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ALASKA PARTICULATES CRITERIA REVIEW
Laurence A. Peterson
Gar~y E. Nichols
Nancy 8. Hernrning
Jawes ~ J,U_aspell
L.A. PETERSON & ASSOCIATES, INC.
Fairbanks, Alaska
Prepared For
State of Alaska
Department of Environmental Conservation
Dan Easton, ProJect Manager
REVIEW D RAi=T '0"3/.0'3/ 85
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Alasl-'.a of
c•:mtracted L.A. Peterson & Associates, Inc. to conduct a study
of Alaska's water particulates The
comprehensive intent of the study was to:
(1) Review pertinent literature to determine state-of-the-
art measurement technology, physical/chemical effects,
and biological effects of particulates.
<2> Compile and assess particulates criteria from other
states and Canadian provinces and territories and
comj:llle U.S. Environmental l=lrotect icrn .AgerH:y g•.~oi.del111.es
and requirements for j:larticulates criteria.
<3) Evaluate the adequacy and scientific merit of existing
Alaska criteria for particulates.
<4) Assess the potential for using parameters other than
t1.1rbidity, suspended and settleable solids,
percentage accumulation of fines in spawning gravels.
(5) Propose new j:lil.rticulatas criteria if scientific
evidence supports this action.
The investigation was limited to the problems of water
pol h1t ion resulting from particulates and the direct and
indir•ct methods for measuring particulates. A compreh eY1S i ve
literature review was performed to document the effects of
particulates on various water uses. Background information
regarding particulate measurement techniques, water quality, and
aquatic ecology apcears in Sectiori 2.0. Section 3.0 summarizes
.
REVIEW DRAFT '3/03/65 PAGC: L ARLIS
Alaska Resources
v Information Services .
, ·. tra~. Alaska
particulates criteria used in water quality standards and guide-
lines throughout the United States and Canada. Alaska's
particulates criteria are r~ev i ewed <Section 4.0) and the
potential use of parameters other than turbidity, ~uspended and
settleable solids, and percentage accumulation of fines in
spawn1ng gravels are discussed in Section 5.0. Recommended
changes to Alaska's criteria to irtsure that Alaska's
particulates criteria are supportable and based on the best
available information are presented in Section 6.0.
2.0 COMPARISON OF ALASKA CRITERIA TO OTHER STATES AND CANADA
Other than Alaska, 33 states have quartt it at ive ttJrbidity
cr1teri.a for at least some water uses. Among the 20 states
having cold water systems similar to Alaska and r'll..lmer ica 1
criteria for' turoidity, the criteria are numerically equal to .. or
more stringent than Alaska's. Turbidity criteria for lakes are
comparaole. Quantitative turbidity criteria in Canada are
coMparable
•:Jf fish
criter~ion
point for
to Alaska critaria for racraation and the propagation
and wildlife. Tha U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
fQr turbidity and solids pertains to the compensation
photosynthatic activity. Of the 14 states with
turbidity standards for marine water, seven employ quantitative
criteria.
sol ids levels. Only four statas othar than Alaska currently
Of tha remaining
states, 17 have ganaral narrativa statements addressing these
paramatars. Alaska is tha only state with critaria controlling
the .accumulation of sadimants •• a maKimum pareentaga by weight
•:Jf spawning bad gravals. Currently, thara ara no water quality
standards for suspended and settleable solids in Canadian
provinces and territories.
REVIEW DRAFT ~/09/65 PAGEl(
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3.0 PARTICULATES REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER SUPPLIES
The amount of particulates allowable in raw water supplies
depends on the type and degree of treatment used to produce
finished water. An excellent source of water requiring only
disinfection would have a turbidity of 0 to 10 units. A good
source of water supply ra~uiring usual treatment wo~1ld have a
turbidity of
drinking water
and finished
10 to a~o units. For disinfection purposes, rdw
sources should be limited to 5 turbidity units,
water should have a maximum limit of 1 turbidity
the water enters tha distribution system. Most where
people find water with 5 or more turbidity units obJectionable.
The water ~uality requirements for particulates varies among
industrial uses. At one extreme, rayon manufacture requires
water with· only 0.3 turbidity units, wheraas water use~.for
cooling can have up to ~0 turbidity units. Most other
industrial usas re~uira maximum turbidity levels within this
range. Placer mining is one industry where water containing
turbidity or suspended solids levels significantly higher than
50 units may be acceptable.
