITUATION
Major Bird Studies
Canada Geese
Dabbling Ducks .
Common Mergansers
Common Goldeneyes
Bald Eagles
Great Blue Herons
White Pelicans .....
Double-Crested Cormorants
Other Migratory Bird Studies .
Island and Vegetation Analysis
iv
vi
viii
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1
1
3
4
5
5
5
5
7
7 ~ 7
7
13
14 I
14
14
15
15
15
17
17
17
47
53
56
56
59
62
62
63
65
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IMPACTS OF WATER WITHDRAWALS .
Projections of Future Use
Yellowstone River
Bighorn River
SUMMARY
Major Bird Studies
Canada Geese .
Dabbling Ducks
Other Birds . . . .
Impacts of Water Withdrawals.
APPENDIXES ........... .
71
71
71
73
75
75
75
76
76
77
79
A. Projections of Future Use 81
B. Birds Examined for Food Habits Analysis 89
C. Selected Physical Parameters measured from Aerial Photographs
of Sections of the Lower Yellowstone River from Billings to
Fairview, Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
D. Dates of Observations of Canada Geese Neck-Banded in the Lower
Yellowstone Valley in 1975 and the Distances Moved Between
those dates .1'. • -;-.-.-~ .-.-.-.--. • -. -. -.-.-. • • -. -• • • 93
E. Egg Success of Canada Geese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
F. Selected Species of Birds Observed in the Lower Yellowstone
Valley from September 1974 to October 1976 . 101
L ITERATIJRE CITED . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 103
v
1. Yellowstone River Study Sections • • • • • • • • 0 0 • • • • • • • 9
2. Cover Board Used to Estimate Density of Vegetative Cover
Surrounding Goose Nests ................ . • • • • 11
3. Marking Canada Geese with Plastic Neck Collars and Standard
A 1 umi num Leg Bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4. Goose Censuses Conducted along the Lower Yellowstone River
5.
between Billings and Fairview, Montana, from September 1,
1974, to August 1, 1976 .............. .
Dates of Initiation of 51 Canada Goose Nests in 1975
and 58 Nests in 1g75 on the Lower Yellowstone River,
18
Montana • 0 • 0 • • • • • • • • 0 • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . 25
6. Gage Heights from Selected Sites within the Bighorn-
to-Hysham Section of the Lower Yellowstone River, 1975
and 1976
• 0 • • • 0 • • • • 0 • 0 • • • 0 0 • • • • • . . . . . 29
7. Gage Hei~hts
Miles City
1975 to 1976
from Selected Sites within the Hathaway-to-
Section of the Lower Yellowstone River,
• 0 • • • • • • • 0 • • • 0 • • • • • • • •
8.
9.
Gage Heights from Selected Sites within the t·1iles City-to-
Sunday Creek Section of the Lower Yellowstone River, 1975
to 1976 ........................ .
Gage Heights from Selected Sites within the Fallon-to-
Glendive Section of the Lower Yellowstone. River, 1975 and
. . . . 30
. . . . 31
1976 • • • • • • 0 • • • 0 • • • • 0 • • • • 0 0 • 0 . . . . . 32
10.
11 .
A Typical Nest Site Utilized by Canada Geese Nesting in
Open, Unvegetated Areas ............... .
Ice Flows
End of an
1975
Moving Past the Vegetated Portion of the Downstream
Island in the Fallon-to-Glendive Section, February
• 0 • • • • • • • • • 0 0 0 • • • • 0 • • 0 • •
12. Frequency Distribution of Clutch Sizes from 131 Canada
34
34
Goose Nests on the Lower Yellowstone River, 1975 and 1976 ... 36
13. Discharge of the Lower Yellowstone. River at Miles City,
Montana, Durin~ the Period of I ni ti ati on of Canada Goose
Nests Surveyed in 1975 and 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
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,
14. Center-Pivot Sprinkler Irrigated Fields between Forsyth and
Sanders, Feeding Areas for Large Numbers of Waterfowl . . . 43
15. Distribution of Recoveries of Canada Geese Banded in Counties
along the Lower Yellowstone River from 1973 to 1976 45
16. Banding Locations of Canada Geese Harvested in the Counties
A long the Lower Yellowstone River . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
17. Dabbling Duck Censuses Conducted along the Lower Yellowstone
River between Billings and Fairview, Montana, from September
1, 1974, to August 1, 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
18. Three Components of Fall Dabbling Duck Habitat: a Picked
Cornfield, Island Loafing Area, and Water
19. Mallard Migration Corridors in Relation to Banding Locations
of Mallards Harvested in the Lower Yellowstone River Basin
51
in 1973 through 1975. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
20. Common Merganser Censuses Conducted along the Lower
Yellowstone between Billings and Fairview, Montana, from
September 1, 1974, to August 1, 1976 ..... . . . . . 54
21. Common Goldeneye Censuses Conducted along the Lower Yellow-
stone River between Billings ·and Fairview, Montana, from
September 1 , 1974, to August 1 , 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
22. Bald Eagle Censuses Conducted along the Lower Yellowstone
River between Billings and Fairview, Montana, from September
1,1974, to August 1,1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58
23. Great Blue Heron Censuses Conducted along the Lower
Yellowstone River between Billings and Fairview, Montana,
from September 1, 1974, to August 1, 1976 . . . • • . • . •.. 60
24. Double-Crested Cormorant Censuses Conducted along the Lower
Yellowstone River between Gillings and Fairview, Montana,
from September 1, 1974, to August 1, 1976 . . . . . . . . 64
25. A Comparison of Vegetation and Channel Morphology for Two
Sections of the Yellowstone River (the Upper Photo near Sanders,
Montana, and the Lower Photo near Fallon, Montana) .•.•••.. 68
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1 . Numbers of Canada Geese Observed Durin~ Aerial Censuses
in the Wintering Period .............. . 19
?.. Canada Goose Utilization of Selected Field Types Over
All Study Sections During Four Periods, 1975 and 1976 20
3. Numbers of Canada Geese Observed During Aerial Censuses in the
Spring Migration Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.
5.
Racial Composition of Canada Goose Flocks Nesting in
Study Sections along the Lower Yellowstone River Based
upon Sizes of Eggs in Completed Clutches ...... .
Summary of Canada Goose Nest Fates from Study Sections
on the Lower Yellowstone River, 1975 and 1976 ....
6. Number of Canada Goose Nests Per Hectare on the Most
Densely Nested Islands in Each Study Section Surveyed
23
26
along the Lower Yellowstone River in 1975 and 1976 . . . . . . 27
7.
8.
Density of Canada Goose Nests on Islands from Studies
Conducted in Other Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Heioht ~hnv~ w~t~r ~~d Distance to Water of Canada G~cse
Nest Sites on the Lower Yellowstone River, 1975 and 1976
9. Mean Cover Ratings from Goose Nest Sites on the Lower
27
28
Yellowstone River, 1975 and 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
10. ·Frequency of Association of Completed Canada Goose Nests
with Selected Nest Site Parameters on the Lower Yellowstone
River, 1975 and 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
11. Numbers of Canada Geese Observed During Aerial Censuses in
the Early Fall Resident Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
12. Mean Distances Moved by Age and Sex Classes of Canada Geese
Marked with Plastic Neck Collars between Time of Capture in
1975 and Beginning of the Brood-Rearing and Flightless Period
in 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
13. Numbers of Canada Geese Observed During Aerial Censuses in the
Fall Migration Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
14. Dabbling Duck Utilization of Selected Field Types Over
All Study Sections During Four Periods in 1975 and 1976 . . • . . 49
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15.
16.
Proportion of Drakes in Mallard Flocks along the Lower
Yellowstone River, 1974 and 1975 .....•.•
--.
Aerial Censuses of Great Blue Heron· Rookeries on the
Lower Yellowstone River in 1975 and 1976 ' .•
17. Area~of~Vegetati on -Types-on"All ~Islands within Each~·
Section of the Lower Yellowstone River ....•.
18. Length of Shoreline per Vegetation Type in Each Section.of
53
61
66
the Lower Yellows tone River . . . . . . . . . • -. ~-• . • 67
19. Size Classification, Number, and Frequency of Islands within
Sections of the Lower Yellowstone River ...•• : ..•• ; • • 69
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mmaf
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acre-feet
acre-feet per year
barre 1 s per day
cubic feet per second
Federal Av.iation Authority
feet
hectare
cubic hectometer
cubic hectometers per year
kilogram
kilometer
pound
meter
cubic meters per second
mean cover rating
mile
million acre-feet
million cubic feet per day
million tons per year
megawatts
tons per day
trace
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THE RIVER
The Yellowstone River Basin of southeastern Montana, northern Wyoming,
and western North Dakota encompasses approximately 180,000 km2 (71,000 square
miles), 92,200 {35,600) of them in Montana. Montana's portion of the basin
comprises 24 percent of the state's land; where the river crosses the
border 1 nto North Dakota, 1 t carries about 8. 8 mill ion acre-feet of water per
year, 21 percent of the state's average annual outflow. The mainstem of the
Yellowstone rises in northwestern Wyoming and flows generally northeast to its
confluence with the Missouri River just east of the Montana-North Dakota
border; the river flows through Montana for about 550 of its 680 miles. The
major tributaries, the Boulder, Stillwater, Clarks Fork, Bighorn, Tongue, and
Powder rivers, all flow in a northerly direction. The western part of the
basin is part of the middle Rocky Mountains physiographic province; the
eastern section is located in the northern Great Plains (Rocky Mountain
Association of Geologists 1972).
THE CONFLICT
Historically, agriculture has been Montana's most important industry. In
1975, over 40 percent of the primary employment in Montana was provided by
agriculture (Montana Department of Community Affairs 1976). In 1973, a good
year for agriculture, the earnings of labor and proprietors involved in
agricultural production in the fourteen counties that approximate the
Yellowstone Basin were over $141 million, as opposed to $13 million for
mining and $55 million for manufacturing. Cash receipts for Montana's
agricultural products more than doubled from 1968 to 1973. Since that year,
receipts have declined because of unfavorable market conditions; some
improvement may be in sight, however. In 1970, over 75 percent of the
Yellowstone Basin's land was in agricultural use (State Conservation Needs
Committee 1970). Irrigated agriculture is the basin's largest water use,
consuming annually about 1.5 million acre-feet (af) of water (Montana DNRC
1977).
There is another industry in the Yellowstone Basin which, though it con-
sumes little water now, may require more in the future, and that is the coal
development industry. In 1971, the North Central Power Study (North Central
Power Study Coordinating Committee 1971) identified.42 potential power plant
sites in the five-state (Montana, North and South Dakota, l~yomi ng, and
Colorado) northern Great Plains region, 21 of them in Montana. These plants,
all to be fired by northern Great Plains coal, would generate 200,000 megawatts
(mw)'of electricity, consume 3.4 million acre-feet per year (mmaf/y) of 1~ater,
and result in a large population increase. Administrative, economic, legal,
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and technological considerations have kept most of these conversion facilities,
identified in the North Central Power Study as necessary for 1980, on the
drawing board or in the courtroom. There is now no chance of their being
completed by that date or even soon after, which will delay and diminish the
economic benefits some basin residents had expected as a result of coal
development. On the other hand, contracts have been signed for the mining
of large amounts of Montana coal, and applications have been approved not
only for new and expanded coal mines but also for Colstrip Units 3 and 4,
twin 700-mw, coal-fired, electric generating plants.
In 1975, over 22 million tons of coal were mined in the state, up from
14 million in 1974, 11 million in 1973, and 1 million in 1969. By 19BO, even
if no new contracts are entered, Montana's annual coal production will exceed
40 million tons. Coal reserves, estimated at over 50 billion economically
strippable tons (Montana Energy Advisory Council 1976), pose no serious con-
straint to the levels of development projected by this study, which range
from 186.7 to 462.8 million tons stripped in the basin annually by the year
2000. Strip mining itself involves little use of water. How important the
energy industry becomes as a water user in the basin will depend on: 1) how
much of the coal mined in Montana is exported, and by what means, and 2) by
what process and to what end product the remainder is converted within the
state. If conversion follows the patterns projected in this study, the energy
industry will use from 48,350 to 326,740 af of water annually by the year 2000.
A third consumptive use of water, municipal use, is also bound to
increase as the basin population increases in response to increased employment
opportunities in agriculture and the energy industry.
Can the Yellowstone River satisfy all of these demands for her water?
Perhaps in the mainstem. But the tributary basins, especially the Bighorn,
Tur·ryue, drrd Powder, have much sma il er f I ows, and it is in those basins that
much of the increased agricultural and industrial water demand is expected.
Some impacts could occur even in the mainstem. What would happen to
water quality after massive depletions? How would a change in water quality
affect existing and future agricultural ,industrial, and municipal users?
What would happen to fish, furbearers, and migratory waterfowl that are
dependent on a certain level of instream flow? Would the river be as
attractive a place for recreation after dewatering?
One of the first manifestations of Montana's growing concern for water
in the Yellowstone Basin and elsewhere in the state was the passage of
significant legislation. The Hater Use Act of 1973, which, among other
things, mandates the adjudication of all existing water rights and makes
possible the reservation of water for future beneficial use, was followed
by the l~ater Moratorium Act of 1974, which delayed action on major
applications for Yellov1stone Basin water for three years. The moratorium,
by any standard a bold action, was prompted by a steadily increasing rush of
applications and filings for water (mostly for industrial use) which, in two
tributary basins to the Yellowstone, exceeded supply. The DNRC's intention
during the moratorium was to study the basin's water and related land
resources, as well as existing and future need for the basin's water, so that
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the state would be able to proceed wisely with the allocation of that water.
The study which resulted in this series of reports was one of the fruits of
that intention. Several other Yellowstone water studies were undertaken
during the moratorium at the state and federal levels. Early in 1977, the
45th Montana Legislature extended the moratorium to allow more time to con-
sider reservations of water for future use in the basin.
THE STUDY
The Yellowstone Impact Study, conducted by the Water Resources Division
of the Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation and financed
by the Old West Regional Commission, was designed to evaluate the potential
physical, biological, and water use impacts of water withdrawals and water
development on the middle and lower reaches of the Yellowstone River Basin in
Montana. The study's plan of operation was to project three possible levels
of future agricultural, industrial, and muncipal development in the
Yellowstone Basin and the streamflow depletions associated with that develop-
ment. Impacts on river morphology and water quality were then assessed,
and, finally, the impacts of altered streamflow, morphology, and water
quality on such factors as migratory birds, forbearers, recreation, and
existing water users were analyzed.
The study began in the fall of 1974. By its conclusion in December of
1976, the information generated by the study had already been used for a
number of moratorium-related projects--the EIS on reservations of water in
the Yellowstone Basin, for example (Montana DNRC 1976). The study resulted
in a final report summarizing all aspects of the study and in eleven
specialized technical reports:
Report No. 1
Report No. 2
Report No. 3
Report No. 4
Report No. 5
Report No. 6
Report No. 7
Future Development Project1ons and Hydrologic Modeling in
the Yellowstone River Basin, Montana.
The Effect of Altered Streamflow on the Hydrology and
Geomorphology of the Yellowstone River Basin, t·1ontana.
The Effect of Altered Streamflow on the Water Quality of
the Yellowstone River Basin, Montana.
The Adequacy of Montana's Regulatory Framework for Water
Quality Control
Aquatic Invertebrates of the Yellowstone River Basin,
Montana.
The Effect of Altered Streamflow on Forbearing Mammals of
the Yellowstone River Basin, Montana.
The Effect of Alt~red Streamflow on Migratory Birds of the
Yellowstone River Basin, Montana.
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Report No. 8 The Effect of Altered Streamflow on Fish of the
Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers, Montana.
Report llo. 9 The Effect of Altered Streamflow on Existing r~unicipal
and Agricultural Users of the Yellowstone River Basin,
Montana.
Report No. 10 The Effect of Altered Streamflow on Water-Based Recreation
in the Yellowstone River Basin, Montana.
Report No. 11 The Economics of Altered Streamflow in the Yellowstone
River Basin, Montana.
ACKNOWLEDGMEIHS
Tom Hinz was assisted in report preparation, goo~e banding and study
direction by Bob Martinka, also of the Montana Department of Fish and Game.
Other Fish and Game personnel assisted with goose banding and observation.
Appreciation is also extended to Miles City Aero Service,
Shari Meats and Pam Tennis of the Department of Natural Resources and
Conservation provided editorial assistance. Graphics were coordinated and
prepared by Gary Holf with the assistance of D. C. Howard, who also designed
and executed the cover.
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PURPOSE
The purpose of the study was to determine the importance of the
Yellowstone River to geese, ducks, bald eagles, great blue herons, and other
migratory birds and assess the impact on those birds of altered streamflow.
The structure and vegetation of the river, with particular attention to
islands, were also to be studied.
SCOPE
Although all large migratory birds present in the study area were
studied to some extent, more time was invested in observation of the most
common species. Canada geese (Branta canadensis) were believed to be the
only large migratory birds to breed, rear their young, summer, winter, and
occur as fall and spring migrants on the lower Yellowstone River. Because
of this year-round use of the river and of the species' economic and
aesthetic value, goose studies were given the most time. Mallards (Anas
platyrhynchosJ were also believed to occur in the study area year-round,
but nesting and brood-rearing on the river/"itself was thought to be limited.
Great blue herons (Ardea herodiasJ were (nown to nest and rear their young on
the river but were not believed to be present during the colder months of the
year. Bald eagles (Haliaeetus leuaoaephalus) had been observed along the
river during the colder months but were not believed to breed there. All
other migratory birds were ranked below these in importance in the study.
In the analysis of river structure and vegetation (conducted from
aerial photographs), the parameters studied were cover type, length of shore-
line per cover type, island size, thalweg length, sinuosity, total water area,
total shoreline length (~1etted perimeter), and total gravel bar area.
STUDY AREA
To permit more intensive study of large migratory birds in areas where
they were believed to be more numerous, the study area was limited to the
Yellowstone River from Billings to the North Dakota border. The analysis of
vegetation was also limited to that section of the river to allow comparison
with the numbers of birds observed.
Other geographic limitations involved local variations in habitat use
by particular species. Duck, goose, and bald eagle feeding areas, for
instance, included the largest area. Most observations of the other birds
were 1 imi ted to the river banks, islands, and channe 1 s.
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RIVER STUDY SECTIONS
To simplify organization of collected data and to facilitate presentation
of findings, the portion of the river studied, beginning at Billings and
ending at Fairview, was divided into 21 study sections, shown in figure 1.
These study sections were helpful mainly in the Canada goose and dabbling
duck studies.
MAJOR BIRD STUDIES
CANADA GEESE
Aerial Censuses
Canada goose populations along the lower Yellowstone River were counted
at irregular intervals depending on the time of year, migrations, and weather.
Flights were conducted with a Piper Super Cub (PA-18) from Miles City to
Billings on one day and from Miles City to Fairview on the next that weather
permitted. Because geese sometimes loafed away from the river at midday
from late fall through the spring migration, censuses taken during that
period--sometimes required flying over parts of the valley away from the
river.
Observations of field-feeding geese were recorded at all times of the
year except during the flightless period. Records were kept of the type of
field used, number of geese in each flock, field condition, and time of day.
In addition, after neck bands had been applied to resident birds in 1975,·
field~eedingflocks were closely scrutinized to locate neck-banded individuals.
All recorded observations of such birds were plotted on maps for calculation
of the sizes of the birds' seasonal home ranges. ·
Nest Surveys
Surveys of nesting Canada geese were conducted through the springs of
1975 and 1976. Selection of study sections was based upon the availability
of boat-launching sites at their downstream ends. In 1975, nesting surveys
were conducted in the Bighorn-to-Hysham, Hathaway-to-Miles City, Miles City-
to-Kinsey (upstream from the mouth of Sunday Creek only), and Fallon-to-
Glendive sections of the river. The downstream ends of these areas were
searched first; areas upstream were checked only as time allowed. Nest
searches in 1975 were ended when eggs began to hatch. In 1976, they were
ended when excessive desertion occurred between the weekly-to-biweekly
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nest checks; it was suspected that the disturbance associated with the nest
checks may have caused the desertion. llests believed to be late or renesting
efforts were not surveyed because of the change in nest-site parameters by
that late date. Because nest surveys were conducted primarily on warm days
(see discussion of egg mort a 1 ity on page 38 ) , weather in 1976 pennitted
more field work to be conducted, and six areas of the river were surveyed:
those sections used in 1975, the Sanders-to-Forsyth section, and the reach
from Sunday Creek to Terry.
Island and bank nesting areas were searched for the presence of goose
nests by one observer with the aid of a second observer and/or a dog. Only
those islands small enough to be covered on foot were searched completely.
Larger islands, main shorelines, and heavily-vegetated areas were searched
only when the presence of a single goose or pair suggested that a nest was
nearby. Most driftwood piles and drifted trees within the study areas were
also searched for nests.
Both physical and biological factors associated with goose nests were
measured. Biological data collected included caliper measurements of egg
widths and lengths, clutch size and number of adult geese attending the
nest. Distance from nests to water was measured with a 100-foot graduated
nylon rope. Elevation of nests above water was estimated using a level and
stadia rod. Substrate around the nests was recorded as composed of rocks,
rocks and silt, silt, or soil. (Soil was distinguished from silt by the
presence of litter, organic material, and/or vegetation; silt was considered
to be bare and undeveloped.) Other physical factors noted were: 1) whether
the nest was constructed by a drifted log or tree; 2) whether it was on an
island, peninsula, or the main bank; and 3) whether it was on a cliff, by a
tree, or at another identifiable site. Photographs were taken of each
nest for a record of the vegetative growth staqe during the early nesting
season. These photographs also served as a general record of the structure
of cover at each site.
Density of vegetative cover around each goose nest was estimated utilizing
a cover board marked with numbers 1-6 (figure 2) similar to that devised by
Wight (1938). Cover density was estimated from four positions 15.2 m
(50 feet) from the nest, spaced at 90-degree angles around the nest. The
first position was chosen as the most open side of the nest. The four
values thus obtained were averaged, giving a mean cover rating (M.C.R.) for
each nest as shown in the following example:
Numbers
Numbers Partially Numbers
Visible Visible Obscured Cover Rating
Open side 1 • 2. 3 4 5. 6 8.0
900 Counterclockwise 1-6 None None 21.0
1800 Counterclockwise None 1-6 None 10.5
2700 Counterclockwise 1 • 2. 3. 4 5 6 12.5
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YEllowsTONE RIVER BASIN
YEllowsTONE RIVER STudy SECTIONs
Billings to Huntley
Huntley to Worden
Worden to Pompeys Pillar
Pompeys Pillar to Custer
Custer to Bighorn
Bighorn to Hysham
Hysham to Sanders
Sanders to Forsyth
Forsyth to Rosebud
Rosebud to Hathaway
Hathaway to ~1i les City
Hiles City to Kinsey
Kinsey to Zero
Zero to mouth of Powder River
Mouth of Powder River to Terry
Terry to Fallon
Fallon to Glendive
Glendive to Intake
Intake to Savage
Savage to Sidney
Sidney to Fairview
Thalweg Length (km)
16.6
18.3
13.3
43.8
1 .a
31.6
19.9
41.0
19.5
31.3
32.3
29.9
24.0
5. 5
21.0
14.3
52.6
32.4
30.9
37.4
22.8
0 10 20 40 60 80 100 Miles
~UHUjU~~====~' ...... .Jt---::::::::jl._ ...... £'::::::::]1
0 10 20 40 60 80 100 Kilometers
~~~::i. .. .Jit=::~I .... Jit=:::jl
N YELLOWSTONE
RIVER BASIN
GARFIELD
McCONE
'
MUSSELSHELL
WHEATLAND
MEAGHER \
CARBON
------'1 - -4,-.....JL...--
y E L L 0 W S T 0 N E 'I
' ( NATIONAL PARK
POMPEYS
PILLAR
YELLOWSTONE
INDIAN
BIG HORN
RESERVATION
POWDER I
ASHLAND
I ----r--~
I ' '
: l ----~
\ Tongu8 River 1 RtJservoir I ------------..L-__ __... ... - -l-----
WYOMING
Rl
--l,
I
,-
-'
I
' ~-
I
' ~
' I
I
I
I
~
' I
--
FIGURE 1
I --1
I
I
I Llt-
liD ,g
\;
,~
0 -\~
The cover rating per side is determined by this formula:
y
cover rating ~ X + -n n 2
where: Xn ~ numbers visible to the observer
Y ~ numbers partially visible n
The obscured numbers do not contribute to the cover rating. The M.C.R.
is equal to the sum of cover ratings per side divided by 4.
Figure 2. Cover board used to estimate density of vegetative cover
surrounding goose nests.
Water levels at each nest site were monitored with the use of 6-foot
steel fence posts driven into a firm substrate at the water's edge near the
nest. Each post was numbered and identified by attaching a metal tag to the
top .. Water level (gage height) was determined by measuring the distance
from the top of the post to the water surface.
11
Marking and Banding
Goslings hatched within the study areas were marked utilizing two
techniques. In 1975, eggs from selected clutches were injected with
colored dyes as described by Evans (1951) and HcCabe ( 1975). In 1976,
37 young were marked with numbered web-tags as used by Forrest Lee (1975)
at the Northern Prairie ~/ildl ife Research Center. None of these web-tagged
birds were recaptured later during the free-banding operations.
Canada geese were captured during the flightless period in 1975 and
1976 by the free-banding technique described by Hanson and Eberhardt (1971).
Modifications of their technique included use of one or two boats, from
three to seven banders, a dog, and a Piper Super Cub for aerial location of
the geese. Contact between the air and boats was accomplished with the use
of two-way radios. Goslings which appeared to be less than six weeks of
age were marked with standard aluminum leg bands and released. Captured
birds six weeks of age or older were marked with green-and-white neck bands
and aluminum leg bands (figure 3). (The green bands with white letters and
numera 1 s are those assigned to Nontana by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
for neck-banding waterfowl.)
·-_:~-'"--
>f~_' . , . ;s·· I
,,
I
t
-\:.
l ;; .. -· j
I
,
Figure 3. Marking Canada Geese with plastic neck collars and standard
aluminum leg bands.
12
DABBLING DUCKS
Observations
Ground observations of loafing dabbling ducks were recorded at the out-
set of the study but later omitted from records because of the unsystematic
means by which they were obtained. Aerial censuses were the only reliable
estimates of dabbling duck populations on the river. Ground observations
were used only as a general indicator of species abundance and distribution.
Aerial censuses of dabbling ducks were conducted simultaneously with
those of geese and other birds. These censuses provided some observations
of individual species, but, because not all ducks could be identified by
species from the air, total numbers of each species were not obtained. It
was possible, however, to distinguish goldeneyes (Bucephala sp.J and common
mergansers (MePgus mePganseP) from the other species. Observations of other
diving ducks 1·1ere included in the dabbling duck figures because they could not
be consistently differentiated, although they were believed to be too few in
number to appreciably alter the total census.
Field-feeding observations of dabbling ducks were recorded from late
summer through spring. Observations recorded included species and number of
ducks, location, and field type. Dabblers and Canada geese were sometimes
observed field-feeding together, as the feeding areas of these species often
overlapped.
Although incubating dabbling ducks were encountered during goose banding
operations, no systematic attempts were made to survey dabbling duck nesting
cover. It was believed that determination of goose nesting requirements would
provide a better basis for correlating waterfowl nesting with river structure
and vegetation because most geese nest on the river proper. Dabbling duck
nesting 1~as believed to occur along oxbows·, sloughs, creeks, irrigation
ditches, and fields away from the river.
Sex Ratios
Sex ratios of mallard flocks were determined within sections of the
river where the loafing population size had been estimated during aerial
censuses. Flocks were observed until a large number of individuals had
been classified as to sex. The sample size was deemed adequate when it
exceeded (Snedecor and Cochran 1967):
n = ~
L2
where: n =sample size needed to attain a given limit of
error, L
p = proportion of drakes observed
q = proportion of hens observed
L = limit of error, in this case, 0.1
13
If the computed value of n was greater than 10 percent of N, the estimated
population size, then a revised n' was calculated to account for the finite-
ness of the population:
n• = n
1~ N
COMMON MERGAtiSERS AND COf-lMON GOLDENEYE$
Common mergansers and common goldeneyes (Bucephala cZanguZaJ were
counted from the air as described above. All goldeneyes observed were
classified as common goldeneyes since no Barrow's goldeneyes (Bucephala
iaZandicaJ were observed during ground surveys. Other studies performed
included merganser food habits analyses and brood observations of mergansers
and goldeneyes.
Food habits analyses were qualitatively performed. The stomachs of dead
birds were opened and their contents identified. Where possible, the food
items were counted by kind; where not, the kinds of items were noted.
Mergansers, goldeneyes, white pelicans, and great blue herons were collected
with shotguns from boats on the river under the authority of federal and
state collecting permits. Appendix B shows the results of food habits
analyses for these four species.
BALD EAGLES
Bald eagle (Haliaeetus ZeucocephaZuJ populations were also counted on
the census flights. Individuals with predominantly white heads and tails
were counted as adults (Southern 1967), and predominantly brown birds as
juveniles. Food items utilized were noted during both aerial censuses
and ground surveys.
Bald eagles frequenting large nests near the river were closely observed
from the air to determine if the birds were nesting or simply roosting by
the nests. Similar reconnaissance was made of areas where marked eagles
had been reported. Attempts were made to relocate marked birds so that an
accurate description of the colored tags could be reported to the banders.
GREAT BLUE HERONS
Great blue herons (Ardea herodiasJ in rookeries and along the banks of
the river were counted on the census flights. The number of active nests
and the stage of laying, incubating, or brooding in some of the nests were
noted. Herons were observed in their feeding areas, and some were collected
for analyses of food habits.
14
r
WHITE PELICANS
White pelican (Peleaanus erythPorhynahosJ studies included aerial
censuses and some food habits analyses. In addition, pelicans collected or
found dead on the river were checked for federal leg bands. Bands thus
obtained were sent to the Migratory Bird Populations Station in Patuxent,
Maryland.
OTHER MIGRATORY BIRD STUDIES
Other large migratory birds, shorebirds, and piscivorous species were
observed on occasion. Notes on their feeding habits, distribution, and time
of year observed in the study area were recorded.
ISLAND AND VEGETATION ANALYSIS
Aerial photographs taken by the Montana Department of Highways were
used in an analysis of selected aspects of the river vegetation and channel
morphology. The photographs utilized were color prints approximately
9 X 9 inches in size, scaled to 1:24,000, with approximately 50 percent
overlap. The photographs from Billings to Fairview, Montana, were
divided into groups corresponding with the sections into which the flight
data were divided.
All parameters to be studied were traced on plastic overlays; cover
types along the shoreline (dense cottonwood, cottonwood-grassland, sagebrush-
grassland, shrubs, cleared for grazing, agricultural, breaks, industrial
and housing, and gravel bars) were coded by color. All island cover ty~es
were color coded according to the same scheme.
Areas of vegetation types, lengths of shoreline per vegetation type,
island sizes, and thalweg lengths were measured with a digitized planimeter.
Sinuosity was later calculated by dividing the thalweg length by the
straightline distance between the midstream points at the upstream and
downstream ends of each section (the down-valley distance). Other parameters
measured were the total water area, total shoreline length (the wetter
perimeter), and the total gravel-bar area. Results of this analysis are shown
in appendix C.
15
MAJOR BIRD STUDIES
CANADA GEESE STUDIES
Investigations into the ecology of Canada geese on the lower
Yellowstone River were divided into six periods: wintering, spring migration,
breeding, brood-rearing and flightless, early fall resident, and fall
migration. The wintering period began with the onset of extended periods
of cold weather in late fall which induced geese in most sections of the
river to depart on southern migrations, possibly because of extensive ice
cover on the river. Wintering periods ended with the onset of warmer
weather, the resultant ice melt, and arrival of migrants in early spring.
Thus, the spring migration period begins as migrants stop in the study
area on their way to northern breeding grounds and ends as most migrant
flocks present in the study area dissipate. The early part of the breeding
period overlaps with the end of the migration period, in that the establish-
ment of territories by resident birds occurs while some spring migrants are
present in the same areas. The breeding period ends and the brood-rearing
and flightless period begins when the first clutches hatch. This period
ends and the early fall resident period begins when the first flocks of geese
gain flight. The early fall resident period extends through the fall until
the first cold and snowy weather brings large numbers of migrant geese · --
back into the area. The fall migration period continues until the onset of
cold, wintry weather.
Wintering Period
Geese Present. Numbers of Canada geese observed in the study area during
this period in 1975 and 1976 were among the lowest observed during the study
(figure 4). Only during the brood-rearing and flightless period were the
censuses as low, but during that time geese are secretive and difficult to
observe from the air. During the wintering period, 83.8 percent of goose
observations recorded during aerial censuses occurred between Bighorn and
Hathaway (table 1). Study sections within that reach remain largely free
of ice because of the entrance of warmer water from the Bighorn River into
the Yellowstone and its influence on ice formation downstream. Below Miles
City, the river was largely frozen during the winters of 1974-75 and 1975-
76 and did not harbor a significant number of geese (table 1).
17
16,000
15,000
14,000
13,000
12,000
11,000
10,000 ..
"' .. 9,000 ..
(!) -8,000 0 .. .. ... 7,000 E
" CD z
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
5 5 0 N F M A
1976
Figure 4. Goose censuses conducted along the lower Yellowstone River between
Billings and Fairview, Montana, from September 1, 1974, to August 1, 1976.
TABLE 1. Numbers of Canada geese observed during aerial censuses in the
Wintering Period
Section
Billings to Huntley
Huntley to Worden
Worden to Pompeys Pillar
Pompeys Pillar to Custer
Custer to Bighorn
Bighorn to Hysham
Hysham to Sanders
Sanders to Forsyth
Forsyth to Rosebud
Rosebud to Hathaway
Hathaway to Miles City
Miles City to Kinsey
Kinsey to Zero
Zero to Powder River
Powder River to Terry
Terry to Fallon
Fallon to.Glendive
Glendive to Intake
Intake to Savage
Savage to Sidney
Sidney to Fairview
CONVERSIONS: 1 goose/km = 1.61 geese/mi
Number
of Geesea
26
178
0
300
2
873
177
1 ,185
917
554
163
24
9
0
0
0
14
0
0
0
0
Geese/km
2
10
0
7
trb
28
9
29
47
18
5
1
trb
0
0
0
trb
0
0
0
0
NOTE: Five flights from departure of fall migrants until arrival of
spring migrants.
a A 11 flights
bTr = fewer than .5 geese
Geese present in the study area during the winter appeared to be giant
Canada geese (B. c. maximal or Great Basin Canada geese (B. c. moffittiJ,
the two largest subspecies (Hanson 1965). According to Lefebvre and
Raveling (1967), the smaller subspecies cannot survive winters in such
climates. It is possible that wintering geese were resident breeders,
especially in the Bighorn-to-Hysham section of the river. Even on
January 7, 1976, when the maximum temperature for the day at the FAA office
at Miles City was -230 C (-90 F), an aerial census conducted in this section
produced observations of 70 geese. One goose observed near Hysham in
February 1976 (appendix D) had been banded in that area the previous summer,
indicating that at least some of the geese wintering in that area may be
resident birds.
19
Crops and Forage Utilized. Crop types utilized by geese in winter were,
in decreasing order of use, corn cut for silage, barley stubble, seeded
winter wheat, and alfalfa and hay (table 2). Most of these fields were
located on the flood plain, reflecting the tendency of geese to feed in
fields close to the river. Seeded winter wheat fields, most of which occur
on the benches away from the river, were used only when snow cover was light.
TABLE 2. Canada goose utilization of selected field types over all study sections
during four periods, 1975 and 1976.
Spring Migration Post-Harvest Overall
and Harvesting to Late Hinter Annual
Field Type Breeding Perioda Peri odbc Fa 11 Peri odcd Peri ode Utilization
Barley stubble 56.4(12,993) 42.1 (1,467) 7.4(603) 23.5(5,493) 35.4(20,556)
Wheat stubble 9.7( 2,243) 57.6(2,005) 8.5(688) 8.2(1,925) 11.8( 6,861)
Seeded winter
trf (11) wheat 3.6(295) 14.4(3,357) 6.3( 3,663)
Corn cut for
silage 22.5( 5,189) 0.3 ( 10) 80.3(6,521) 27.6(6,449) 31.3(18,169)
Picked corn 5. 2 ( 1 • 196) 9.3(2,162) 5.8( 3,358)
A lfa 1 fa and hay 5.9( 1.367) 14.1(3,282) 8.0( 4,649)
Pastures and
feed 1 ots 0.3 (57) 2.6 (609) 1.2 (666)
Pinto beans 0.3 (60) 0.1 (60)
Sugar beets 0.2(15) trf (15)
NOTE: Entries are given first as percentage of observations per period and
second, in parentheses, total number of observations in that field type that period.
aMarch 1 through May 31
bJuly 15 through corn harvest (date depending on .the year)
CBecause field feeding patterns and crop harvesting periods differ in duration
from goose migration and life-history periods, the periods used in this table do not
correspond exactly with those used in all other phases of this Canada goose study.
dpost-corn harvest through first cold weather and influx of northern migrants
eNorthern migrant arrival through winter
fTr =less than 0.1 percent
Movement. Geese loafing on the river during winter commonly rested on the
ice shelf near the water's edge. When in the fields, where they rested as
well as fed, they remained there much of the day. During periods of warmer
weather, geese showed more movement, as was apparent in February 1976 when river
ice was restricted largely to borders of islands and banks upstream from l~iles City. ~
20
Spring Migration Period
Geese Present. One of the census flights made during the spring
migration period of 1975 produced the highest number of geese counted during
the study (figure 4). Seventy percent of the observations were recorded
between Bighorn and Miles City (table 3). Similar numbers might have been
observed in the spring of 1976 had the aerial census been conducted earlier
in March, judging by ground observations of large field-feeding flocks of
geese between Bighorn and ~1iles City in early March.
TABLE 3. Numbers of Canada geese observed during aerial censuses in the
Spring Migration Period
Section
Billings to Huntley
Huntley to Worden
Worden to Pompeys Pillar
Pompeys Pillar to Custer
Custer to Bighorn
Bighorn to Hysham
Hysham to Sanders
Sanders to Forsyth
Forsyth to Rosebud
Rosebud to Hathaway
Hathaway to r~iles City
Miles City to Kinsey
Kinsey to Zero
Zero to Powder River
Powder River to Terry
Terry to Fallon
Fallon to Glendive
Glendive to Intake
Intake to Savage
Savage to Sidney
Sidney to Fairview
CONVERSIONS: 1 goose/km = 1.61 geese/mi
Number
of Geesea
70
531
106
1 ,984
77
2,775
2,792
3,983
1 ,631
1 • 71 g
1,299
897
637
535
162
11
525
30
65
126
243
Geese/km
4
29
8
45
10
88
140
97
84
55
40
30
26
98
8
1
10
1
2
3
11
NOTE: Two flights conducted in March during the period of greatest
migrant influx into the study area.
aAll flights.
21
This stopover of large numbers of geese occurred both during periods of
snow and inclement weather (1975) and under fair skies and warm temperatures
(1976), indicating a tendency of geese to home to particular migration
stops in the spring. This spring stopover may be similar to annual fall
migration stopovers which provide available food and loafing areas as
suggested by Bellrose (1974).
Spring migrant flocks consisted of birds of several races as determined
by their differences in size, coloration, bill shape, and voice. Small geese of the
shortgrass prairie populations (B.e. parvipes) were common in some flocks,
although the Great Basin and giant Canada geese were more numerous. Some
flocks contained snow geese (Chen eaeruZeseens) and white-fronted geese
(Anser aZbifrons frontalis).
Field-feeding flocks of geese were observed closely to locate any marked
individuals. In addition to neck-banded residents (appendix D), some birds
neck-banded in other areas were also observed. In 1975, two geese neck-
banded by Ducks Unlimited were observed near the mouth of Reservation Creek.
Both were females banded at Dowling Lake, Alberta, in June 1g73, one as a
yearling and one as a juvenile. Thirty-one other geese wearing similar
bands were observed on or near the river between Reservation Creek and Myers
in 1976; all had been banded on their breeding grounds on lakes near Edmonton
and Calgary, Alberta, in the summer of 1974 and 1975 (Leitch 1976). No such
banded birds were observed in any other part of the study area, which suggests
the presence of a migration corridor used by birds breeding in Alberta and
migrating across southeastern Montana, as discussed by Bellrose (1968).
Resident birds (identified by neck bands), including adult females,
were observed in the study area during the spring migration period (appendix
D). These individuals utilized the same fields as migrant flocks. The
territoriality of resident birds was evidenced by their reluctance to fly
long distances from the river to feed. As the spring migration period
continued and the breeding season progressed, the territorial pairs spent
less time in the fields, remaining close to the river nesting sites.
Crots and Forage Utilized. Observations of field-feeding geese indicated
that fie ds of barley stubble and corn cut for silage were the most preferred
in the spring migration period, as they were year-round (table 2). As
discussed previously the use of these crops reflects the tendency of geese
to feed on the flood plain, often adjacent to the river. During this period,
geese were observed flying back and forth over the banks from field to
loafing area throughout the day, rather than just at morning and evening.
Movement. Loafing areas utilized by geese during this
used in fall, except where ice covered some loafing sites.
and Sidney, where the river was largely frozen, geese loafed
next to pockets of open water.
22
period were those
Between Glendive
on the ice shelf
Breeding Period
Geese Present. Breeding populations of geese in the study area during
this period could not be ac-curately counted. Based on the total number of
pairs and singles observed on aerial censuses (Hanson and Browning 1959),
the breeding population was estimated to be 484 breeding pairs on the first
1975 census, 433 on the second 1975 census, and 404 on the 1976 census.
However, many pairs observed from the air were found by ground observation
to be nonbreeding birds only defending a territory. Breeding pair counts
conducted in early May when hens were incubating were based on observations
of territorial males defending territories in addition to some late-nesting
and renesting pairs. The omission of some breeding pairs from the aerial
censuses by overlooking some solitary males and the erroneous inclusion of
some nonbreeding pairs probably negate each other to some degree. Therefore,
a rough estimate of the size of the breeding population of geese in the study
area at 400 to 450 pairs may reasonably be made.