4.0 PARTICULATES REQUIREMENTS FOR RECREATION
The noticeable threshold for water contact recreation is 10
turbidity units and the limiting threshold is ~0 units. The
suggested maximum turbidity limit for Canadian contact
recreational w•t•r ~uality is ~0 turbidity units and the minimum
Secchi disk visibility depth is 1.2 meters. The noticeable
threshold for boating and aasthetic usas is 20 turbidity units •
There is apparently no level found in surface water that is
likely to impada thase usas, although many people prefer clear
~ water conditions. Fishing succass is reduced where turbidity is
~
~ greatar than about 25 units. ~)
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REVIEW DRAFT 9/0'9185 PAGE iii
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5.0 PARTICULATES REQUIREMENTS FOR BIOTA
A large body of experimental data exist regarding the
effects of fine sediment deposition on salmonid eggs in natural
and laboratory stream gravels. By comparison, only limited
numer1cal data are available regard1ng the effects of sediment
on fish emergence time and population changes. The percentage of
fines and level of spawning gravel embeddedness ~re critical
factors to developing eggs and emerging fry. I r• genera 1,
sal rnon, trout, and char egg survival and emergence success are
adversely affected when the fraction of fine sediment exceeds 20
pet•cent. Although the critical particle si%e is highly variable
among species, sediment smaller than 3 mm in diameter appears to
be the most deleterious to fish egg survival, emergence success,
A number of investigators empha~i%e· the
deleterious effect of particles smaller· than 1 mm in spawn~ng
gravels. In addition, it is generally recogni%ed that deposited
sediments smother fish eggs and benthic macroinvertebrates by
blanketing the substrate.
The adverse impacts of a wide range of suspended solids and
turbidity levels have been reported for a diversity of aquatic
plamts, macroinvertebrates,
devel,~pmer.t. Research has
environmental conditions for
results are often expressed
and various stages of fish
been conducted ur•der a variety of
d i fferant lengths of time and the
in different units of measure. In
many instances, th• data presented in on• investigation either
do not support or cannot be readily compared to the results of
other investigations. An organism's level of sensitivity to
suspended solids is dictatad by its age, specias, relative
mobi 1 ity, feeding and reproductive habits, tha season, the size
and nature of the . sadimant, the duration of exposure, the
general health and stress level of the individual, and the
degree and d~ration to which the individual was previously
expo;:,sed. Furt het•m.;:,re, an individual's level of susceptibility
depend$ to some degree upon its origin. For instance, one
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGEt¥
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investigator
corts i derab 1 y
indicates that hatchery-raised coho salmon are
more sensitive to suspended solids than are wild
coho.
do not
Moreover, the results derived from laboratory experiments
necessarily reflect field conditions be6ause of the
stress factors involved and because many organisms possess
innate adaptation capabilities in response to changes in their
environment. These variables are not always presented in the
literature. It is relatively common to find the results from
one particular study cited in three or more literature reviews.
Upon reviewing the original document, it appears that some of
the data have been presented without discussing other pertinent
factors. ConseQuently, it is difficult to draw definitive
conclusions concerning the impact of a specific suspended solids
concentration or turbidity level on a particular species or age
class of organism. With these limitations in mind, the
following summary statements are made co~cerning the effect~ of
suspended solids and turbidity on freshwater aqu~tic organisms.
Lethal suspended solids concentrations vary widely depending
on the species and duration of •~posure. Arctic grayling can
survive high concentrations (10,000 mg/L) of suspended solids
but not extremely high concentrations <2~0,000 m;/L) for a few
days. High levels of turbidity (up to 8200 NTU) appear to have
no adverse effect on grayling survival. Rainbow trout are
capable
suspended
mortality
several
of withstanding 30 to 90 ppm of certain types of
solids for several months bYt suffer significant
<~0 percent> at levels greater than 100 mg/L for
weeks. At extremely nigh levels of suspended solids
(160,000 mg/L), rainbow trout suffer total mortality in 1 day.
Total egg mortality may occur at much lower concentrations (less
than or eQual to 2~00 mg/L) in less than a ~eek. The amount of
sediment required to cause ~0 percent mortal1ty in JUVenile coho
salmon in 4 days is much higher in November <35,000 pprn) than in
August ClZOO ppm). Chum salmon egg survival is decreased by
about half wh•n suspended solids levels are in~reased from 97 to
111 mg/L.