Hanson (1965) reported the use of egg measurements in delineating possible
breeding areas of giant Canada geese. He believed that the geese breeding
along the Yellowstone River were giant Canada geese. Table 4 shows that,
based on egg sizes, approximately 20 to 25 percent of the geese breeding in the
study sections on the lower Yellowstone River are giant Canada geese. Other
characteristics of giant Canada geese observed among some breeding birds
included a white forehead spot, massive bill, large tarsal scutes, light
color, and posterior extension of the cheek patches (Hanson 1965). The
remaining 75 to 80 percent of the breeders are believed to be members of the
Great Basin race or possibly a hybrid of Great Basin and giant Canada geese
(Hinz lg74).
TABLE 4. Racial composition of Canada goose flocks nesting in study sections along the
lower Yellowstone River based upon sizes of eggs in completed clutches.
1975 1976
Section B. c. moffitia B. c. ma:r:irnc/J B.c. moffitia B.c. ma:r:imab
Bighorn to Hysham 57. 1 ( 4) 42.9 (3) 79.2 ( 19) 20.8 ( 5)
Sanders to Forsyth 83.3 ( 1 0) 16.7 (2)
Hathaway to Miles City 75.0 (6) 25.0 (2) 75.0 (3) 25.0 ( 1 )
Miles City to Sunday Creek 100.0 (13) 0.0 (O) 75.0 (3) 25.0 ( 1 )
Sunday Creek to Terry 84.6 ( 11) 15.4 (2)
Fallon to Glendive 55.5 ( 5) 44.5 (4) 69.2 (9) 30.8 (4)
MEANS AND TOTALS 75.7 (28) 24.3 (g) 78.6 (55) 21.4 ( 15)
NOTE: All entries are expressed as percentages followed by, in parentheses,
number of nests.
aClutches with eggs whose lengths averaged 87.0 mm or over.
bclutches with eggs whose lengths averaged under 87.0 mm.
23
Two hens neck-banded in 1975 were observed on their nests in the spring
of 1976 in the vicinity of their capture (appendix D), demonstrating the
tendency of breeding hens to return to the same areas to nest. Only five
observations of juvenile birds returning with their parents to nesting areas
were recorded. Migration to other breeding grounds, post-banding mortality,
and neck-band loss are the factors believed to be responsible for the
paucity of these observations.
Crops and Forage Utilized. Feeding by breeding geese during this period
was largely limited to streamside fields and riparian vegetation.
Movement. During the period of nest initiation, the breeding segment of
the population remained on the river most of the time, the females on or
near the nest and the gander on a territorial defense site. The gander
defended the territory from a small bar or island near the nest or from the
main bank where he could also graze on green vegetation.
Nest Initiation. As shown in figure 5, nesting by Canada geese in the
study area began in late March in 1g75 and mid-March in 1976. FAA records
from Miles City showed similar mid-March temperatures in both years. Both
years there was a peak in the dates of nest initiation, around April 12,
1975, and April 1, 1976. The later peak in 1975 may have been the result
of heavy snow and blizzard conditions in the study area during the first week
of April. A renesting and/or late-nesting peak in 1976 is not apparent in
figure 5 because these late nests were not surveyed. Late nesting followed
high rates of predation and desertion of early nests in the upstream study
sections (table 5).
flestin Densit . Goose nesting densities were low overall, but on
certain islands table 6) they approached or exceeded those found by other
researchers (table 7). This tendency of high numbers of geese to nest on
isolated islands may result from hens returning to nest on islands where they
successfully nested in previous years; this pattern may be disrupted by
predation as occurred on the most densely-nested island in the Miles City-to-
Kinsey section. In 1975, there were 2.5 nests/ha (1.0 nest/acre) on that
island, and, in 1976, similar numbers of hens began to nest there (table 6).
One or more raccoons, possibly attracted to the island by the large number of
nesting geese, preyed on all goose nests on the island shortly after these
nests were initiated. Later, four pairs of geese, two of which were success-
ful, renested or late nested on the island, a density of only .66 nests/ha
(.27 nests/acre).
Nest Site Characteristics. In order to predict the effect of water with-
drawals from the river on goose nesting and on numbers of breeding, summering,
migrant, and wintering geese, these parameters were statistically compared with
the number of islands, sinuosity, gravel bar area, and area of agricultural
land, cottonwood-grassland, and dense cottonwoods in each section of river.
rio significant correlations were found. However, the goose nest sites them-
selves were believed to have certain other characteristics in common.
24
10
9
8
7
"' 6 -"' .. z -5 0
.,
N .0 CJO E
:::0 4 z
3
2
15 20 25 30
March
c::
.!'!
"0 .,
::;;
<D r--en
5 10
Date of Initiation
I
c::
0
"0 .,
::;;
10 r--en
15
April
20
I 1976
IW#I 1975
25 30
Figure 5. Dates of initiation of 51 Canada goose nests in 1975 and 58 nests
in 1976 on the lower Yellowstone River, Montana.
r J'
'
TABLE 5. Summary of Canada goose nest fates from study sections on the lower
Yellowstone River, 1975 and 1976
Number of
Study Section Nests Successful Flooded Predated Deserted
1975
Bighorn to Hysham 17
Hathaway to ~1i 1 es City 5
Miles City to Sunday Creek 13
Fallon to Glendive 10
TOTALS AND MEAIJS 45
1976
Bighorn to Hysham 27
Sanders to Forsyth 21
Hathaway to Miles City 6
Miles City to Sunday Creek 14
Sunday Creek to Terry 14
Fallon to Glendive 14
TOTALS AND MEANS 96
then
with
NOTE: Nest fates are given first as
(in parentheses) as number of nests.
colored dyes were excluded (see page
47 (8} 35 (6} 12 (2) 6 ( 1 )
40 (2) 60 (3} 0 (0) 0 (0)
84 ( 11 ) 0 (0} 8 ( 1 ) 8 ( 1 )
80 (8) 0 (0) 20 (2) 0 (0)
64 (29) 20 (9} 11 (5) 5 (2)
59 ( 16) 7 (2) 26 (7) 7 (2)
33 (7) 5 ( 1 ) 38 ( 8) 24 (5}
33 (2) 0 (0) 33 (2} 33 (2)
36 (5) 0 (0) 57 (8) 7 ( 1 )
71 ( 10) 7 ( 1 ) 7 ( 1 ) 14 (2)
64 (9) 0 (0) 7 ( 1 ) 29 (4)
51 (49) 4 (4) 28 (27) 17 ( 16)
percentages of study section nests,
Nests in which eggs were injected
38 ) .
The average height of goose nests above water was between 1 and 3 m
(table 8}, similar to the height above water of goose nests on the upper
Snake River as reported by Dimmick (1968}. Flooding of goose nests was more
pronounced in the upstream study areas in 1975. Figures 6 through 9 show the
increase in gage height during the nesting season in 1975 and 1976. More
nests in the Bighorn to Hysham and Hathaway to 11iles City study sections were
flooded than in downstream study sections because gage heights in the upstream
sections increased more rapidly. The stage in 1975 substantially increased
before the peak of hatching in the upstream sections (figures 6 and 7) and
1 ittl e in those downstream (figures 8 and 9). In 1976, no flooding occurred
in any section prior to the hatching peaks.
The average distance of goose nests from water was variable between study
areas (table 8) and indicative of the nature of the islands surveyed. Nest
searches on islands with steep banks and high relief revealed nests close
to the edge of the island and close to the \"later. The average distance from
water of goose nests in all study areas in both years was 23.2 m (76.1};
distances ranged from .3to 126m (1 to 413ft}. These figures are similar
to those reported by Dimmick (1968} for geese nesting along the Snake
River in Wyoming.
26
TABLE 6. Number of Canada goose nests per hectare on the most densely nested
islands in each study section surveyed along the lower Yellowstone River in
· 1975 and 1976.
Island 1975 1976
Size Number Nests/ Number Nests/
Section or Reach (hectares) Of fjests ha of Nests ha
Bighorn to Hysham 5.58 11 1.8 3 0.5
Sanders to Forsyth 6.08 4 0.7 5 0.8
Miles City to Kinsey 6.03 15 2.5 12 2.0
Sunday Creek to Terry 8.16 ----10 1.2
Fallon to Glendive 8.47 9 1.1 5 0.6
MEANS AND TOTALS 34.32 39 6. 1 35 5. 1
CONVERSIONS: 1 ha = 2.47 acres
1 nest/ha = .405 nest/acre
TABLE 7. Density of Canada goose nests on islands from studies conducted in
other areas.
Source
Bowhay (1972)
Culbertson et al. (1971)
Hanson and Browning (1959)
Hanson and Eberhardt ( 1971)
Hanson and Oliver (1951)
Kossack ( 1950)
Naylor (1953)
Vermeer (1969)
Williams et al. (1948)
Witt (1955)
Yocum et al. (1956)
Water Type
lotic
lotic
lotic
lotic
lotic
lentic
1 enti c
1 en tic
lentic
1 ent i c
CONVERSIONS: nest/ha = .405 nest/acre
27
Nests Per hectare
0.7-10.6
0.3-1.7
.01-9.9
.02-3.9
2.5-5.9
25-30
153
0.7-19.8
133-163
52
1.7
TABLE 8. Height above water and distance to water of Canada goose nest sites
on the lower Yellowstone River, 1g75 and 1976 (in meters)
1975
Number Average Average
of Nests Height Distance
Section Examined Above Water Range To Water Range
Bighorn to Hysham 29 1. 55 0.43-2.80 20.7 2.4-70.1
Sanders to Forsyth 3 2.77 1 .80-3. 51 29.3 17.1-36.3
Hathaway to Miles City 10 1.10 0.30-2.13 30.8 0.9-125.
IH 1 es City to Sunday Creek a 18 1.34 o.g]-1.83 15.8 2.4-37.2
Sunday Creek to Terrya ------------
Fallon to Glendive 10 1.37 0.91-1.58 15.2 2.4-31.7
MEANS 70 1.46 0.30-3.51 20.4 0.9-125.
1 g76
flumber Average Average
of Nests Height Distance
Section Examined Above ~Ia ter Range To Water Range
Bighorn to Hysham 25 1.34 0.18-2.96 19.8 0.3-91.7
Sanders to Forsyth 12 1. 55 0.49-5.49 15.2 1.5-38.4
Hathaway to Miles City 4 1.13 0.61-2.13 30.5 9.1-64.3
Miles City to Sunday Creeka 5 1.62 1 . 28-2. 16 25.3 14.0-43.3
Sunday Creek to Terry a 13 2.56 1.98-3.51 33.8 4.6-60.7
Fallon to Glendive 14 2.07 1. 22-2.77 36.6 4.0-74.7
-
MEANS 73 1. 74 0.18-5.49 25.9 0.3-91.7
CONVERSIONS: 1 m = 3.28 ft
aThese two reaches differ from the original study sections identified in
figure 1.
28
c
c
2.0
1.5
1976 Hatching Peak----
E
1:: 1.0
.!!' .,
J:
"' "' 0
<!>
.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 5
April I
Figure G. Gage heights from
lower Yellowstone River, 1975 and
' I selected
1976.
I
I .
---1975 Hatching Peak
/
" /
" "
I
1,
It
I/
' ' I / .... , ' /
.... "" .... ..,
/
" "
• /
---1976
10 15 20 25 30
May
-----1975
5 10 15
June
20
sites within the Bighorn-to-Hysham section of the
w
0
~
E -.s::;
.~ .,
J: .,
"' c
(!)
2.0
1.5
1.0
.5
1976 Hatching Peak----
""
• I :,.
A
/I / : .... :
/ I
/
----1976
-----1975
----1975 Hatching Peak
• I
I
I
I ,_
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I -:---------I
I
I
• I ,-t---------·I
/ 1 I
I I
/ I
I ..,...-!'--.....,
I / ; .......... "
I
" " , ,. ' " ""' : ........ 0,_--------------~--------~~----~----~~~--------------
5 10 15 20 25 30
April
5 10 15 20 25 30
May
5 10 15 20
June
Fi9ure 7. Gage heights from selected sites within the Hathaway-to-Miles City section of
the lower Yellowstone River, 1975 to 1976.
-~--'
'::
2.0
1.5
~ 1.0
.'?! .,
J:· .,
"' Cl
(!)
.5
' -
-I
!
' '
I
I
I
1976 ·Hatching Peak""'-;--
5 ' . 10. 15 20 25 5
April
10 15 20 25 30
May
'1976
. ..;----1_975
....
5 10
June
!\
.,
I,
Figure 8. Gage heights from selected sites within the Miles
the' lower'Velllowstone River, 1975 and i976.
City-to-Sunday Cre~k . . . I
I .. ·. I
'
20.
section of
w
N
2.0
1.5
E
~ 1.0
-~ .,
::t:
.5
5
1976 Hatching Peak---
10 15 20 25 30
April
5
---1976
-----1975
---1975 Hatching Peak
10 15 20 25 30
May
I
I
/t
II ,, ,, ,,
* ' I
5 10 15 20
June
Figure 9. Gage hei9hts from selected sites within the Fallon-to-Glendive section of the
lower Yellowstone River, 1975 and 1976.
' I
Large, high-relief islands used for nesting in the do~mstream sections
commonly had an extensive vegetative cover. These islands were usually ice-
free at the start of the nesting season. Open bars and low-relief islands were
also used for nest sites in the upstream sections (figure 10) where they
had been largely ice-free before nesting began or melted open during the
early stages of nesting. Ice cover on islands in the downstream sections
apparently did not induce geese to nest later (an observation based on hatch-
ing times of those nests) but did induce them to build their nests on island
interiors where ice cover was light or absent. The tendency of ice flows
moving do1~nstream to flow past high-relief islands is illustrated in figure 11.
These islands, which were mostly free from ice-gouging and flooding (see
table 9), were used to a lesser degree in the upstream sections. In 1975 and
1976, the average M.C.R.'s for goose nests in study areas upstream from
Miles City were 18.5 and 16.5, respectively, compared with 14.4 and 14.0,
respectively, in study areas below Miles City.
TABLE 9. Mean cover ratings from goose nest sites on the lower Yellowstone
River, 1975 and 1976.
1975 1976
Number 11ean Cover Number r1ean Cove r
Section or Reach of rrests Rating of Nests Rating
Bighorn to Hysham 29 17.7 23 15.3
Sanders to Forsyth 4 19 0 1 12 15.7
Hathaway to Miles City 11 18.8 4 18.6
Miles City to Sunday Creek 13 14.4 5 -14.8
Sunday Creek to Terry ----13 13.6
Fallon to Glendive 10 14.4 15 13.7
NOTE: Higher mean cover ratings indicate less dense cover around the
nest.
Goose nests were frequently built on or near driftwood logs, as shown
in table 10. The logs often afforded the only nesting cover available on
otherwise sparsely-vegetated sites. Of the nests surveyed in 1975 and 1976
which were constructed on or near driftwood logs, 79 percent and 95 percent,
respectively, occurred in the study areas upstream from Miles City. In both
years, approximately 96 percent of the nests surveyed were constructed on
islands. Peninsulas, heron rookeries, and cliffs were less important as
goose nesting areas. Over 95 percent of the nests surveyed were constructed
on a fine substrate--one composed primarily of sand or smaller particles.
Fine substrates probably provide better insulation for the clutch. Even
where all other considerations seemed favorable for nest construction, lack
of a fine substrate was sufficient to discourage nest construction. Such lack
was observed only on some small islands which might otherwise have been used
for nesting in the upstream study sections.
33
Figure 10. A typical nest site utilized by Canada geese nesting in open,
unvegetated areas. This site occurred near the mouth of Armells Creek, April
1974.
' -~ .--~-.. -
Figure 11. Ice flows moving past the vegetated portion of the downstream
end of an island in the Fallon-to-Glendive section, February 1975.
34
TABLE 10. Frequency of association of completed Canada goose nests with
selected nest site parameters on the lower Yellowstone River, 1975 and 1976.
(The number of nests in each category is given in parentheses.)
Percentage of nests constructed by a log
Percentage of nests constructed on islands
Percentage of nests constructed on peninsulas
Percentage of nests constructed on fine substratea
ilumber of additional nestsb constructed in heron
rookeries
Number of additional nestsb constructed on cliffs
1975
33.8 (24)
95.9 (70)
4.1 ( 3)
95.9 (70)
1
1
1976
39.7 (29)
95.9 (70)
2.7 ( 2)
97. 3 ( 71 )
2
3
NOTE: Only significant percentages are included. No attempt was made in
this table to show, for example, components besides logs found around nests,
since only logs accounted for a significant percentage.
asubstrate predominantly sand or silt composition
bAdditional nests are those not surveyed because they were inaccessible
on foot.
Clutch Sizes. Clutch size from goose nests within all study areas
averaged 5.3 and 5.6 eggs per clutch in 1975 and 1976, respectively. Similar
figures were reported from goose nests in other areas studied by Kossack (1950},
Hanson and Browning (1959), Martin {1964), Brakhage (1965), Hanson and
Eberhardt (1971) and Bowhay (1972). The frequency of clutch sizes encountered, ·'
ranging from two to nine eggs per nest, is shown in figure 12. ·
Nesting Success. The percentages of successful nests (those in which at
least one egg hatched) in 1975 and 1976 were approximately 65 and 50 percent,
respectively (table 5}. Other researchers, includin~ Steel et al. (lg57},
Hanson and Browning (1959), Martin (1964), and Hook (1973), reported between
70 and 90 percent nest success. The loss of 50 percent or more of the nests
in at least one of the study sections on the lower Yellowstone was the result
of nest flooding in 1975 and nest desertion and predation in 1976. The high
number of nests lost to flooding in 1975 may represent nesting by inexperi-
enced two-or three-year-olds (Eng 1976). Late nesting by some pairs may have
increased the actual production and success rate in both years, but these late
nests were not surveyed in order to prevent any further nest loss or desertion.
The high rate of nest predation which occurred in some study areas in
1976 compared with that observed in 1975 (table 5) may be related to the
difference in discharges during the nesting season between these two years.
According to Koch (1976a), repairs on Yellowtail Dam in the spring of 1976
necessitated reduced outflow from the dam during the first ten days of April.
A comparison of the Yellowstone's discharge at Miles City during the springs
of 1975 and of 1976 shows this reduction (figure 13). Shortly before and
after the median date of nest initiation in 1976, the discharge of the river
was considerably lower than during the same period of the nesting season in
35
"' .,
.c. u -:::1
(.)
"0 .,
>
~ .,
"' r>
0
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Clutch Size
CJ 1976
~ 1975
Figure 12. Frequency distribution of clutch sizes from 131 Canada goose
nests on the lower Yellowstone River, 1975 and 1976.
36
450
400
350 -0
"' "' ' ....
E
300
"' "' ~
0
.r::;
0
"' w 0 ......
250
200
150
> I
of initiation April I) 1976 (median day . . April 12)
. day of inihat1on
----1975 (median . h half of nests
. d within whiC 6 Peno. "fated in 197
were lnl I . h half of nests "thin WhiC Period ~tiated in 1975 were '"1
:c ""·o c.·-c:o
c :-.;::
o: ·c
:0:-"'·-::l!:;o
Days
--·-'
I
I
I ,,, ,' ,..,, , ' I ... ..., I I /
'/
I ,~
I
~ ....
I
River at Miles the lower Yello~~t~~~5 and 1976. 13 Discharge of nests surveyed Figur~ ·f Canada goose City • 14ontana •
of initiatlon o
, ,"
I
I
I
,..I _,. ---..... ...
I -
. the period dunng
1975. This lower discharge may have allowed greater accessibility of the
nesting islands to predators due to reduced width and.depth of the channels
separating the islands from the main bank. In 1975, discharge of the .
Yellowstone at Miles City was lower around the median date of initiation than
in 1976 but shortly thereafter increased and nest flooding resulted. Had
this increase and subsequent flooding not occurred, losses of nests to predators
during that period may have been greater. The relationship between low flows
and nest losses to predation versus high flows and nest losses to flooding is
more evident in the study areas near and upstream from Miles City. In the more
downstream study sections, the spring changes in discharge in 1975-76 were not
believed to appreciably alter channel widths. Also, because many of the
islands surveyed for nests in the Sunday Creek-to-Terry reach and Fallon-to-
Glendive section occur midstream with sizable channels on both sides, the
ability of predators to reach them may be limited.
Egg success in successful nests in both years was approximately 86 percent
(appendix E), similar to that reported by Geis (1956) in the Flathead Valley
of Montana, by Steel et al. (1957) at Gray's Lake in Idaho, and by Martin (1964)
at Bear River, Utah. Embryonic deaths in unhatched eggs accounted for 67
percent of the unsuccessful eggs from successful nests in 1975. These deaths
were attributed to cold weather on days when nest checks were conducted, which
sometimes resulted in chilling of eggs. The proportion of embryonic deaths in
unhatched eggs was greatly reduced in 1976 over 1975, possibly due to warmer
temperatures and/or clearer skies on nest survey days.
Eggs injected with colored dyes in 1g75 were excluded from calculation
of nest and egg success because the dyeing process resulted in abnormally
high egg mortality in dyed clutches. Of 90 eggs injected in 18 nests, only
36 percent hatched. This poor success rate was attributed to embryonic death
caused by green dye in toxic concentration, and dyes used at air temperature.