RE'v'IEW DRAFT 9/09/8~ PAGE V
In general, salmonid feeding, growth, reproduction, and
behavior are not significantly affected by turbidity levels less
than 25
mg/L.
at 35
NTU or suspended solids concentrations less than 30
An exception is the cutthroat trout, which c~ases feeding
ppm suspended solids. With one exception, there is no
indication that suspended solids concentrations less than SO
mg/L have any adverse affect on salmonid gill or fin tissues, or
respiratory functions. In one instance, an in ~i~Y
concentration of 34 mg/L produced moderate to marked gill
hypertrophy and hyperplasia in Arctic grayling in 5 days.
Furthermore, suspended
may be stressful to
1 eve l s.
solids concentrations as low as 50 mg/L
grayling, as indic•ted by blood glucose
Algal-based productivity may begin to be reduced at
turbidity levels greater-than about 5-NTU in ~-trearns and lak-~s.
Ror.:•ted aquatic plants may be absent at suspended sol ids
concer1trations greater than 200 mg/L. Benthic macroinvertebrate
populations may be adversely affected by suspensions of 40 mg/L
or more and zooplankton may be harmed by more than sa mg/L
suspended solids.
Lethal and sub-lethal effects of sediments have been
determined for a diversity of marine organisms. Numerical data
pertain primarily to the effects of suspended solids and
turbidity as opposed to sediments deposited on the bottom. Much
of the work done in the marine system involves estuarine
invertebrates. With few exceptions, marine invertebrates are
rnore tolerant of high suspended sol ids concentrations tharr are
anadromous fish and freshwater invertebrates.
Primary production has been reduced at turbidity levels of
41 JTU near offshore mining activity. However, mixing and
~ilution limited the eKtent to which pr1mary ~roduction was
reduced by localized or temporary sediment increases. The
let Mal sus;:~ended solids concentration for adult bivalves,
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0S/85 PAGE VI
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crustaceans, tunicates, and polychaetes is in all instances
greater than 400 mg/L and in most cases greater than 1500 mg/L.
The survival of a ~ariety of estuarine fish eggs and. larvae is
not reduced by suspended solids concentrations iess than 100
mg/L. However, the feeding rate of larval herring is
significantly reduced at 20 mg/L.
Tha sub-lethal effects of suspended solids and turbidity on
mollusks are quite variable. The feeding rate of some oysters
is unaffected at 100 to 700 ppm turbidity. Some clams cease
feeding at 1000 JTU. The water pumping rate of the American
,;:,yster is
101) mg/L.
significantly
The feeding
reduced at concentrations greater than
rate of the mollusk ~~~eig~l~ sp. is
significantly reduced at 200 mg/L. Clam eggs develop normally
in silt suspensions of 3000 mg/L, whereas American oyster eggs
are affected by. silt concentrations as low as 166 mg/L. Seed
scallops exhibit elevated respiration rates at 250 mg/L or
greater. The mussel !!!~ti.l~~ sp. is well adapted to silt
concentrations up to SO mg/L. The shell growth of certain
gastropods is decreased when natural suspended solids are
increased to 250 mg/L.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
1. The level of protection afforded by the existing Alaska
particulates criteria for the designated water uses is generally
supported by scientific data. However, a number of proposed
modifications to the existing criteria have been made to attain
the best criteria based on information presented in this report.
Use categories for which turbidity criteria have been
retained include industrial water su~ply and contact and
secondary recreation in fresh water. Under the proposed
criteria, no distinction is Mada between lakes and streams for
recreational uses. The turbidity criteria for drinking water
supply, growtn and pro~agation of a~uatic organisms, and contact
REVIEW ORAFT '3/!)'3/65 P1=IGS: Vlf
and seccn'"Jdary recreation in marine water~ are amerrded t•::. allow
variable increases in turbidity within specified ranges. It is
pr-·:• P•:•sed tha·t the exis·tir1g t•.Lr'bidity and sediment cr-iteria be
deleted fOt' certain use categories becaiJSe: (l) There is nc•
eviderec:e t•::. s•.1pport their validity, or < 2) other cr-iteria ay-e
J'-ldged to be more appropriate for the stated use category. It
is proposed that the existing turbidity criteria be deleted for
seafood processing, industrial water supply in
maril"1e waters, harvesting for consumption of raw mollusks or
other aquatic life,
water·s.
and aquaculture in both fresh and marine
The sediment criteria for agriculture, seafood processing,
drink1ng water supply, and industrial supplies <fresh and marine
water) are amended to include statements addressiri~ suspended
and settleable solids. The existing sediment criteria for
aquaculture and . growth and propagation of aquatic biota have
been rewritten to include numerical suspended solids and
settleable solids criteria for both fresh and marina waters.