Brood-Rearing and Flightless Period
Geese Present. Numbers of geese observed during censuses conducted in
this period (figure 4) are believed to be erroneously low due to the inability
of the observer in the air to locate geese hidden in dense cover.
Crops and Forage Utilized. Geese grazed primarily on grasses and forbs
at this time of year. Juvenile birds were believed to utilize insects in their
diets as do immature grouse (Peterson 1970) and ducks (Chura 1961), but were
believed to feed primarily on green forage by three weeks of age, as indicated
by Lieff et al. (1970).
Movement. During the flightless period in 1975, 157 neck bands were
applied to geese on the river and on nearby stockponds. Some subsequent
observations of these neck-banded birds occurred during the flightless period
(appendix D). Movements which occurred between these observations were believed
to be similar to those of goslings from nests where clutches were injected
with colored dyes. One blue-dyed gosling from a nest near Myers was observed
when three to four weeks old in a hayfield across the channel from the island
where it hatched. Contrary to Geis's (1956) and Caldwell's (1967) observations
38
l
I
of goose broods in their study areas, goose broods on the Yellowstone are not
believed to move long distances downstream after hatching. Two goslings
approximately two weeks of age when captured on the river near Kinsey in early
June were recaptured in subsequent banding trips 1.5 to 3 km ( 1 to 2 mi.)
upstream from where they were first encountered. Three goslings of a brood
dyed 'in a nest on the river 11 km (7 mi) southwest of Miles City exhibited
greater movement; they were captured at seven weeks of age on a reservoir
10 km (6 mi) overland from the island where they hatched.
Hatching and Brood Rearing. Hatching dates were estimated to be 28 days
{Atwater 1959) plus 1.5 days per egg in the clutch (Kossack 1960) after the
date of nest initiation (figure 5). The peaks which occurred in the period
of nest initiation were followed approximately five weeks later by the
hatching peaks.
Young were encountered in nests an estimated one to two days after
hatching. Brooding in the nest was also reported by Zicus (1975). After one
to two days, goose pairs moved their young away from the nesting islands to
brood-rearing areas, perhaps partially in response to crowding and territorial
disputes on some of the nesting islands. The areas where geese were observed
with young were highly diverse with respect to vegetation. The same areas were
used by broods of different ages. Many brood-rearing areas were characterized
by a semiopen understory with some sparse shrubbery and a cottonwood canopy.
Some consisted of streamside barley fields, grazed and cleared pastureland,
cornfields, alfalfa fields, and other agricultural and riparian vegetation
types. All brood-rearing areas adjoined the river which served as an escape
route for geese when threatened.
Fliqhtlessness. Shortly after the young leave the nests, the adult
geese begin to molt their flight feathers. The wide variation of hatching
dates resulted in the occurrence of flying and flightless birds on the river
at the same time.
Early Fall Resident Period
Geese Present. This portion of the goose resident period is characterized
by the presence of from 1 ,500 to 3,500 flying birds in the study area (figure
4), possibly including nonbreeding geese returning to the study area in early
fall from molt migrations to the north (Hanson 1965). Forty percent of all
geese observed during aerial censuses conducted during this and the flight-
less period (table 11) were recorded in the Bighorn-to-Rosebud reach of the
river, 20 percent of the area censused. This may reflect higher nesting density
in this section and attraction of nonbreeders and/or early migrants to the
area.
Crops and Forage Utilized. During the early fall resident period, most
field-feeding birds were observed in fields containing barley and wheat stubble
and corn cut for silage (table 2). Bossenmaier and Marshall {1958) reported
similar goose utilization of wheat and barley fields in the Whitewater Lake
region of southwestern Manitoba.
39
TABLE 11. Numbers of Canada geese observed during aerial censuses in the Early
Fall Resident Period
Section
Billings to Huntley
Huntley to Worden
Worden to Pompeys Pillar
Pompeys Pillar to Custer
Custer to Bighorn
Bighorn to Hysham
Hysham to Sanders
Sanders to Forsyth
Forsyth to Rosebud
Rosebud to Hathaway
Hathaway to f1i 1 es City
Miles City to Kinsey
Kinsey to Zero
Zero to Powder River
Powder River to Terry
Terry to Fa 11 on
Fallon to Glendive
Glendive to Intake
Intake to Savage
Savage to Sidney
Sidney to Fairview
CONVERSIONS: 1 goose/km = 1.61 geese/mi
Number
of Geese
124
142
120
1 , 165
678
3,041
1 ,480
4,316
725
2,161
872
1 ,257
2,200
580
742
353
1 ,673
311
546
1 ,045
643
Geese/km
7
8
9
27
87
96
74
105
37
69
27
42
92
106
35
25
32
10
18
28
28
NOTE: Nine flights from time of departure of most spring migrants until
arrival of large numbers of fall migrants.
aAll flights
Movement. Movements of neck-banded geese were first intensively studied
during this period. Geese were observed feeding in winter wheat fields in the
general vicinity of where they were banded on the river. However, some of the
geese banded between Miles City and Terry fed for a period in winter wheat
fields 48 km (30 mi) north of i1iles City. Movement to these fields accounts
for the high value of the mean furthest distance observed from banding location
exhibited by most age classes (table 12). The geese which fed 48 km north
of Miles City were later observed on the river near where they were captured,
indicating the tendency of families and/or individuals to limit movements up-
and downstream.
Loafing geese utilized open gravel islands during this period. Where
gravel islands were unavailable, such as between Terry and Fallon, geese loafed
on lateral and point bars of the main bank. Loafing sites selected usually
provided geese good visibility of their surroundings in all directions.
40
l
I
E 12. Mean distances moved by age and sex classes of Canada geese marked with
astic neck collars between time of capture in 1975 and beginning of the brood-
rearing and flightless period, 1976.
Age and Sex Classa
Adult Males
Adult Females
Number
of
Individuals
6
6
Subadults (both sexes) 4
Juvenile Ma 1 es 30
Juvenile Females 23
CONVERSIONS: 1 km ; .622
Mean
Furthest
Distance
Observed From
Banding Location
19.18
16.02
8.69
17.19
14.23
mi
(m)
Mean
Longest
Axis of
Home Rangeblm)
19.88
16. 15
12.92
18.74
14.95
aAdult: a bird believed to be in its second year after hatching.
Subadult: a bird in its first year after hatching.
Juvenile: a bird in its year of hatching.
Hean Distance
From Point
Of Capture
When Last
Observed (m)
15.69
8.50
8.69
13.68
9.97
bObtained by plotting all observation points on a map and measuring the
longest distance across the 3rP.a formed by connecting the points.
Loafing sites utilized by geese during this period were often the ones frequented
by geese at other times of the year, probably as a result of habitual feeding in
a nearby field. From the loafing area geese flew to the feeding field twice
daily, around sunrise and sunset. Length of time spent in the field varied
from a few minutes to several hours, depending on weather, food availability,
and disturbances. Geese fed in a given field longer during periods of cool,
rainy weather and when no disturbances were present. Field-feeding periods
were generally shorter in the evening. The time of departure of the field-
feeding flights from the river appeared to depend on light intensity. Raveling
et al. (1972) also believed morning and evening feeding flights of Canada geese
to feeding fields were related to light intensity. Wind and temperature were
believed to be less important in their effect on time of departure of flocks
from the river. A field-feeding pattern, once developed, continued for several
days until geese moved to another field.
Fields utilized by feeding geese were usually of sufficient size to allow
the geese complete visibility around themselves for at least 30m (100ft).
Smaller fields, even of favorite crop types, were avoided, especially those
surrounded by dense vegetation, as reported by Sturdy (1967). Field
characteristics described by Grieb (1970) as attractive to field-feeding short-
grass prairie geese in Colorado were also attractive in most instances to
field-feeding geese in the Yellowstone Valley during early fall.
41
----------------------------
Fall Migration Period
Geese Present. Numbers of geese observed during aerial censuses in the
study area during this period were second only to those observed on a census
conducted during the spring migration in 1975 (figure 4). However, more
geese were present for a sustained period of time during the fall migration
period than during the spring period (table 13).
TABLE 13. Numbers of Canada geese observed during aerial censuses in the
Fall Migration Period
Section
Billings to Huntley
Huntley to Worden
Worden to Pompeys Pillar
Pompeys Pillar to Custer
Custer to Bighorn
Bighorn to Hysham
Hysham to Sanders
Sanders to Forsyth
Forsyth to Rosebud
Rosebud to Hathaway
Hathaway to Miles City
Miles City to Kinsey
Kinsey to Zero
Zero to Powder River
Powder River to Terry
Terry to Fa 11 on
Fallon to Glendive
Glendive to Intake
Intake to Savage
Savage to Sidney
Sidney to Fairview
CONVERSION: 1 goose/km = 1.61 geese/mi
Number
of Geesea
527
13g
40
1 ,589
44
7,200
2,875
16,508
5,605
6,222
4,450
4,393
1 '916
835
843
1,366
2,628
1 ,893
1 ,397
958
621
Geese/km
32
7
3
36
6
228
145
403
288
198
138
147
80
153
40
95
50
58
45
26
27
NOTE: Fourteen flights from first arrival of large numbers of fall
migrants through departure of fall migrants.
aAll flights.
Seventy-six percent of the geese observed on aerial censuses during this
period occurred between Bighorn and Kinsey (table 13). The greatest concen-
trations within that reach occurred in the Sanders-to-Forsyth section. More
geese were observed per kilometer of thalweg in that section during this
period than in any other section (table 13), probably because of the large
number of sprinkler-irrigated fields in that area, which serve as field-
feeding areas for large numbers of waterfowl (figure 14).
42
Figure 14. Center-pivot sprinkler irrigated fields between ForsyU1 and
Sanders, feeding areas for large numbers of waterfo~1l .
With the onset of colder weather in early November, numbers of geese
present in the study area greatly increased (figure 4). Among the geese now
entering the area were flocks of small Canada geese of the shortgrass prairie
and Richardson's (B. c. hutchinsiiJ subspecies. Large flocks of migrant
geese often contained large and small races of Canada geese intermixed with
white-fronted geese and snow geese. One flock of field-feeding geese near
Rosebud observed in November 1975 contained a whistling swan (Olor colwnbianusJ.
The presence of white-fronted geese, snow geese, small races of Canada geese,
and Canada geese with orange-tinged heads, necks, and breast feathers was
believed to indicate the arrival of flocks of northern migrants. R. L. Eng
( 1976) agreed that orange-tinged feathers on Canada geese probably resulted
from iron deposits on their feathers, a trait common in waterfowl flocks
frequenting iron-laden waters of the Arctic.
fleck-banded geese were reported taken by hunters soon after the water-
fowl season opened in October 1975. The presence of a neck band on a hunter-
harvested goose may have served as a stronger incentive for the hunter to
report his kill. However, three leg bands taken from geese which had lost
their neck bands by the time they were shot were reported. This neck band
43
loss was attributed to poor bond of the adhesive used, Recoveries of geese
banded 1n the study area, recovered between 1973 and 1976, are shown in
figure 15, These recoveries occurred within their migrational and wintering
distribution as described by Rutherford (1965). Canada geese taken in the
study area but banded in other areas were mostly banded within the distribution
limits of the Hi-Line population (figure 16) on their breeding grounds in
northeastern Montana or on major wintering grounds in north-central Colorado.
Crops and Forage Utilized. Field-feeding geese were observed in greatest
numbers in small grain, corn, and hay fields. Fewer geese were observed in
fields cut for corn silage during this period than in the preceding one,
possibly because field-feeding patterns became more diverse later in the fall.
Observations of geese util iz.ing hayfields between Forsyth and Terry during this
period indicated a preference for fields providing green forage. Use of forage
crops continued through this period where barley stubble fields offered
volunteer barley sprouts, winter wheat fields provided sprouted drilled wheat,
and alfalfa and hay fields provided green growth under snow cover or before
heavy frosts.
Movement. Movements of neck-banded geese during this period appeared to
be similar to those observed in the earlier periods. Most field-feeding obser-
vations of marked individuals were recorded near where those geese were
originally banded. f4ovements of adult and juvenile birds were similar in
extent (table 12) due to the tendency of family groups to remain together
(Raveling 1966). The mean longest axis of the home range of subadults was the
lowest of all age-sex classes, probably due to the small sample size. Geese
banded near the mouth of the Powder River were observed in fields east of
Hiles City in late November. These observations represent the longest up-
and downstream movements of neck-banded individuals observed during the study.
Field-feeding patterns during this period were less orderly than those
observed during the preceding period. Geese frequently changed loafing
and feeding areas, especially when hunting occurred. In 1974, those sections
were limited to the Yellowstone River downstream from the Custer-Prairie
county line near Zero and upstream from the mouth of the Bighorn River. The
river between Zero and the Custer-Rosebud county line near Hathaway was
closed to hunting after 12 noon. Between Hathaway and the mouth of the Bighorn,
the river was closed to waterfowl hunting. In 1975 no areas were open to
hunting for half-days only. Areas closed to waterfowl hunting included the
river reaches from Bighorn to Myers, Reservation Creek to Hathaway, 11.3 km
(7 mi) southwest of Miles City to Kinsey, and from Terry to Intake. All other
sections were open to hunting. Goose movements became more erratic in those
areas opened to hunting in 1975 which had been closed in previous years. Some
flocks moved from the river to loaf on stockponds when the waterfowl season
opened. In those areas closed to hunting in 1975 which had been open previously,
no discernible changes occurred in goose movements and distribution; such was
also the case in those areas where regulations in 1975 were unchanged from
previous years.
44
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,--... ...__.,) Migration -Wintering
m Breeding
• Indirect
Route
Area
Area
Recovery
• • Direct Recovery
-~-·-··-·
I NE \ r·--·-·-·-~-. l
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Figure 15. Distribution of recoveries of Canada geese banded in
counties along the Yellowstone River from 1973 to 1976.
45
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Figure 16. Banding locations of Canada geese harvested in the
counties along the lower Yellowstone River.
46
DABBLING DUCKS
Data gathered during these duck studies were organized according to six
time periods, The wintering period begins when migrations into and out of the
area are much reduced and ends with the beginning of the spring migration
--,, period' when duck numbers increase markedly and when dabbling species other
,, than mallards {pintails (Anas acuta), green-winged teal (Anas crecca caPoZinensis),
''··, baldpates (Anas americana), for example) appear. The disappearance of migrant
" flocks and the appearance of breeding ducks (territorial drakes and nesting
~ens) marks the end of the spring migration period and beginning of the
nesting period, which ends when it is believed that most of the clutches have
hatch'ed. The brood-rearing period begins at that time and ends when most of
the broods can fly and begin to congregate in water areas. The late summer
period lasts from then until these groups begin to migrate out of the study
area, at whic~ time the fall migration period begins. When most migrant
flocks have passed through the study area to southern wintering grounds, the
wintering period begins, and the cycle is complete.
Ducks Present
Habitat utilization and population levels of dabbling ducks in the lower
Yellowstone River Valley change markedly through the year. Dabbling duck
numbers observed during aerial censuses along the river between Billings
and Fairview are indicative of these changes (figure 17). Numbers of dabbling
ducks were highest during the spring and fall migration periods and lowest
during the brood-rearing and late summer periods.
f1allards (AnaspZatyrhynchos)Were the most common species of dabbling
duck present in the study area at all times of the year, although the percentage
of mallards was highest whenever field-feeding flocks of ducks were present.
Pfntails also occurred in large field-feeding flocks but only for short
periods during spring migration.
The first spring migrant dabbling ducks, observed in early March both
years of the study, were pintails, blue-winged teal (Anas discors), green-
winged teal, and baldpates. Numbers of these species increased while flocks
of gadwalls (Anas strepe1'a), northern shovelers (Anas cZypeata), and wood
ducks (Aix sponsa) began to occur in the study area. Diving ducks, including
redheads (Aythya americana), canvasbacks (Aythya vaZisineria), ring-necked
ducks (Aythya coZZarisJ, and lesser scaup (Aythya affinisJ, were also observed
as spring migrants, as were ruddy ducks (o.ryura jamaicensisJ(appendix F). Only
the dabbling ducks were seen throughout the spring and into the summer,
nesting along the river and in stockponds near the river.
Crops and Forage Utilized
Dabbling ducks were observed feeding and/or loafing in fields throughout
the year. Picked cornfields were the most heavily utilized, based on observa-
tions recorded throughout the entire study period (table 14). From spring
migration through late fall, observations of ducks in barley stubble fields
also accounted for a high percentage of the field~feeding observations.
47
45,000
40,000
35,000
30,000
.,
.><
u
"' 0 25,000 -0
~
CD
..Q
20,000 ... E co "' z
15,000
10,000
5,000
s
1976
' Figure 17. Dabbling Duck censuses conducted along the lower Yellowstone River
between Billings and Fairview, Montana, from September 1, 1974, to August--1, 1976.
' \
\
' \
\
I
.---....-...
--TABLE 14. Dabbling Duck utilization of selected field types over all study sections during four periods
in 1975 and 1976.
Spring Migration Post-Harvest Dvera 11
and Harvesting to Late Winter Annual
Field Type Breeding Perioda Period be Fa 11 Peri odcd Peri ode Utilization
Barley Stubble 63.4 (1,149) 70.7 (362) 41.9 {865) 5.6 (1 ,225) 13.6 (3,601)
Wheat Stubble 29.3 ( 150) 0. 1 (20) 0.6 (170)
Corn Cut for Silage 0. 1 (2) 58.0 (1,197) 20.4 {4,500) 21.6 (5,699)
Pi eked Corn 36.3 (658) \ 71.5 (15,740) 62. 1 ( 16 '398)
Pastures and Feedlots 0.2 ( 4) 2.4 ( 521) 2.0 (525)
"---,~
NOTE: All entries are expressed first
as the total number of observations in each
' J as a percentage of~total observations per period, then (in parentheses)
field type per period.
aMarch 1 through May 31
bJuly 15 through corn harvest (date depending on the year)
cBecause crop-harvesting and field-feeding patterns differ in duration from duck migration and life-
history periods, the periods used in this table do not correspond exactly with those used in other phases of
this duck study.
dpost-corn harvest through first cold weather and large influx of northern migrants
eNorthern migrant arrival through winter
Cornfields cut for silage were utilized in fall and winter, but fewer ducks
were observed in these fields than in picked cornfields. Feeding ducks were
also observed in wheat stubble fields, pastures, and feedlots but less
commonly than in the other crop types.
Movement
Fall duck concentrations occurred in sections of the river where picked
cornfields were available for field-feeding ducks. Secure loafing areas in
proximity to water and picked cornfields attracted the largest numbers of
dabbling ducks (figure 18). Ducks readily utilized fields for feeding which
geese avoided due to poor visibility afforded to birds in the field. Picked
cornfields, for example, were avoided by geese except during spring and
winter when the hunting season was closed and many of the fie1ds had been
used to pasture cattle. Ducks also typically spent less time feeding in
fields than did geese, suggesting the need for fields providing a large amount
of readily available grain. Ducks commonly loafed on river banks and island
edges which afforded less visibility than typical goose loafing areas, indi-
cating that geese require more security and are warier than ducks. Ducks
~JOuld loaf in sections of the river which passed through towns, near farm
houses, and under bridges. All of these factors resulted in a more uniform
distribution of ducks than of geese within a given section of river.
Overwintering flocks of ducks between Forsyth and Custer loafed on the
ice formed along banks and island margins. In other sections of the river
which largely froze over in winter, loafing areas were restricted to pockets
where the current ~1as strong enough to keep the water open. Ducks a 1 so
loafed on open drainage ditches in the valley. Cold. weather reduced the
number of ducks wintering in the study area (figure 17), but, as long as
open water was available and snow in fields was not too deep to hamper feeding
efforts, ducks would remain in a given area. Picked cornfields with cobs
still handing on stalks provided food for ducks at this time. Ninety-two
percent of the observations of ducks field-feeding in winter occurred in
cornfields (table 14).
Banding locations of mallards taken by hunters in counties along the
lower Yellowstone are within the limits of mallard migration corridors in the
High Plains Unit of the Central Flyway outlined by Bellrose (1968) and shown
in figure 19. He described a heavily utilized corridor crossing the Yellowstone
River between Billings and Miles City, the existence of which may account for
the occurrence between Billings and Miles City of 80 percent of all dabbling
ducks observed during aerial censuses.
Nesting and Brood Rearing
Although no systematic searches of duck nesting cover were conducted,
one blue-winged and one green-winged teal and two mallard nests were
encountered during goose-banding operations. Both mallard nests were con-
cealed in rose (Rosa sp. J bushes in the interior of large, wooded islands
in the Sanders-to-Forsyth section of the river. The teal nests were found
in the Myers-to-Hysham section, the green-winged teal nest in dense vegetation
under a log near the edge of a large island and the blue-winged teal nest
so
I
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.or-"~·· ...... .. . .· ...... ~ ......... ...
. . . ...... ,· . ,
. .
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. ..
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. ,·
Figure 18. Three components· of fa 11 dabbling duck habitat:
and water. cornfield, island loafing area,
51
.-
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. ..
. .... ~ ..... ~ · ... . .. _...., ..
._ .... -. '\..~ .. ....:. ~
. .. '\ '. '·,
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a picked
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i
Annual Number of Migrating Mallards
1~1 501,000-1,000,000
~ 251,000-500,000
[8 76,100-250,000
I .. , .. , .... I 1o,ooo-26,ooo
* Banding Location
\ ·-·------:
so'-
1
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)
)
Figure 19. Mallard migration corridors in relation to banding
locations of mallards harvested in the lower Yellowstone River Basin
in 1973 through 1975.
52
on the main bank in sagebrush cover near the mouth of a creek.
baldpate and gadwall drakes loafing on the river in these areas
hens of these species were also nesting nearby.
Territorial
suggested that
Wood duck broods were observed in backwaters between Billings and Savage.
All mallard broods observed occurred between Billings and Miles City. The
paucity of observations of dabbler broods is believed related to the need of
dabbling ducks to rear their young in lentic habitats where duckling foods are
plentiful (Sugden 1973). These lentic water areas in the river valley consist
of old oxbows, stockponds, marshes, roadside sloughs, and railroad ditches.
The flowing ~1ater of the Yellowstone proper is probably marginal dabbling
duck brood habitat.
Sex Ratios
Flocks of mallards present in the study area during late fall were composed
of from 62.5 to 65.3 percent drakes Jtable 15). Bell rose et al. (1961) trapped
black and mallard ducks in Illinois during the fall from 1939 to 1950 and found
between 60 and 73 percent drakes in these samples. Sugden et al. (1974) found
70 to 73 percent drakes in flocks of mallards overwintering near Calgary,
Alberta. Drewien (1968) reported 75 percent drakes in a sample of mallards
trapped in northwestern South Dakota in the winters of 1950-51 and 1951-52.
Bellrose et al. (1961) suggests the sex differential in mallard populations
favoring drakes reflects differential migration of the sexes and higher
mortality of hens during the breeding season.
TABLE 15. Proportion of drakes in mallard flocks along the lower Yellowstone
River, 1974 and 1975.
Number of Number of Total Proportion
Date River Section Drakes Hens Sample of Drakesa
ll/30/74 Mi 1 es City to Fa 11 on 1. 998 1 ,061 3,059 65.3
11/30/74
to
12/11/74 Rosebud to Miles City 1 ,064 624 1 ,688 63.0
11/30/74 Sanders to Rosebud 1,424 836 2,260 63.0
11/30/74 Myers to Sanders 2,137 1 ,165 3,302 64.7
11/25/75 Sanders to Forsyth 1 • 161 697 1 ,858 62.5
aExpressed as a percentage
COMMON MERGANSERS
Numbers of common mergansers (Mergus merganser) observed in the study area
were highest from late fall through early spring (figure 20), which reflected
the presence of wintering populations, most of them upstream from Miles City.
53
.,
~ .,
"' c:
0
"' ~ .,
::!i -0
~ ..
l11 .0 ... E
" z
400
375
350
325
300
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
5
Figure 20.
between Billings
Common merganser censuses conducted along the lower Yellowstone
and Fairview, Montana, from September 1, 1974, to August 1, 1976.
Peak numbers were observed during aerial censuses conducted in December 1974 and
March 1976, when 85 and 92 percent, respectively, of the mergansers observed
occurred between Billings and Miles City. The concentration of observations
in this section may be the result of ice cover on the river downstream from
Miles City and the tendency of mergansers to congregate in shallower waters
(such as upstream from the mouth of the Bighorn River) where fishing may be
more productive.
Goldeyes (Hiodon alosoidesJ and stonecats (Noturus flavus) were utilized
by mergansers feeding on the lower Yellowstone River (appendix B). Stonecats
typically inhabit riffle areas where goldeyes inhabit a variety of water types.
The mergansers collected on December 9, 1975, 1~ere feeding in deep poo 1 s at
the downstream ends of two islands. Pools of this type were commonly utilized
for feeding areas by mergansers because goldeyes congregate in them during the
colder periods of the year (Haddix 1976). Mergansers were also observed
standing in and drifting through riffles, as was the drake collected on
April 21, 1975 (appendix B), whose stomach contained remains of stonecats. The
cooperative feeding behavior of red-breasted mergansers (Mergus serrator),
described by DesLauriers and Brattstrom (1965), was also exhibited by common
mergansers on the lower Yellowstone. Groups of feeding mergansers would float
downstream, feeding, then take flight, fly upstream, alight, and begin to
drift with the current again and resume feeding.
Drake mergansers were occasionally encountered when incapable of gaining
flight. Of three mergansers collected on December 9, 1975, all exhibited
flightlessness and all had recently ingested large goldeyes (appendix B). It
is believed that mergansers can become so engorged with fish that they are too
heavy to lift off the water. No female mergansers exhibited flightlessness,
however, other than those which had begun to molt. This difference is believed
related to the ability of drake mergansers to swallow larger and heavier prey
than can the females. Latta and Sharkey (1966) stated that the size of the
merganser and girth of the food fish limited the size of the prey eaten. The
larger male mergansers (Anderson and Timken 1972) were able to swallow larger
fish. Latta and Shakey (1966) also stated that the most available and smaller
fish were consumed first and that the upper size limit of fish that mergansers
could eat ranged between 130 and 165 mm (5 and 6.5 inches) in girth. According
to their conclusions, mergansers on the lower Yellowstone which fed in riffle
areas were most likely to encounter and consume Cyprinids and stonecats, and
those that fed in other water types, goldeyes.
Although no nests of common merganers ~1ere located in the study area,
observations of merganser broods showed that mergansers do breed in the area.
Nest sites utilized by mergansers in other studies included tree cavities,
nest boxes, cliff ledges, and a variety of ground nest sites (Bellrose 1976).
Most merganser broods observed during the study were feeding in deep water
along riprapped and other steep banks. All broods observed, ranging in size
from three to ten young, were bet1·1een Pompey's Pillar and Hathaway. It is
possible that small numbers of mergansers breed in other sections of the river.
55
C0t4MON GOLDENEYE$
Common goldeneyes (BucephaZa clanguZa), 1 ike common mergansers, were most
numerous on the lower Yellowstone from late fall through early spring
(figure 21). The higher peak numbers present in the winter of 1974-75
were the result of concentrations of goldeneyes between Pompey's Pillar and
Forsyth. Those concentrations did not occur in the winter of lg75-76,
possibly because warmer weather that season induced goldeneyes to winter
further north. Goldeneyes were not observed during aerial censuses conducted
from late spring through fall each year (figure 21) and are not believed to
breed in the area.
Goldeneyes were sometimes observed loafing and feeding with common
mergansers. Flocks of goldeneyes were observed flying upstream, drifting
with the current, diving to feed, and returning upstream to resume feeding,
as were flocks of mergansers. Goldeneyes commonly fed in the deep water of the
main channel and along ice shelves at the water's edge in winter. The two
goldeneyes collected for food habits analyses had eaten aquatic plants and
invertebrates (appendix B).
BALD EAGLES
Ba 1 d eagles llaZiaeetus ZeucocephaZus) were present in the study area from
September through April in 1975 and 1976 (figure 22). One pair attended a nest
on the river near Sanders during June of 1975 and 1976, but close aerial
observation of that nest in mid-June 1976 revealed no eggs or young present.
This pair was the only bald eagles observed in the study area during the time
of year that bald eagles normally raise young. Peak numbers of eagles were
present during migration periods, late fall and early spring.
Twenty-nine percent of the bald eagles observed during aerial censuses
throughout the study were classified as juvenile birds. Sprunt and Ligas (1963)
reported 26.5, 23.7, and 21.6 percent juveniles in the continental bald eagles
population in 1961, 1962, and 1963, respectively. Along the lower Yellowstone,
the highest percentages of juvenile eagles in the population occurred in
late December 1974, mid-to-late March 1975, and mid-Harch 1976 (excluding
those censuses conducted when the number of eagles present was very small).
The lowest percentages of juvenile eagles occurred in early December 1974,
January and February 1975, and during the winter months of 1976. Thus,
juvenile bald eagles appeared to comprise a high percentage of the migrant
population and a low percentage of the overwintering population.
Bald eagles were observed throughout the study area, but 76 percent of
those observed during aerial censuses occurred between Billings and Miles City.
Concentration of eagles in the western half of the study area may be related
to the river's being frozen downstream from Mi 1 es City during much of the
period when bald eagles were present in the valley. Those stretches which
were devoid of open water and flocks of ducks seemed to be avoided by eagles.
During colder periods, when ice cover in the upstream sections was extensive,
those reaches where open water was common and duck flocks present seemed to
attract most of the eagles observed. These factors are believed more influential
in determining bald eagle distribution along the river than any morphological
56
Common goldeneye censuses conducted along the lower Yellowstone River
and Fairview, f1ontana, from September 1, 1974, to August 1, 1976.
120
110
100
90
80
..
!!!
70
"' D
ILl -60
0
~
4P .c 50 U'l E CD " z
40
30
20
10
0
I
II
I I
I \
I I
I I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
' . \
: ~ ' ' .. ' : '
:
~
I I
I I
I I I
I I
I ' I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
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I :·. I
I ·. I
I :r : :I I
I : :I
I :I
:I I
"' :I . : :I
:I
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) .
:
:
·---Adult Bold Eagles
········ Juvenile Bold Eagles
--Total Bold Eagles
~
II
1 I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
: I
I I
I I
I I
I 1
I I
I I 1\ I I
I \ 1 I
I \ I I
I \ 1 I
I \ I 1
I \ I
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' I I ', I
, ............... :
.. ..
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 22. Bald eagle censuses conducted along the lower Yellowstone River between
Billings and Fairview, Montana, from September 1, 1974, to August 1, 1976.
aspect of the river. Statistical correlation of the number of eagles observed
during aerial censuses versus total number of islands, sinuosity, gravel bar
area, areas of agricultural land, area of cottonwood~grassland, and area of
dense cottonwoods showed no significance.
During the study period, two juvenile bald eagles which had been wing-
tagged by Jon Gerrard (lg76) in Saskatchewan were observed in the study area.
One apparently wintered for a few weeks along the river near Rosebud (LaBree
lg76) and the second was observed on one occasion near Kinsey in late March
1g75 (Coleman lg76). Gerrard believed the second eagle may have been marked
as a nestling at Besnard Lake in north central Saskatchewan in the summer of
1974. These observations, as well as six other similar reports from other
locations in eastern Montana, show that some of the bald eagles which frequent
the study area are migrants from breeding grounds 1,100 km (670 mi) north.
On a few occasions, bald eagles were observed attempting to capture ducks
loaf)ng on the river. One eagle was observed attacking a flock of feeding
common mergansers, one of which regurgitated a goldeye when threatened. The
eagle quickly scooped up the fish and flew with it to a streamside cottonwood
perch. Although no eagles were observed actually capturing waterfowl, they
reportedly do capture molting (Swenson lg75) and crippled waterfowl, including
Canada geese (Wentland 1974), when available.
Patterns of roost and feeding perch attendance observed along the lower
Yellowstone appeared to be similar to those described by Shea (1973). Bald
eagles were observed hunting and roosting along the river at all hours of
the day, although some were observed hunting away from the river, usually at
midday. The streamside cottonwoods served as night roosts as well as feeding
perches. Bald eagles were observed hunting in sagebrush-grassland areas north
of the river on several occasions. They also frequented lambing grounds, feed-
lots, pastures, and other areas where dead livestock were available. One lambing
ground near Kinsey was frequented by golden eagles (AquiU1 cltrysaetosJwhich
were reported by local observers to have killed some newborn lambs. Bald
eagles were also attracted to the grounds and to sites where the lamb carcasses
were discarded. Carrion appeared to be the principal food source of the bald
eagles on the lower Yellowstone, judging by aerial and ground observations
of feeding eagles. During aerial censuses, 14 instances of eagle utilization
of large mammal carcasses were observed, as well as one of fish, one of skunk,
and three of other unknown small animal carcasses. Use of carrion by wintering
bald eagles was also reported by Hancock (1964) in his studies in the Southern
Gulf Islands of British Columbia.
GREAT BLUE HERONS
Great blue herons (A~dea he~odias) were present in the study area from
March to October (figure 23), and single birds were occasionally observed as
late as December. Aerial censuses revealed the highest numbers of herons
during spring migration and after adults and young had left the rookeries to
feed along the river. Eighty-nine percent of the great blue heron observations
recorded during aerial censuses occurred in sections of the river where rookeries
were present (67 percent of the length of the river included in the study).
59
.. c:
0
~ .,
:r ...
0
~ .,
.0
E
0\ " 0 z
400
375
350
325
300
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0 s
Figure 23.
between Billings
Great blue heron censuses conducted along the lower Yellowstone River
and Fairview, Montana, from September 1, 1974, to August 1, 1976.
-----------------------
Heron rookery locations and numbers of pairs observed in these rookeries
during aerial censuses are shown in table 16. Rookeries ~Jere located in mature
cottonwood stands in the interior of islands and along edges of stands which
occurred on the main banks. The total breeding populations in these rookeries
were approximately 222 pairs in 1975 and 176 pairs in 1976. T1·1o new rookeries
were discovered in 1976, but three rookeries attended in 1976 were abandoned
in 1976. Part of a rookery near the mouth of Armells Creek was destroyed
in May of 1976 when high flows eroded the bank where it stood.
TABLE 16. Aerial censuses of great blue heron rookeries on the lower Yellowstone
River in 1975 and 1976.
1975 1976
Number of Number of
Location 0 County Date Active Nests Date Active Nests
5Wl /4, 5 8, TlN, R27E Yellowstone 4/23 12 5/3 10
51~1 /4, 513, T2f~, R27E Yellowstone 5/13 40 5/3 35
5~11 /4, 5 8, T3N, R31E Yellowstone 5/13 50 5/3 5
5Wl/4, 522, TSN, R34E Treasure 5!13 50 5/3 20
i'IWl /4, 512, T5tl, R35E Treasure ----5/3a 11
NEl /4, 534, T7N, R36E Treasure 5/13 11 5/3 15
i'lEl/4, 514, T6N, R43E Rosebud 4/23 10 5/3 0
5Wl/4, 5 8, T6N, R42E Rosebud 5!13 5 5/3b 10
5El/4, 518, T6N, R40E Rosebud 6/24 6 5/3 10
;tWl/4, 521, T7rl, R45E Custer 5Jl3C 6 3/17 0
5Wl/4, 527, T7N, R45E Custer 5/24 20 5/3 25
NEl/4, 519, T9N, R48E Custer 6/25 4 5/4 10
NEl/4, 513, Tl3N, R53E Dawson 5/14 8 5J3d 20
SWl/4, 510, Tl8N, R57E Richland ---5J4a 5
aRookeries observed for the first time in 1975.
bBank erosion destroyed most of this rookery between May 3 and t·1ay 25.
con June 24 this rookery 1~as unattended.
don June 7 this rookery was unattended.
Dates of first herons in rookeries varied. The earliest rookery attended
in 1975, based on observations recorded during aerial censuses, was near
Pompey's Pillar and contained herons on April 1. The first date that eggs
were observed in nests in 1975 was April 22, and the first young were observed
on aerial censuses in late June. Based on an incubation period of 27 days
(Vermeer 1959), an egg-laying interval of two days, ;and an average clutch size
of five eggs, nests initiated in the third ~1eek in April would hatch in early
June. Some incubating hens were observed in early June 1976, but the first
nests had hatched by that time. Brooding at the nest occurs in June and early
July. Young herons may leave the nest for the first time at 7.5 weeks of age
(Vermeer 1969). Young from clutches initiated during the third week of April
could leave the nests by mid-to late July.
61
-
Food items obtained from the stomachs of great blue herons are listed in
appendix B. Those foods, though diverse, indicate that fish are an important
food item of herons feeding on the river. Herons were observed feeding along
banks and island margins in deep and shallow water, and those collected for
food habits analyses were taken in both types of sites.
WHITE PEL! CANS
During the spring migration period, white pelicans (Pelecanus
e~ythPo~hynchos)were observed on the lower Yellowstone between Pompeys
Pillar and Fairview. Their summer distribution was limited to areas down-
stream from Miles City, particularly from the mouth of the Powder River to
Fairview. These summering pelicans are believed to represent nonbreeding
birds from the Medicine Lake colony in northeastern Montana because most
banded birds found dead during the study had been banded at Medicine Lake.
John Martin (1975) estimated there are approximately 1,500 breeding pairs
of pelicans in that colony. The migration routes of those birds and of
those from the breeding co 1 ony at Lake Bowdoin Nation a 1 ~Ji 1 dl i fe Refuge in
northcentral Montana may account for the higher number of pelicans observed
in areas east of Miles City. Peak counts during the spring migration period
showed between 300 and 450 pelicans present in the study area. During summer,
numbers decreased to between 100 and 200 birds.
Pelicans collected or found dead on the river were examined to determine
their food habits (appendix B). Stomachs of those birds revealed utilization
only of Cyprinids. Pelicans feeding in shallow water along the river appeared
to be taking fish primarily. Cooperative feeding by pelicans (Hall 1925) was
observed along banks near Intake and Terry. As described by Hall, when fish
were found in shallow water near shore, groups of pelicans aligned themselves
in a semicircle, working toward shore, beating the water with their wings
and feet. ~Jhen they reached sha 11 ow water near shore, the part i ci pat i ng
pelicans scooped up the fish. Fish concentrations below the Intake diversion
may attract pelicans to that area from spring through late summer. Cold
weather in early fall induced pelicans to leave the river until the following
spring.
Instances of pelican mortality on the river were observed on several
occasions. One bird was found shot through the wing near the Terry bridge.
Pelican flocks near Intake were also reportedly fired upon. According to
Diem and Condon (1967), shooting is a major mortality factor of the Yellowstone
Lake pelican colony. On the Yellowstone River, more pelicans appeared to die
from causes other than shooting, including drowning. Feeding pelicans
apparently caught their bills on roots and submerged tree limbs and eventually
drowned. Others ~1ere found dead on bar and island loafing areas, the causes
of their deaths unknown.
DOUBLE-CRESTED CORMORANTS
Double-crested cormorants (PhaZac~oco~ax au~itus), present in the study
area from spring through midfall, were most common during spring migration
62
• I
I·
''-"
,·
'
·,
i
l
and in late summer (figure 24), Although two cormorant breeding colonies are
known in southeastern Montana, one on the Tongue River Reservoir (Knapp 1975)
and one on a reservoir near the lower Powder River (Mincoff 1976), no colonies
of breeding cormorants were observed on the Yellowstone River. One pair did
establish a nesting territory in the heron rookery near the mouth of Armells
Creek in 1976. However, when part of the rookery collapsed into the river as
flows increased in May, the tree which contained the nest was lost.
The cormorants summering on the lower Yellowstone appeared to be non-
breeding birds, some of which were lighter-colored juveniles. Flock sizes
commonly ranged from one to ten birds, although one group of 30 was observed
downstream from the refineries east of Billings. Cormorants commonly roosted
on narrow tips of barren islands near the water's edge. They also roosted in
cottonwood trees near the refineries east of Billings and below Intake diversion.
On two occasions, single cormorants incapable of flight were observed.
This phenomenon was beli'eved due to their ingesting a large enough quantity of
fish to render them temporarily flightless, as occurred with drake common
mergansers.
The low numbers of cormorants present during the high-water period in
June of both years may have resulted from poor fishing success in the turbid
flood waters. Absence of cormorants during the colder months of the year is
believed due to their inability to withstand cold temperatures, a characteristic
also exhibited by the other large piscivorous species observed on the river.
OTHER MIGRATORY BIRD STUDIES
OSPREYS
Ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) were observed in the lower Yellowstone Valley
from mid-September to mid-October in 1974 through 1976, and in late April in
1975. Hackman and Henny (1971) reported that the highest rate of osprey
passage over White Marsh in Maryland occurred during September in eight years
of observation of fall osprey migrations. Sixty-five percent of the ospreys
observed during the present study occurred along the Yellowstone in Rosebud
and Custer counties. Osprey migrations through the study area occurred when
turbidity and flow of the river were low, which probably aided ospreys in
their fishing efforts.
LESSER SANDHIll CRAflES
These cranes (Grus oanadensis oanadensis) were observed in the study area
only during their fall migrations. Spring observations recorded in western
North Dakota on two occasions indicate that cranes may follow a more direct,
easterly migration route to their northern breeding grounds. In the fall,
their ~igration appeared to span greater lengths of time and east-west distance
through eastern Montana. Migrations which preceded extended periods of cold,
snowy weather were the most extensive and represented passage of the largest
segment of the observed population.
63
120
110
100
90
80
"' -c:: 70 " ~
0
E
~
0 u 60 -0
~ ., 50 .0 0'> E ....
:> z
40
30
20
10
0
-~---
s
Figure 24. Double-crested cormorant censuses conducted along the lower Yellowstone
River between Billings and Fairview, Montana, from September 1, 1974, to August 1, 1976 .
' ............ ~-..;,::1;' .-.. --~iii.:' .... -........ ~--~ ... _______ __..;..;;;_. ..... -i.L''
. -------'--' .
I·
t
limited observations of cranes in winter wheat fields and reports from
wheat ranchers indicate that use of this crop type by large flocks of
migrating cranes is common. Smaller flocks were less commonly observed in
corn and alfalfa fields near the river. Migrating cranes also stopped to
roost at night on stockponds and along the river.
The most heavily-utilized crane migration corridor crosses the Yellowstone
River between Hysham and Fallon. Within that corridor, most of the cranes
observed during the study passed over the river between Rosebud and Kinsey.
The largest number of cranes observed passing over the Yellowstone in both
1974 and 1975 were observed during the third week in October. In 1974, the
earliest and latest observations of cranes passing through the study area were
on October 5 and November 12, respectively, and in 1975, on September 30 and
October 27, respectively.
OTHER SPECIES
All other species of large migratory birds observed during this study are
listed in appendix F. Observations of these species indicated whether they
nested in the study area, occurred only as fall and/or spring migrants, or
if they summered or wintered in the area.
ISLAND AND VEGETATION ANALYSIS
The total area of selected vegetation types on islands, and the length
of shoreline of these same types, within all sections of the study area are
shown in tables 17 and 18, respectively. These vegetation types were
quantified to delineate possible relationships between the numbers of the major
migratory bird species present in a given section and the area and shoreline
length of the types in those same sections. The absolute measurements were
standardized by dividing them by the thalweg length in each section.
Land recently cleared for grazing on islands and along the main banks
was uncommon in all sections. Agricultural acreage on river islands was
nonexistent or small in all sections, although agricultural land did comprise
some portion of the main shoreline in all sections. The cottonwood-grassland
and dense cottonwood types occurred along the main shoreline in measurable
areas in all sections except the Terry-to-Fallon section, where cottonwoods on
the river bottom are scarce (figure 25). The cottonwood-grassland type did
not occur in measurable areas on islands in the Zero-to-Po1~der River and Terry-
to-Fallon sections because of the lack of large, forested islands in those
sections (table 19). The dense cottonwood type did not occur in measurable
acreages on islands from Kinsey to Fallon; the sparsity of riparian vegetation
in this section is also shown in the scarcity of shrubs on shorelines and on
islands. The sagebrush-grassland vegetation type was more prevalent on islands
and along shorelines in the downstream portion of the study area.
Although no significant correlations were found between the numbers of
Canada geese and bald eagles and the vegetative parameters measured in each
section, some relationships were apparent which were not shown by these
correlations. Aerial censuses of breeding geese indicated that little goose
65
TABLE 17. Area of vegetation types on all islands wfthfn each section of the lower Yellowstone River.
<.."'.,.. ~" Si
,;>"'"' x-' "'"' ~"'~"' ""i .~<§!~<:> i'<;~<:, ,:;-
-:,'-. ~ '\.~'~v 5o "'~ ro'> ~ "" <,; "'"' :;;; :--,<> <t;.-? ~"'~~ ~ -,."'';? ~ ~" ~ {}-<,; "' <>c; o:,'<: ~"' o,'l! <;<,; «>"'
Billings to Huntley 374.90 (22.56) 530.82 ( 34.95) 199.80 ( 12.02) 448.56 (26.99!
Huntley to Worden 432.37 (23.87) 476.24 ( 26.30) 240.97 ( 13.31) 396.29 (21.88
Worden to Pompeys Pfllar 233.54 (17.42) 285.09 ( 21.26) 340.12 ( 25.36) 227.68 (16.98)
Pompeys Pillar to Custer 993.63 (22.79) 2,021.35 ( 46.13) 1,393.13 ( 31. 79) 1_085.31 i24.77l
Custer to Bighorn 213.72 (27.51) 555.52 ( 71.50) 331.74 ( 42.69) 285.31 36.72
Bighorn to Hysham 997.75 (31.04) 1,753.71 i 55.67) 1,066.41 ( 33.85) 686.11 (21. 78)
Hysham to Sanders 712.84 (35.86) 634.52 31.92) 258.81 ( 13.02) 399.59 (20.10)
Sanders to Forsyth I ,191.96 (29.10) 2,475.35 ( 60.43) 1,266.61 ( 30.92) 851.43 (20. 79)
"' Forsyth to Rosebud 522.75 (26.85) 541.56 ( 27.82) 392.77 ( 20.17) 382.72 (19.66)
"' Rosebud to Hathaway 170.75 ( 5.44) 456.63 ( 14.55) 465.65 ( 14.84) 518.45 i16.52!
Hathaway to Miles City 138.06 ( 4.27) 279.84 ( 3.66) 682.43 ( 21.11) 398.48 (12.33) 647.09 20.02
Miles City to Kinsey 97.45 ( 3.26) 414.45 (13.86) 162.86 ( 5.45) 50.03 ( 1.67) 133.09 ( 4.45)
Kinsey to Zero 94.81 ( 3.95) 71.43 ( 2.98) 92.53 3.86) 44.08 ( 1.84)
Zero to Powder River 11.14 ( .46) 42.17 1.76) 51.34 ( 2.14)
Powder River to Terry 59.02 ( 2.32) 80.74 ( 3.86) 103 .. 23 4.94) 42.45 ( 2.03)
Terry to Fallon 2.69 ( . 19) 41.16 ( 2.87)
Fallon to Glendive 1,292.03 (24.63) 996.37 ( 18.9g) 2,015.90 ( 38.43) 502.07 ( 9.57) 503.29 ( 9.59)
Glendive to Intake 774.92 (23.92) 1,393.14 ( 43.00) 1,117.56 ( 34.49) 765.78 (23.64) 575.20 (17.75!
Intake to Savage 1,475.42 (47.79) 1,777.97 ( 57.60) 3,602.53 (116.70) 412.90 (13.38) 451.03 (14.61
Savage to Sidney 1,051.85 (28.25) 863.20 (23. 18) 3,940.54 ( 105.81) 2,958.07 ( 79.43) 121.10 ( 3.25)
Sidney to Fairview 11.66 (.51) 104.20 ( 4.53) 222.92 ( 9.69) 410.34 ( 17.83) 371.13 (16.13)
COIIVERSIOIIS: 1 ha = 2.47 acres
1 ha/km = 3.97 acres/mi
UOTE: Entries are given first as the total area of each vegetation type within the study sectlon indicated (in hectares), and second,
1n parentheses, as a standardized value (ln hectares per kllometer) obtained by dividing the total areas by the thalweg length in each section.
---~ ~--,-.. _:-c ¥0 ------~ . ._.-.-. ---·
TABLE 18. Length of shoreline per vegetation type in each section of the lower Yellowstone River .
Billings to Huntley
Huntley to Worden
Worden to Pompeys Pillar
Pompeys Pillar to Custer
Custer to Bighorn
Bighorn to Hysham
Hysham to Sanders
Sanders to Forsyth
Forsyth to Rosebud
Rosebud to Hathaway
Hathaway to Miles City
~1iles City to Kinsey
K1nsey to Zero
Zero to Powder River
Powder River to Terry
Terry to Fallon
Fallon to Glendive
Glendive to Intake
Intake to Savage
Savage to Sidney
Sidney to Fairview
. 84 ( .05)
1.88 (.04)
3.25 ( .10)
.21 (.01)
. 50 (. 02)
3.80 (. 12)
.05 (tr)
. 10 (tr)
.45 ( .02)
COIIVERS I OilS: 1 km = . 622 mi
1 km/km = 1 mi/mi
3.11 (.21)
3.75 (.20)
5. 33 ( .40)
9.27 (.21)
2.67 (.34)
8.72 (.28)
3.60 (. 18)
8.61 ( .21)
5.86 (.30)
9.64 (. 31)
8.16 (. 25)
3.46 ( .01)
4.83 (.20)
.31 ( .06)
2.12 (.10)
1.92(.13)
8.88 ( .17)
6.68 (.21)
3.62 (. 12)
12.96 (.35)
2.80 (. 12)
9.78 (.67)
10.21 (.56)
6.58 (.49)
13.65 !.31)
3.27 .42)
6.24 .20)
5.60 (.28)
15.27 (.37)
6.20 (.32)
4.60 (. 15)
3.35 (. 12)
13.55 (.45)
1.88 ( .08)
.44 (.08)
1.74 (.08)
10.30 (.32)
8.48 (.26)
7. 34 (. 24)
7.37 (.20)
4.60 (.20)
5.89 (.40)
11.95 (.66)
10.61 (.79)
21.57 (.49)
5.76 (.74)
17.21 (.55)
21.15 (1.06)
29.15 (.71)
3.93 (.20)
7.45 (.24)
5.07 (. 16)
3.12 (. 10)
.05 (tr)
4.30 (.03)
9.46 (.29)
20.33 (.66)
28.90 (.78)
8.37 (.36)
1.79 (.12)
3.24 (.18)
4.62 ( .34)
29.00 (.66)
5. 71 (. 73)
15.71 (.50)
6.63 (.33)
21.24 (.58)
13.95 (.72)
16.64 (.53)
22.77 (. 70)
4.30 (. 14)
4.63(.19)
.84 (.15)
2.25(.11)
1.87 (.13)
38.09 (.73)
22.95 (.71)
42.33 (1.37)
41.17 (1.11)
14.65 ( .64)
8.27 (.56)
11.88 (.66)
7.65 (.57)
23.03 (.53) .27 (.01)
1.79 (.22)
13.15 ( .42)
2.98 ( .15)
12.54 (.31)
4.88 (.25)
3. 30 ( . 11 )
4.62 (.14) 5.02 (.16)
11.99 (.40) 7.23 (.24)
2.38 (. 10) 5.49 (.23)
6.73 (1.23)
4.75 (.23) 12.55 (.60)
.60 (.04) 6.63 (.46)
3.22 (.06) 23.16 (.44)
2.88 (.09) 6.47 (.20)
4.51 (.15) 6.60 (.21)
2.98 (.08) 3.44 (.09)
1.98 (.09) 1.00 (.04)
29.20 (1.99)
34.07 (1.88)
33.50 (2.50)
91.35 (2 .08)
18.36 (2.36!
60.38 (1.92
28.10 (1.41
74.21 (1.81)
33.73 (1.73)
31.17 ( .99)
53.72 (1.66)
30.28 (1.02)
24.08 (1.00)
6.42 (1.18)
25.70 (1.23)
16.36 (1.14)
86.00 (1.64)
61.85 (1.91)
72.16 (2.34)
88.48 (2.38)
39.75 (1.73)
.90 (.06)
.05 (tr)
. 18 (.01)
2.40 ( .06)
. 16 (. 01)
.66 ( .02)
.24 (.01)
4.09 (. 14)
.28 (.OS)
.69 (.01)
1.01 ( .03)
flOTE: All entries consist of the length of shoreline per vegetation type (in km) and, in parentheses, those distances divided by the
thalweg length (in km/km). Tr (trace) refers to values less than .01.
' --· ',
Figure 25. A comparison of vegetation and channel morphology for two
sections of the Yellowstone River (the upper photo near Sanders, Montana,
and the lower photo near Fallon, Montana.)
68
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l
,,
.........---------
TABLE 19. Size classification, number, and frequency of islands within sections of the lower Yellowstone River.
"' "'
Less than 1.0 to
1. 0 ha 6.0 ha
Sections No. % No. %
Billings to Huntley 4 ( 8.2) 26 (53 0 1 )
Huntley to Worden 2 ( 4 0 2) 18 (37.4)
Worden to Pompeys Pillar 6 (14.3) 17 (40.5)
Pompeys Pillar to Custer 10 ( 8. 2) 45 (36.9)
Custer to Bighorn 5 (18.5) 10 (37.0)
Bighorn to Hysham 8 (13.6) 19 (32.2)
Hysham to Sanders 1 ( 4.6) 7 (31.8)
Sanders to Forsyth ---15 (29.5)
Forsyth to Rosebud 2 ( 8. 7) 5 (21. 7)
Rosebud to Hathaway 1 ( 2.6) 18 (47.4)
Hathaway to Miles City 2 ( 3.9) 21 (40.4)
Miles City to Kinsey 1 ( 7 0 7l 4 (30.8)
Kinsey to Zero 1 ( 9 0 1 5 (45.5)
Zero to Powder River ------
Powder River to Terry ---2 (28.6)
Terry to Fallon ---1 (25.0)
Fallon to Glendive 1 ( 1 0 3) 26 (34.2)
Glendive to Intake 3 (5.5) 22 ( 40 0 1 )
Intake to Savage 1 ( 1. 4) 31 ( 33 0 7}
Savage to Sidney 2 (3.2) 24 ( 38 0 7)
Sidney to Fairview ---11 (45.9)
.
CONVERSIONS: 1 ha = 2.47 acres
1 island/km = 1.61 islands/mi
Island Sizea
6.0 to 25.9 to Greater than Total Islands/
25.9 ha 50.9 ha 51.0 ha Number km of
of Thalweg
No. % No. % No. % Islands
13 (26.5) 3 ( 6 0 1) 3 ( 6. 1) 49 2.95
25 (52 0 1 ) 2 ( 4.2) 1 ( 2 0 1 ) 48 2.65
13 (31.0) 5 (11.9) 1 ( 2.4) 42 3.13
39 (32.0) 16 (13.1) 12 ( 9.8) 122 2.78
7 (25.9) 2 ( 7.4) 3 (11.1) 27 3.47
20 (33.9) 3 ( 50 1 ) 9 (15.3) 59 1.87
4 (18.2) 3 (13.6) 7 ( 31. 9l 22 1. 11
18 (35.3) 5 ( 9.8) 13 (25.4 54 1.32
9 ( 39 0 1 ) 3 (13.0) 4 (17.5) 23 1.18
10 (26.3) 4 (10.5) 5 (13.2) 38 1. 21
19 (36.5) 6 (11.5) 4 ( 7 0 8) 53 1.64
6 (46.2) 1 ( 7 0 7) 1 ( 7 0 7) 13 .43
4 (36.4) 1 ( 9 0 1 ) ---11 .46
3 ( 1 00 0 0) ------3 .55
4 (57 0 1 ) 1 (14.3) ---7 .33
1 (25.0) ---2 (50.0} 2 0 14
28 (36.8} 9 (11.8) 12 (15.8) 76 1. 51
15 (27.3} 7 (12.7) 8 (14.5} 57 1. 76
27 (38.0) 3 ( 4.2) 9 (12.6) 71 2.30
15 (24.2) 7 (11.3) 14 (22.6) 62 1.66
9 (37.5) 1 ( 4.2) 3 (12.5) 24 1.04
nesting occurred on the river between Terry ~nd fallon. The only two islands
available for nesting in this section are readily accessible to preaators
during low~water periods (such as in the early part of the nesting season).
The unbraided nature of this section contrasts with the more braided section
between Sanders and Forsyth (figure 25). ·There does not appear to be a
direct relationship between the number of islands in a given section of
river and the size of the goose breedin~ population. Those sections with
the most islands per length of thalweg (those above the mouth of the Bighorn
River) did not have the highest densities of nesting geese. Upstream from
the Bighorn, the size and vegetative characteristics of the islands, as well
as that many are continuous with the banks during low water, apparently make
them undesirable for nesting.
The length of shoreline bordered by agricultural land in a given
section did not correlate well with duck numbers observed, probably because
ducks concentrated in sections where picked cornfields 1~ere available for
field~feeding. Because the agricultural vegetation type included all crop
types and was not limited to cornfields, this relationship was not apparent.
During the period that eagles were present, concentrations occurred
in areas having a readily-available food source. Because the location of
these food sources was not directly related to the river bottom's physical
parameters, eagle distribution was largely independent of vegetation types
and island characteristics.
70
' I
PROJECTIONS OF FUTURE USE
In order to adequately and uniformly assess the potential effects of water
withdrawals on the many aspects of the present study, projections of specific
levels of future withdrawals had to be made. The methodology by thich this was
done is explained in Report No. 1 in this series, in which also the three pro-
jected levels of development, low, intermediate, and high, are explained in
more detail. Summarized in appendix A, these three future levels of development
were formulated for energy, irrigation, and municipal water use. Annual water
depletions associated with the future levels of development were included in
the projections. These projected depletions, and the types 'of development
projected, provide a basis for determining the level of impact that would occur
if these levels of development are carried through.
YELLOWSTONE RIVER
If flow reductions under the low, intermediate, or high' level of develop-
ment would be sufficient to alter the present dynamics of channel morphology
through changes in sediment and bedload transport, those species which nest on
islands in the river would probably be adversely affected. If the dominant
discharge (that high flow recurring about every l\ to 2 years which, through
a combination of magnitude and frequency, accomplishes the most geomorphic
work in a channel over time) were reduced to the point that the rates of island
erosion and formation were altered (Koch 1976b), nesting goose and loafing
waterfowl populations would be reduced through stabilization of bars and islands
and the resultant encroachment of vegetation. Channel changes which cause loss
of island separation from other land masses and the reduction in width and
depth of channels would result in lower nesting success of Canada geese, ducks,
and mergansers through increased accessibjlity of these areas to predators.
Water withdrawals resulting in flows at Miles City below 255 to 283 m3/sec
(9,000 to 10,000 cfs) during the early part of goose nesting could result in
poor goose reproduction. Based on flow data from Miles City in 1975 and 1976,
312m3/sec (11,000 cfs) maintained during the early nesting period would be
most conducive to successful goose nesting. Should alterations in the flow
regime and channel morphology reduce ice-scarification in any section of the
river where it has been active most winters, plant succession on some ice-
gouged sites could accelerate, lowering goose nesting success on those sites.
Flow reductions sufficient to alter channel morphology could result in
abandonment of some heron rookeries if the flow in the channels near the
rookery were cut off as the main channel changed course.
Short-term reductions in flow could benefit pelican, cormorant, heron,
merganser, and other piscivorous bird populations through concentrations of
fish and strandino of fish in receding backwaters. Flow reduction for an
extended period, however, would probably cause loss of fish habitat and a
71
reduction in the number of fish in the river, thereby decreasing fishing
success of these birds. The eventual effect would be a reduction in the
populations of these species present on the river during migration and
possibly during the breeding season.
If flow reductions during the summer result in stagnation of some back-
waters, it is possible that these areas could serve as brood-rearing and
feeding areas for ducks. Because the present scarcity of brood-rearing
habitat is thought to limit duck nesting on the river, this could result in
higher breeding duck populations along the river.
Water withdrawals during the nesting season from late March through May
would probably reduce goose nesting success through increased nest predation.
Merrill and Bizeau (1972) stated that maintained releases of 16,000 cfs from
Palisades Dam on the Snake River prevented goose nest predation yet did not
produce nest flooding. High run-off periods on the Snake before dam
construction produced high nest losses due to flooding, such as now occur
under similar conditions on the Yellowstone.
Water withdrawals which cause a decrease in available goldeneye food
species (bottom-dwelling invertebrates and algae) or in food supply would
cause a decrease in ~oldeneye populations.
Alterations in channel morphology which result in a reduction in the
number of islands might lower the beaver (Castor canadensis) populations,
which are highest in the braided sections of the Yellowstone (Martin 1976).
In some areas, such as the Hysham-to-Bighorn section, geese frequently nest
in dense willow stands which have been thinned by beaver. If beaver populations
were to decline following flow alterations, the increased density of bushy
cover on some islands could discourage goose nesting on sites previously
utilized
Water withdrawals concentrated during the high sediment load period
from May through July could alter silt deposition patterns and result in
island stabilization in some areas. If open bars and small islands which
are currently open and deviod of vegetation become stabilized, these sites
would be less attractive to loafing waterfowl, resulting in a possible
reduction in the numbers of migrant waterfowl which stop in the lower Yellowstone
Valley. These open bars and islands also serve as territorial defense sites
for breeding ducks and geese, ·and loss of them could decrease those breeding
populations. Water withdrawals concentrated in late summer and early fall
could further dewater the river at a time when flows historically have been
low. The dewatered channel would provide extensive loafing areas for ducks
and geese and secure fishing sites for herons. These areas would be more
secure than those presently available due to the distance of the birds loafing
along the water's edge from the edge of the riparian vegetation. For herons,
the impact on the fish populations resulting from low flows in the fall and
winter would nullify the benefit of improved fishing sites. l
The increased acreage of agricultural land in the Yellowstone Valley l
would probably attract more migrant field-feeding ducks and geese in spring ~
and fall. This would probably be more apparent in sections of the river which
72
I
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currently have little agricultural development near the river (e.g., near the
mouth of the Powder River and between Terry and Fallon) and least apparent
where extensive agriculture along the river is now present (e.g., near Huntley
and Sidney). Attraction of field-feeding waterfowl to the Yellowstone Valley
could be further enhanced by the development of circular sprinkler irrigation
systems. Eagles could conceivably benefit from increased duck and goose
concentrations, as well as from an increase in feedlots and livestock pastures
on the river bottom, providing greater numbers of animal carcasses on which
they could feed.
BIGHORN RIVER
Water withdrawals from the Bighorn could exaggerate the channel changes
which have already occurred there since the closing of Yellowtail Dam in lg65.
Changes which could occur include a further restriction of the flow into one
main channel, stabilization of bars and islands, accelerated vegetational
succession, and an increased rate of loss of islands.
The island loss and vegetational succession which has occurred since the
Bighorn's regulation (Martin 1976) may have produced a demand for secure
goose nesting sites. Further loss of island and progression of vegetational
succession would probably reduce the goose breeding population further through
loss of nest sites and competition for the few remaining sites. Loss of
islands would also result in lower numbers of island-nesting ducks and
mergansers.
Aspects of fish concentrations brought about by reduced water levels
would probably resemble those in the Yellowstone River. Short-term reductions
could benefit eagles, cormorants, mergansers, herons, and other piscivorous
species but harm these same species if the fish habitat was reduced for too
long.
Further agricultural development in the Bighorn Valley could increase
feeding areas for migrant ducks and geese. Flocks arriving in the fall may be
induced to winter along the Bighorn below Yellowtail due to the presence of
open water and abundant food sources. Sudden winter storms followed by extreme
cold could produce abnormally high mortality in those wintering populations.
Large concentrations of those species could also suffer increased mortality
through spread of diseases. Increased agri cultura 1 activity in the Bighorn
Valley could provide for more feedlots and livestock pastures along the river,
increasing the attraction of eagles to carrion in those areas.
Goldeneye populations on the Bighorn could be benefited by extensive areas
of open water through the winter. However, any water withdrawals which decrease
the populations of bottom-dwelling invertebrates or algae upon which goldeneyes
feed could also decrease their population levels.
73
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Studies of selected migratory birds were conducted along the Yellowstone
River between Billings and Fairview, Montana, from September 1974 through
November 1976. Canada geese were most intensively studied, although observations
of ducks, bald eagles, and large fish-eating birds were also recorded.
MAJOR BIRD STUDIES
CANADA GEESE
Canada geese were found to be present in the study area year-around. In
winter, geese were limited to areas of open water along the river, primarily
between Bighorn and Hathaway. A variety of crop types were utilized by field-
feeding geese in winter, although most were observed in corn and barley fields.
During the spring migration periods as many as 16,000 geese were present in
the study area. Geese at this time loafed on open bars and islands on the river
and fed in a variety of crop types, corn and barley again appearing to be the
most heavily utilized.
The goose breeding population, estimated at between 400 and 450 pairs,
initiated nests from mid-to late March, depending to some degree on the
weather preceding nest initiation. Goose nests were usually constructed on
islands on an open site, frequently near a driftwood log. Nest sites in the
more downstream study sections typically were more densely veqetated
than those in the more upstream study sections, apparently because ice covered
the open portions of downstream islands and bars during the nest initiation
period. Nesting densities ranged from 0.5 to 2.5 nests/hectare (0.2 to 1.0
nests/acre) on the most densely nested islands.
Clutch sizes averaged just over five eggs/clutch. Goose nesting success
in 1975 and 1976 was 64 and 51 percent, respectively. Nest predation in some
study sections in 1976 was as high as 57 percent, attributed to greater predator
access to nesting islands in 1976 than in 1g75 due to periods of low flow in
early spring. To prevent this degree of nest p~edation, 312 m3/sec (11 ,000 cfs)
at ~Iiles City may be needed during the spring.
Based on egg sizes, 20 to 25 percent of the breeding geese in the areas
studied were giant Canada geese and the remainder Great Basin Canada geese
or hybrids of the two races.
Goose brood-rearing areas were found to be diverse vegetatively. They
were usually close to the nesting islands and immediately adjacent to the river.
The early fall resident population included resident breeders, their
current year's young, returning nonbreeders, and possibly some intermixed
75
early fall migrants. Censuses of geese in the study area at this time showed
between 1,500 and 3,500 birds. Most field-feeding geese were observed in winter
wheat fields in the early part of this period and in barley and corn fields after
these crops had been harvested. Loafing geese utilized open bars and islands as
they had in late fall and early spring. Observations of neck-banded individuals
in early fall indicated the tendency of geese to limit up-and downstream
movements along the river, which later became apparent at other times of the
year as well.
Goose censuses in the study area during the·fall migration period
occasionally totaled over 10,000. During this period geese fed most commonly
in barley, wheat, corn, and hay fields. The largest concentrations of geese
at this time occurred in the area between Bighorn and Kinsey, one of the more
heavily-utilized migration corridors in this section.
No statistically significant correlations were found between the numbers of
geese counted at a given time of year in a section of river and the morphology
or vegetation of the river in that section. The characteristics measured from
aerial photographs included the number of islands, sinuosity, area of gravel
bars, and the area of agricultural land, cottonwood-grassland, and dense
cottonwoods in each section of river.
DABBLING DUCKS
Numbers of dabbling ducks observed during aerial counts were highest during
spring and fall migration periods (sometimes exceeding 45,000) and lowest during
brood-rearing and late summer. Mallards were the most common dabbling ducks
present in the study area. Field-feeding species utilized picked cornfields
most heavily throughout the study period. Sections of the river with an
abundance of secure loafing sites, water, and nearby picked cornfields
attracted the largest numbers of dabbling ducks.
Nesting dabbling ducks were located on a few occasions but generally appeared
to be uncommon along the mainstem Yellowstone. Dabbling duck breeding populations
were thought to be limited by the paucity along the main channel of lentic water
areas necessary for brood rearing.
Flocks of mallards present in the study area during late fall were composed
of from 60 to 65 percent drakes.
Mallards overwintered in the study area, largely in the open water stretches
used by overwintering Canada geese.
OTHER BIRDS
Common mergansers were present year-round in the study area but were most
numerous during the winter. Most were observed between Billings and Miles City,
possibly because of more productive fishing in that section. Merganser stomachs
examined for food contents revealed utilization of stonecats and goldeneyes.
Observations of merganser broods showed that they do nest on the river, although
no nests were actually located.
76
Common goldeneyes, like common mergansers, were most numerous on the lower
Yellowstone from late fall through early spring. Unlike the mergansers, how-
ever, there was no evidence obtained during the study that goldeneyes nest along
the Yellowstone.
Bald eagles were present in the study area from September through April
in 1975 and 1976. Peak numbers during the study exceeded 110 birds. Most
of the eagles observed during censuses occurred between Billings and Miles
City, partially attributable to concentrations of eagles during winter in
these upstream areas where open water was available. One pair of bald eagles
attended a nest site near Sanders both years of the study but was not known
to have raised any young. Eagles commonly perched in streamside cottonwoods
near flocks of ducks and dived at them, but most eagles observed feeding utilized
deer and livestock carcasses.
Great blue herons were present in the study area from March through October
in 1975 and 1976. Most herons occurred near rookeries, 14 of which were located
in the study area in the tops of mature cottonwoods, usually on large islands
but occasionally on the main banks. The breeding population of herons in these
rookeries was estimated to be 222 pairs in 1975 and 176 pairs in 1976. Herons
began nesting in April, and the first young hatched in early June. Fledglings
began to leave the rookeries in mid-to late July.
White pelicans, double-crested cormorants, ospreys, and sandhill cranes
were also observed and data collected.
IMPACTS OF WATER WITHDRAWALS
Generally, if the reduced flows are insufficient to alter the existing
channel morphology, the impact on resident dabbling duck and goose populations
would probably be small. Migrant populations of field-feeding ducks and geese
would probably benefit from the increase in feeding areas resulting from
increased irrigated acreages. Flows low enough to be detrimental to existing
fish and invertebrate populations would probably reduce the numbers of herons,
cormorants, pelicans, mergansers, and goldeneyes which feed along the Yellow-
stone River.
The increase in agricultural acreages in the Bighorn Valley coincident
with further irrigation development could attract more ducks and geese to
that area. However, large concentrations of these species induced to overwinter
on the Bighorn could suffer high mortality from disease or severe winter
weather. Flow reductions on the Bighorn River which accelerate changes in the
channel morphology which have occurred since the closing of Yellowtail Dam
could be detrimental to duck and goose breeding populations. Fish concen-
trations resulting from flow reductions could temporarily benefit fish-eating
birds as long as the reductions did not permanently reduce the fish populations.
77
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' 79
...
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A-1.
A-1.
PROJECTIONS OF FUTURE USE
FIGURES
The Nine Planning Subbasins of the Yellowstone Basin.
TABLES
Increased Water Requirements for Coal Development
in the Yellowstone Basin in 2000 ..
• • • 0 • • •
83
83
A-2. The Increase in Water Depletion for Energy
by the Year 2000 by Subbasin. . . . . . . . • . • . • . • 84
A-3. Feasibly Irrigable Acreage by County and Subbasin
by 2000, High Level of Development ..... .
A-4. The Increase in Water Depletion for Irrigated Agriculture by 2000 by Subbasin . . . . . . .
A-5. The Increase in Water Depletion for Municipal Use by 2000
A-6. The Increase in Water Depletion for Consumptive Use by 2000 by Subbasin . . . . . . . . .
81
. . .
85
86
86
87
In order to adequately and uniformly assess the potential effects of water
withdrawals on the many aspects of the present study, projections of specific
levels of future withdrawals were necessary. The methodology by which these
projections were done is explained in Report No. 1 in this series, in which
also the three projected levels of development, low, intermediate, and high, are
explained in more detail. Summarized below, these three future levels of
development were formulated for energy, irrigation, and municipal water use
for each of the nine subbasins identified in figure A-1.
ENERGY WATER USE
In 1975, over 22 million tons of coal (19 million metric tons) were mined
in the state, up from 14 million (13 million metric) in 1g74, 11 million (10
million metric) in 1973, and 1 million (.9 million metric) in 1969. By 1980,
even if no new contracts are entered, Montana's annual coal production will
exceed 40 million tons (36 million metric tons). Coal reserves, estimated at
over 50 billion economically strippable tons (45 billion metric tons) (Montana
Energy Advisory Council 1976), pose no serious constraint to the levels of
development projected, which range from 186.7 (170.3 metric) to 462.8 (419.9
metric) million tons stripped in the basin annually by the year 2000.
Table A-1 shows the amount of coal mined, total conversion production,
and associated consumption for six coal development activities expected to take
place in the basin by the year 2000. Table A-2 shows water consumption by sub-
basin for those six activities. Only the Bighorn, Mid-Yellowstone, Tongue, Powder,
and Lower Yellowstone subbasins would experience coal mining or associated
development in these projections.
IRRIGATION WATER USE
Lands in the basin which are now either fully or partially irrigated total
about 263,000 ha (650,000 acres) and consume annually about 1,850 hm3 (1,5 mmaf)
of water. Irrigated agriculture in the Yellowstone Basin has been increasing
since 1971 (Montana DNRC 1975). Much of this expansion can be attributed to
the introduction of sprinkler irrigation systems.
After evaluating Yellowstone-Basin land suitability for irrigation, con-
sidering soils, economic viability, and water availability (only the Yellowstone
River and its four main tributaries, Clarks Fork, Bighorn, Tongue, and Powder,
were considered as water sources), this study concluded that 95,900 ha (237,000
acres) in the basin are financially feasible for irrigation. These acres are
identified by county and subbasin in table A-3; table A-4 presents projections
of water depletion.
Three levels of development were projected. The lowest includes one-third,
the intermediate, two-thirds, and the highest, all of the feasibly irrigable
acreage.
82
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Upper Yellowstone
Clarks Fork Yellowstone
Billings Area
Bighorn
Mid -Yellowstone
Tongue
Kinsey Area
Powder
Lower Yellowstone
I IIIUIS[LS•HLL
"H{.I.TLAooO I '\ ' GOLDE,_
-{""';3>-o/r'"-:::.· --~-.-:-v_ ·~ ~.;. • '
I
\, -. --'1 ~(LLO•STO"f i ".l.liON.I.l P.l.ll•
Y.'YOMING
Figure A-1. The nine planning subbasins of the Yellowstone Basin.
TABLE A-1. Increased water requirements for coal development in the Yellowstone
Basin in 2000.
Level of
Development
Low
Intennediate
High
Low
Intenned1ate
High
low
intcnncdlate
High
Electric
Generation
8.0
24.0
32.0
2000 mw
6000 mw
8000 mw •
30,000
90.000
120.000
I
Coal Development Act1vi ty
Gasfff-I
cation Sync rude I
COAL f11UED (""'t/y)
7. 6 0.0
7.6 0.0
22.8 36.0
CONVERSION PRODUCTION
250 rrrncfd 0 b/d
250 11111Cfd 0 b/d
Ferti -I
11 zer 1
0.0
0.0
3.5
0 l/d
0 t/d
750 mcfd 200.000 b/d 2300 t/d
WATER CONSUMPTI011 (af/v)
9.000 0 0
9.000 0 0
27 .ooo 58,000 13,000
CONVERSIONS: 1 rrmt/y (short) " .907 rrmt/y (metric)
1 af/y • .Q0123 nrnlty
Export I
17 J_ 1
293.2
368.5
a
31 .910
80.210
Strip
/-11n1nq
9,350
16,250
22.980
aNa water consumption Is shown for export under the low level of develoPIT'E!nt because, for that
development level, it is assumed that all export is by rail, rather than by slurry pipeline.
83
Total
186.7
324.8
462 .a
48,350
147.160
321,190
TABLE A-2. The increase in water depletion for energy by the year 2000
by subbasin.
INCREASE IN DEPLETION (af/v)
Elec. Gasifi-Syn-Ferti-Strip
Subbasin Generation cation crude lizer Export Mining Total
LOW LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT
Bighorn 0 0 0 0 0 860 860
Mid-Yellowstone 22,500 9,000 0 0 0 3,680 35.180
Tongue 7,500 0 0 0 0 3,950 11 ,450
Powder 0 0 0 0 0 860 860
Lower Yellowstone 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 30,000 9,000 9,350 48,350
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT
Bighorn 0 0 0 0 4,420 1,470 5,890
Mid-Yellowstone 45,000 9,000 0 0 15,380 6,110 75,490
Tongue 30,000 0 0 0 9,900 7,000 46,900
Powder 15,000 0 0 0 2,210 1 ,670 18,880
Lower Yellowstone 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 90,000 9,000 31 ,910 16,250 147,160
HIGH LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT
Bighorn 15,000 0 0 0 11,100 2,050 28.150
Mid-Yellowstone 45,000 18,000 29,000 0 38,700 8,710 139,410
Tongue 45,000 9,000 29,000 0 24,860 10.170 118,030
Powder 15,000 0 0 0 5,550 2,050 22.600
Lower Yellowstone 0 0 0 13,000 0 0 13,000
Total 120,000 27,000 58,000 13,000 80,210 22,980 321,190
CONVERSIONS: 1 af/y = .00123 hm 3ty
NOTE: The four subbasins not shown (Upper Yellowstone, Billings Area, Clarks Fork
Yellowstone, Kinsey Area) are not expected to experience water depletion associated
with coal development.
84
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TABLE A-3. Feasibly irrigable acreage by county and subbasin by 2000, high level
of development.
County
Park
Sweet Gras
St iII water
Carbon
Yellow-
stone
Bfg Horn
Treasure
Rosebud
Powder
River
Custer
Prairie
Dawson
Richland
Wibaux
BAS1N
TOTALS
Upper Clarks Billings Big Hid Tongue Kinsey Powder Lower
ellowstone Fork Area Hom Yellowstone River Area River Yellowstone
21 .664
10.20.1.
6.108
38.076
1.160
1.160
19.411
13.037
9.591
11.408
4,230
19.411 13.037 15.119
2.185
9.717
10,035
11 .947
46.853
3 .091 16 .438
1,644 1,914 8.131
18.355
10,421
633
.1.,736 75,205 37,670
CONVERSIONS: 1 acre " .405 ha
NOTE: The number of irrigable acres for the low and tnteJT.IediCile development levels are one-third
and two-thirds, respectively, of the numbers given here. This table should not be considered an exhaustive
ltstlng of all feasibly lrrtgable acreage In the Yellowstone Basin: it Includes only the acreage identified
County
Totah
11 .664
10.104
6 ,20?
2,160
19,412
15.112
9.591
11.135
46.853
43 .795
11 .789
18.355
10.421
633
237,472
es feasIbly f rri qable accord1 ng to the gcoqraphf c and economic cons tr<'l1 nts exp 1 a i ned e 1 sewhere 1 n this report.
MUNICIPAL WATER USE
The basin's projected population increase and associated municipal water
use depletion for each level of development are shown in table A-5. Even the
13 hm3;y (10,620 af/y) depletion increase by 2000 shown for the highest develop-
ment level is not significant compared to the projected depletion increases for
irrigation or coal development. Nor is any problem anticipated in the availability
of water to satisfy this increase in municipal use.
WATER AVAILABILITY FOR CONSU~1PTIVE USE
The average annual yield of the Yellowstooe River Basin at Sidney, Montana,
at the 1970 level of development, is 10,850 hm3 (8.8 million af). As shown
in table A-6, the additional annual depletions required for the high projected
level of development total about 999 hm3 (812,000 acre-feet). Comparison of
these two numbers might lead to the conclusion that there is ample water for
such development, and more. That conclusion would be erroneous, however,
because of the extreme variation of Yellowstone Basin streamflows from year
to year, from month to month, and from place to place. At certain places and
at certain times the water supply will be adequate in the foreseeable future.
But in some of the tribUtaries and during low-flow times of many years, water
availability problems, even under the low level of development, will be very real
and sometimes very serious.
85
TABLE A-4. The increase in water depletion for irrigated agriculture by 2000
by subbasin.
Subbasin
Upper Yellowstone
Clarks Fork
Billings Area
Bighorn
Mid-Ye 11 OWS tone
Tongue
Kinsey Area
Powder
Lower Yellowstone
TOTAL
Acreage
Increase
HIGH LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT
38,080
2,160
lg,410
13,040
25,230
21,950
4,740
75,200
37,670
237,480
Increase in
Depletion (af/y)
76 '160
4,320
38,820
26,080
50,460
43,900
9,480
150,400
75,340
474,g6o
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT
BASIN TOTAL 1 158,320 316,640
LOW LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT
BASIN TOTAL 79' 160 158,320
CONVERSIONS: 1 acre = .405 ha
1 af/y = .00123 hm3/y
NOTE: The numbers of irrigated acres at the low and intermediate
levels of development are not shown by subbasin; however, those numbers
are one-third and two-thirds, respectively of the acres shown for each
subbasin at the high level of development.'
TABLE A-5. The increase in water depletion for municipal use by 2000.
Level of Development
Low
Intennedi ate
High
Population
Increase
56,858
62,940
94,150
CONVERSIONS: 1 af/y = .00123 hm3/y
86
Increase in
Depletion (af/y)
5,880
6,960
10 ,620
TABLE A-6. The increase in water depletion for consumptive use by 2000
by subbasin.
Increase in Depletion (af/y)
Subbasin Irrigation Energy Municipal Total
LOW LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT
r Uprer Yellowstone 25,380 0 0 25,380
Clarks Fork 1 ,440 0 0 1 ,440
Bi 11 ings Area 12.940 0 3,480 16,420
Bighorn 8,700 860 negligible 9,560
Mid-Yellowstone 16,820 35.180 1 ,680 53,680
Tongue 14,640 11 ,450 negligible 26,090
Kinsey Area 3,160 0 0 3.160
Powder 50.140 860 360 51,360
Lower Yellowstone 25,120 0 360 25,480
TOTAL 158,340 48,350 5,880 212,570
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL OF DEVELOPIIENT
Upper Yellowstone 50.780 0 0 50.780
Clarks Fork 2,880 0 0 2,880
Billings Area 25,880 0 3,540 29,420
Bighorn 17,380 5,890 300 23,570
Mid-Yellowstone 33,640 75,490 1,360 110,990
Tongue 29,260 46,900 300 76,460
Kinsey Area 6. 320 0 0 6,320
Powder 100,280 18,080 600 119,760
Lower Yellowstone 50,200 0 360 50,560
TOTAL 316,620 147,160 6,960 470.740
HIGH LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT
Jpper Yellowstone 76.160 0 0 76.160
Clarks Fork 4,320 0 0 4,320
Billings Area 38,820 0 3,900 42,720
Bighorn 26,080 28.150 480 54.710
Mid-Yellowstone 50,460 139,410 3,840 193,710
Tongue 43,900 118,030 780 162,710
Kinsey Area 9,480 0 0 9,480
Powder 150,400 22,600 1 • 140 174,140
Lower Yellowstone 75,340 13,000 480 88,820
TOTAL 474,960 321 ,190 10,620 806.770
CONVERSIONS: 1 af /y = . 00123 hm3 /y
87
BIRDS EXAMINED FOR FOOD HABITS ANALYSIS
ata
Collected
or River Weight
Seec'ies Found Dead Location Sex Age (kg) Stomach Contents
White pelican 5{13/75 Hauth of the Unknown Adult 24.80
( [b lcaanwJ Powder River
e~yihrorhynchoo)
5/14/75 Intake F Adult? 27.01
5/21/75 Savage F Adult 24.80 Nematodes, 1 fish hook,
5 longnose dace
(Rhini.chthyo cataructae)
2 rharynqeal arches of
flathead chubs fHybopsis
gro.ciZisJ
Common goldeneye 12/9/75 Cheyenne M Unknown 6.04 Algae, 200 Chironomidae
(Buccphala Island larvae
c Langu l.a)
12/9/75 Horton M Unknown 5.91 Algae, diatoms, and
Rookery arthropods
Conmon 4{21175 Hathaway M Unknown 7.89 Pectoral spines from at
merganser 1 east 3 s toneca ts
(Merguo (Notu:rus [7.atJUo)
mcrganoer)
5/29/75 Forsyth F Juvenile 4.81 1 4·inch green sunfish
(Lcpomio cyanDll.ua),
15 small fish ototlfths,
1 Trichoptera larva, 1
swivel and fishline and 7
small Cyprinids.
8/29{75 Paraqon F Juvenile 4.94 2 stonecat spines and 1
Bridge Cyprintd pharyngeal arch
r
12/9/75 Paragon M Unknown 8.91 2 11-tnch goldeye
Bridge (Hiodon atosoideo)
12/9/75 Cheyenne M Unknown R.97 11-lnch go1deye
Island
12/9/75 Cheyenne
Island
M Unknown 8.53 12-lnch goldeye
2/27/76 Paragon M Unknown 9.08 5 Nematodes and 1 fish
Bridge scale
Great blue 5/20/75 4 miles West F Subadult 8.82 2 Flathead chubs and 12
h.eron (An::iaa of Miles 1 ongnose dace
horodiao) City
8/6/75 Rosebud M Juvenile 10.54 Plant material, grass seeds,
1 grasshopper (Locust!daoJ
and Cyprinid vertebrae
8/6/75 Rosebud M Juvenile 9.26 Plant material and seeds
8/29/75 Horton F Juvenile 13.29 1 River carpsucker
Heron (Cyproinus ca:rptioJ. 1
Rookery stonecat. otoliths, scales,
and grasshopper carapace
CONVERSIONS: 1 kg • 2. 2 1 b.
I
·~
89
~
.... c u = a u .,... .... ~ • .,..--··-··••---..,..--••"'~• .. ·-·~~~~• .. s•s•"*"ll•sar-llllllc•,..•• .. alle., ... =-·'• ..
SELECTED PHYSICAL PARAMETERS MEASURED FROM
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS OF SECTIONS OF THE LOWER YELLOWSTONE RIVER
FROM BILLINGS TO FAIRVIEW, MONTANA
~<_,"?-~"'"?-
.... ~ ~
0 of' ~ ;:., ~" ~"' '0~ ~~ ~<_,"?-s "'" ....... ""' ~;;.. !<.,'-' ,._ "\ ~ ;;.. ~<.,'-' ii:' ~ 'i' ~(.,"' f>' ~<.; .... ~ <Q <"' iiJ ~ .,<"' "'~ .,<"' .;J~ <;::,~~ <} 'i' ii:' ~<:> s::s ~" ~" .._., ~ c;,"' ;::. c;,"'
.... ~'i' ,"<' c.,~ <.; ii:' #rz-(, ~"' ~~"' <:j <:>' ~ c., "~ ,, ~
Billings to Huntley 16.62 14.69 1.13 67.84 813.45 48.94 1 ,536.88
Huntl ev to Worden 18.11 15.89 1.14 75.09 938.35 51 0 81 1 ,738.90
Worden to Pompeys Pillar 13 0 41 12.63 1.06 67.41 897.13 66.90 1 ,498.40
Pompeys Pillar to Custer 43.82 36.33 1. 21 189.88 2 ,691. 25 61.42 4,503.27
Custer to Bighorn 7 0 77 6.45 1. 20 37.55 228.18 29.37 424.28
Bi9horn to Hysham 31.50 23.24 1.36 118 0 90 1 ,592.03 50.54 3,722 0 49
Hysham to Sanders 19.88 13.42 1.48 68.06 939.42 47.25 2,222.94
Sanders to Forsyth 40.96 32.95 1.24 162.82 2,547.34 62 0 19 9,903.00
Forsyth to Rosebud 19.47 15 0 21 1.28 68.75 1,824.14 93.64 2,329.61
Rosebud to Hathaway 31.38 21.86 1.44 79.89 1,194.78 38.07 3,056.20
Hathaway to Miles City 32.33 26 014 1. 24 107.09 1,646.98 50.94 3,821.81
Miles City to Kinsey 29.90 26.65 1. 12 77.57 1,194.14 39.94 4,055.39
Kinsey to Zero 24.00 19.36 1. 24 51 .03 712.53 29.69 2,543.27
Zero to Powder River 5.46 4.79 1.14 15.00 155 0 00 6.46 566.03
Powder niver to Terry 20.91 14.53 1.44 49 0 17 888.53 42.49 2,334.55
Terry to Fallon 14.32 12.92 1.11 27.37 433.25 30.25 1,543.74
Fallon to Glendive 52.46 42.07 1 0 25 166.71 3,331.41 63.50 7,019.88
Glendive to Intake 32.40 23.91 1. 35 119.85 2,268.78 70.02 4,559.24
Intake to Savage 30.87 26.30 1. 17 158 0 26 2,508.41 81 0 28 3,131.04
Sava9e to Sidney 37.24 28.59 1. 30 185 0 40 3,235.97 86.90 5,243.36
Sidney to Fairview 23.01 16 016 1.42 75.48 1 619.30 70.37 3 785.07
MEANS AND TOTALS 545.82 434.09 1.25 1,969.12 31,660.37 53.43 69,539.35
CONVERSIONS: km = .621 mi
ha = 2.47 acres
ha/km = 3.97 acres/mi
. .........
~'<; ~ ~"'~ ,._Of; ~"?-~ "' ._c;,
~
92 014
109.43
111 0 74
102 0 77
54.60
118.17
111 0 82
241 0 77
119 0 65
97.39
118.21
135.63
105.97
23.58
111 0 67
107.80
267.63
140.72
101 0 43
281.60
164 0 50
129.44
• -0 ....-----~ -----a ec a as QC -
DATES OF OBSERVATIONS OF CANADA GEESE
NECK-BANDED IN THE LOWER YELLOWSTONE VALLEY IN 1975
AND THE DISTANCES MOVED BETWEEN THOSE DATES
Furthest Distance From
Distance Capture
From Longest Point
Neck Banding Axis of When Last
Band No. Age a Sex Dates Observed Location Home Ranqe Observed
(km) ( km) · (km)
AR 01 Adult F 6/30/75 -7/16/75 -11/13/75 -3/3/76 -3/8/76 8.53 8.53 2.25
AR 02 Adult F 6/30/75 -8/21/75 -11/13/75 -3/5/7fi -3/15/76 45.87 46.67 12.23
AR 03 Juv. M 6/30/75 -7/16/75b 17.22 17.22 17.22
AR 05 Juv. F 6/30/75 -7!7!75 -8/21/75 -10/16/75 -11/13/75 45.06 46.67 .97
AR 08 Adult M 7/l/75 -11/18/75 .97 .97 .97
AR 14 Juv. M 7/1/75 -11/13/75 40.23 40.23 40.23
AR 15 Adult M 7/l/75 -8/21/75 -11/13/75 61 0 16 61.16 40.23
AR 17 Juv. M 7/1/75 -8/21/75 -11/13/75 61 0 16 61.16 40.23
AR 18 Juv. M 7/l/75-11/13/75-3/5/76 48.28 48.28 48.28
A~ 20 Juv. M 7/1/75 -10/8/75 -10/20/75 .97 .97 .97
AR 21 Juv. F 7/1/75 -10/8/75 -10/20/75 -4/29/76 .97 1. 61 .97
AR 22 Juv. F 7/1/75 -10/8/75 -10/20/75 .97 .97 .97
"" AR 24 Juv. M 7/1/75 -10/8/75 -11/6/75 11 0 43 11 0 91 11 0 43 w
AR 25 Juv. F 7/l/75 -10/20/75 -4/29/76 9.50 9.50 9.50
AR 27 Juv. F 7/1/75 -10/20/75 3.70 3. 70 3.70
M 29 Adult F 7/1/75 -9/19/75 -10/8/75 8. 21 8.21 6.92
AR 30 Juv. F 7/l/75 -9/19/75 -10/8/75 8.21 8. 21 6.92
AR 37 Juv. F 7/2/75 -9/30/75 -2/ll/76 17.06 17.06 17.06
AR 40 Adult F 7/3/75 -8/26/75 -10/30/75 -3/8/76 -4/21/76 6.28 6.28 4 0 18
AR 41 Juv. F 7/3/75 -9/30/75 2.74 2.74 2.74
AR 48 Juv. F 7/3/75-7/l8/75b 1.77 1.77 1.77
AR 50 Juv. M 7/7/75 -8/21/75 -10/16/75 -11/13/75 44.58 44.58 4.67
AR 51 Juv. F 7/7/75 -8/21/75 -10/10/75 -10/16/75 -11/13/75 44.58 44.58 4.67
AR 53 Juv. ~1 6/5/75 -6/11/75 -7/7/75b 18. 19 20.44 18.19
AR 54 Juv. M 717/75 -9/19/75 7.40 7.40 7.40
AR 55 Juv. M 7/7/75 -7/16/75b 3.22 3.22 3.22
AR 57 Juv. M 5/16/75-7/ll/75b 10.62 10.62 10.62
AR 60 Adult M 7/ll/75 -9/l/75 -11/?.5/75 12.87 17.06 12.87
AR 61 Juv. F 5/16/75-7/ll/75 -7/24/75b 10.62 10.62 10.62
AR 62 Juv. F 5/16/75-7/ll/75b 10.62 10.62 10.62
AR 68 Juv. ~1 5/15/75 -9/29/75 20.92 20.92 20.92
Appendix 0 (cont.)
Furthest Distance From
Distance Capture
From Longest Point
Neck Bandinq Axis of When Last
Band No. Age a Sex Dates Observed Location Home Range Observed
(km) ( km) (km)
AR 71 Juv. M 7/16/75 -11/13/75 -11/18/75 -3/8/76 4.67 4.67 4.67
AR 72 Juv. F 7/16/75 -11/18/75 -11/25/75 7.40 7.40 7.40
AR 73 Juv. M 7/16/75 -11/13/75 5.31 5.31 5.31
AR 74 Adult M 7/16/75 -9/24/75 -11/13/75 6.60 6.60 6.60
AR 75 Juv. F 7/16/75 -11/2/75 20.76 20.76 20.76
AR 76 Juv. M 7/16/75 -11/2/75 20.76 20.76 20.76
AR 77 Juv. F 7/16/75 -11/13/75 12. 71 12.71 12.71
AR 78 Juv. M 7/16/75 -11/13/75 12.71 12. 71 12. 71
AR 80 Subadu1t F 7/16/75 -10/8/75 -11/13/75 16.74 33.64 16.74
AR 83 Adult ,1 7/16/75 -11/13/75 16.74 16.74 16.74
AR 84 Juv. F 7/16/75 -11/13/75-3/5/76 25.27 25.27 25.27
AR 87 Juv. M 7/16/75 -B/21/75 -10/16/75 -10/21/75 -11/13/75 61.16 61.16 25.27
AR 88 Subadu1t F 7/16/75 -10/B/75 -10/14/75 -10/27/75 -4/15/76 8.69 8.69 8.69
AR 89 Juv. M 7/16/75 -11/13/75 23.17 23. 17 23.17
<0 AR 91 Subadult M 7/16/75 -10/15/75 8. 21 8. 21 8.21 ...
AR 94 Juv. M 7/16/75 -10/8/75 -10/20/75 8.53 8.53 8.53
AR 96 Juv. M 7/16/75 -9/25/75-10/16/75-10/21/75 -11/13/75 37.66 37.66 35.08
AR 98 Adult M 7/16/75 -11/3/75 16.74 16.74 16.74
AR 99 Adult F 7/16/75 -10/8/75 1. 45 1.45 1. 45
AJ 02 Juv. F. 7/16/75 -8/21/75 -11/13/75 57.78 57.78 33.80
AJ 03 Juv. M 7/16/75 -10/8/75 .97 .97 .97
AJ 06 Juv. M 7/16/75 -9/19/75 -10/8/75 11 .1 0 11. 10 10.14
AJ 07 Juv. M 7/17/75 -8/4/75 -10/24/75 5.79 5.79 5.79
AJ 08 Juv. M 7/17/75 -8/4/75 -10/24/75 5.79 5.79 5.79
AJ 12 Juv. F 7/17/75 -11/12/75 10.62 10.62 10.62
AJ 15 Juv. M 7/17/75 -8/6/75 1.13 1.13 1.13
AJ 16 Juv. F 7 !17 /75 -8/6/75 1.13 1.13 1.13
AJ 32 Adult F 7/18/75 -9/26/75 -9!30!75 25.75 25.75 23.98
AJ 44 Subadu1t F 6/26/75 -7/21/75 -8/25/75 1.13 1. 13 1.13
AJ 45 Juv. M 7/21/75 -8/28/75 1.45 1. 45 1.45
' -----a •• 7 • c
Appendix D (cont.)
Neck
Band No.
AJ 46
AJ 47
AJ 48
AJ 49
AJ 50
AJ 51
AJ 52
AJ 53
Juv.
Juv.
Juv.
Juv.
Juv.
Juv.
Juv.
Juv.
Sex Dates Observed
M· 7/21/75 -8/28/75 -11/26/75
F 7/21/75 -8/28/75 -9/10/75 -11/26/75
F 7/21/75 -9/10/75 -9/29/75
M 7/21/75 -8/5/75
F 7/24/75·-11/9/75
M 7/24/75 -.10/18/75
F 7/26/75 -9/26/75
M 7/26/75 -9/26/75
CONVERSIONS: 1 km = .621 mi
aAdult: a bird believed to.be in its second year after hatching.
Subadult: a bird in· its first year after hatching.
Juvenile (Juv.): a bird in its year of hatching.
bAll observations recorded while bird was flightless.
Furthest
Distance
From
·sanding
Lo~~~jon
2 . .57
4.83
28.97
4.67
4.67
13.84
11.10
11.10
Longest
Axis of
Home Ranqe
km '
2.57
'5.47
28.97
4.67
4.67
13.84
11.10
15.61
Distance From
Capture
Point
When Last
Observed
km
2.25
2.25
28,97
4.67
4.67
13.84
11.10
5·.47
E-1. Egg Success
Ye 11 ows tone
E-2. Egg Success
Yellowstone
r
EGG SUCCESS OF CANADA GEESE
TABLES
in Successful Canada Goose Nests on
River, 1975 . . . . . . . . . .
in Successful Canada Goose Nests on
River, 1976 . . . . . . . . .
97
the Lower . . . . . . .
the Lower . . . . . . . . . .
Nest Clutch
Number Size
11 4
15 5
18 7
19 7
23 7
25 3
29 4
33 3
38 6
43 6
47 6
48 3
49 6
50 7
51 5
52 3
54 5
56 5
59 6
62 5
65 6
66 6
67 5
68 5
69 6
71 6
72 4
74 7
TOTALSb 148
TABLE E-1
EGG SUCCESS IN SUCCESSFUL CANADA GOOSE NESTS
ON THE LOWER YELLOWSTONE RIVER, 1975a
Eggs Unhatched
Number of Number of Number of Number
Eggs Hatched Eggs Lost Embryo Deaths Addled
4 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
6 l 0 0
7 0 0 0
4 -0 3 0
2 0 0 l
4 0 0 0
3 0 0 0
6 0 0 0
6 0 0 0
4 0 2 0
2 0 l 0
5 0 l 0
7 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
3 0 0 0
2 0 3 0
4 0 0 0
6 0 0 0
2 0 3 0
6 0 0 0
5 0 l 0
4 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
6 0 0 0
6 0 0 0
4 0 0 0
4 0 0 0
127(85.8) 1(0.7) 14(9.5) 1(0.7)
Number
Infertile
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-0
0
0
l
0
0
0
0
l
0
0
0
0
3
5(3.4)
•Nests in which at least one egg hatched, with the exception that no nests were
included in which eggs were injected with dye.
bPercentages of total in parentheses
98
Nest
Number
. . 1
2 -.
3
6
7
8
11
12 .
14--15
' 16
21
22
23
26
28
29
30
31
32
33
35
36
37
38
39
42
4~------45
46
49
50
51.
52
54
55
56
57
58
60
62
63
64
67
68
69
70
TOTALSb
a
TABLE E-2
EGG SUCCESS IN SUCCESSFUL a CANADA GOOSE NESTS
. ON THE LOWER YELLOWSTONE RIVER, -1975--c
Eggs Unhatched
Clutch Number of Number of Number of Number Size Eggs Hatched Eggs Lost Embryo Deaths Addled
6 3 .. 0 3 0
. ~"'5 -------,,--,4-1 0 0 ··----
5 5 0 0 0
5 4-0 --0 1 -
7 6 0 .1 0
4 3 1 0 ·a
7 7 -0 0 0
6 6 0 0. 0
3 3 0 0 0
8 6 0-1 . 1
6 6 0-0 0
4 4 0 0 0
6 6 0 0 0
7 5 0 D 1
6 6 0 0 0
6 3 0 3 0
4 4 0 0 0
5 4 0 () 0
6 6 0 0 0
5 5 0 0 0
5 5 0 0 0
6 3 0 0 1
4 4 0 0, .. 0
6 4 1 • 0 1
5 5 0 0 0
9 9 0 0 0
4 4 0 0 0 __ 6 ____
. ----"-6_~ ------.--~ a ____ · a
6 6 0 0
2 2 0 0 0
6 6 0 0 0
7 5 0 0 2
6 4 1 0 0
5 4 0 1 0
7 6 0 0 1
6 6 0 0 0
5 3 0 2 0
6 3 1 1 0
8 8 0 0 0
7 6 0 0 0
4 4 ·a 0 0-
7 6 0 0 1
4 4 0 0 "0
7 5 1 1 0 -
6 6 0 0 0
5 5 0 0 '' 0
5 3 0 0 2
265 228(86.0) 6(2.3) .13(4.9) 11(4.2)
Number
Infertile
0 .
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7(2.6)
Nests in Nhich at least one egg hatched, with the exception that no nests were
"included in which eggs were injected wi~h dye.
bpercentages of total in parentheses
99
SELECTED SPECIES OF BIRDS OBSERVED IN THE _ ---•
LOWER VEU.:OWSTONE~VALLEV FROf~ SEPTEMBER 1974 TO OCTOBER 1976
Common Loon !Gavia adamoiiJ
Western grebe (Aechmophorus occidentaZisJ
Horned grebe (Podiceps autitus )
Eared grebe (Podicepo caspicus)
Pied-billed grebe (Podilymbus podicepoJ
White pelican (Pelecanuo orythrorhynchoo!
Double-crested cormorant !Phalacrocorax auritus)
Whistling swan rotor aotumbianus!
Giant Canada goose (Branta aanadcnoio maxima!
Great Basin Canada goose (Branta canadenois
moffitti! ·
lesser Canada goose (Branta canadensis parvipes)
Richardson's Canada goose (Branta canadensis
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
.X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
hutchin.siiJ x x
White-fronted goose (Anser atbifrono frontatis! x x
X
X
Snow goose (Chen hyperborea) x x ----Mall ard-(Anao-ptatyrhynchos)-----~-----~-,-----:x;;-_ _:___:__~x-----:x;;---------
,
'
t
' -
Pintail (Anao aauta) x x x
Gadwa 11 ( Anao otrepera) . x x x
American widgeon (Anas arr:oricana) x x x
Shoveler (Anas clypeata) x x · x
Blue-winged teal (Anas discoro) x x x
Green winged teal (Anas crecca caroZinensiaJ x x x
Wood duck (Aiz.oponoa) x x x
Redhead (Aythya americana) x x
Canvasback(Aythya valisinoria) x x
Ring-necked duck (Aythya coZZario) x x
lesser scaup ( Aythya affinis) x x
Common goldeneye (BucephaZa cZangutaJ x x
Buffelhead (Bucephata albeola) x x
Ruddy duck (O:r:yura jamaicensis) x .X · x
Common merganser (Mergus merganser) x x x
. Red-breasted ·merganser (Morgua aerrator!_ x
Turkey vulture.(Cathartes aura) ·
Rough-legged hawk (Buteo Zagopus)
Red-tailed hawk !Buteo jamaicensis)
Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos)
__ Bald eagle (Haliaeetus Zeucocephatus)
Osprey (Pandion liaZiaotus)
Prairie falcon (Falco mericanus)
101
X
X X
X
X X
X
X X
X·
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Appendix F (Cont.)
Great blue heron IArdea hcrodiaa)
Black-crowned night heron INycticorax
nycticoroax)
Lesser sandhill crane !Grua canadcncia
canadenoia)
American coot (Fulica americana)
American avocet (Recurviroatra ~eroicana)
Black-bellied plover ISquatal•oZa aquatal'ol.a)
Killdeer ICharadriuo voci[crua)
Long-billed curlew (/lumcniua americanuo)
Upland plover (Bartramia Zongicauda!
Spotted sandpiper IActitin macuZaria)
Willet (Catoptrophorua cenripaZmatuc)
Greater yellowlegs ITotamw meZanoZczwua)
Lesser yellowlegs ITotanua [Zavipaa)
Long-billed dowitcher I Limnodrcmua acaZopaceuc)
Sanderlin9 !Crocethia aZba!
White-rumped sandpiper IEroZia fuscicoZZis!
Least sandpiper IErolia minutiZla!
Wilson's phalarope (Staganopus tricolor!
Cornron snipe ICapelZd galZinago)
Ring-billed gull (Larus daZawarensis)
Franklin's gull ILarus pipixcan)
Common tern !Sterna hirundo)
Forster's tern !Sterna [orctcri!
Black tern IChZidoniac niger!
Great horned owl I Bubo virginianuc)
Snowy owl (Nyctea acandiaca)
Re lted kingfisher 1Mcgacery7 aZcyo'1)
Black-billed magpie !Pica pi~a)
Corrrnon crow (Co:r'Vua bradzyr1zynclzoo)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
aPresent in summer but not known to breed in the area
102
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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mergansers. Journal of Wildlife Management 36(4): 1127-1133.
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103
studies of water birds on the Molly
Yello~1stone Library and Museum
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Management.
A method of color marking young waterfowl.
15(1): 101-103.
Journal of Wildlife
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