Additionally, the allowable percentage accumulation of fines in
spawning gravel is reduced for the growth and propagation of
aquatic biota in fresh water. A new criterion for settleable
solids is proposed for the harvesting of raw mollusks and other
aq1.1atic life. It is proposed that sediment criteria be deleted
for contact and secondary recreation in both fresh and marine
waters.
a. Ah.ska
categories:
cl..lrrantly
tl..lrbidity
employs particulates criteria for two
and sediment. The sediment category
includes criteria for total suspended solids, settleable solids,
and the percentage accuml..llation of fines in spawning bed gravel.
Criteria for these fol..lr parameters are adequate for the
protection of all water usa categories in Alaska. It was
determined that the percentage acc~mulation of fines in spawning
gravel is a difficult parameter to me~sure. Her.ce, it is
r•ec:•:•mrnended that se·t·tleable solids criteria be used as ti;e
REVtEW DRAFT 3/09/85 PAGE VIII
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primary method to limit the accumulation of fines in spawning
gravel. Actual measurement of the percentage accumulation of
fines by weight can be used as a secondary method at the
Depa r .. t ment' s d i sc:ret ion. ~-
3. Set t 1 ea b l e
aquatic biota
solids have direct and detrimental effects on
and habitat by smothering fish eggs, alevins, and
invertebrates, reducing intergravel flow, and by coating aquatic
vegetation, thus reducing the potential for photosynthesis.
Solids in suspension can cause invertebrate drift, cause fish to
avoid previously usable habitat, prevent fish from seeing their
prey, and cause physical damage such as gill irritation to
fish. The lethal tolerance of salmonids and other a~uatic
organisms to suspended solids appears to be relatively high. In
most instances, sublethal effects occur at Much lower
concentrations. Turbidity prevents the growth and photosynt~e
sis of green plants and can also cause fish to avoid otherwise
-suitable habitat and prevent them from seeing their prey.
4. Gravimetric techniques represent a mora accurate measure of
the affects of suspended solids on aquatic biota while optical
measurements may be more appropriate for photosynthetic or
aesthetic purposes.
5. Sed irner1t is,
surface water.
by volume, the greatest single pollutant of
The transport and deposition of natural
sediments is often related to local storm events and stage of
hydrograph. The fate of man-induced sediments differs from
natural sediments in that the former is not necessarily
ass•:.ciated with or dependent upon fluctuations in runoff. In
some instances man-caused
magnitude, duration, and
sediment
fre~uency
inputs
than
are greater in
natural inputs.
Furthermore,
with natr..tral
the timing of man-caused inputs may be out of phase
occurrences. Consequently, the ultimate fate of
man-caused •adiments may be different than natural sediments.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/S~ PAGE lX
Also, the sequence of artificial sediment lc•adirtg may ind1..1ce
abnormal behavioral responses in resident and anadromous fish.
6. Because many investigators have not adh~red to the
definition of turbidity and instrument design specification
applied by §1sn9sr9--M~~bgg~ __ fgr __ 1b~-s~sm1ns1~gn_gf_~s1~r-sn9
~s§!§~s~.@r, there is a significant amo1.tnt •jf variability in the
way turbidity is mRas~rea and reported. This factor makes it
extremely difficult to assess and compare the effects of
turbidity on various water uses. Common sour~es of error 1n
turbidity measurements include the ~ollection of representative
samples in the field, extraction of subsamples, dilution
technique, and reporting data to the ~orrect number of
signifi~ant figures. Although it is recognized that turbidity
measurements may be diffi~ult to evaluate, turbidity is the most
applicable of th• potential optical p&rama~ars for w1despr~ad
•.tse in Alaska.
7. The standard te~hnique for measuring total suspended solid$
is routine to perform undRr laboratory conditions and the
results are relatively exact. Common sour~as of error include
those associated with field sampling techniques and the
extraction
suspensions
of
of
subsamples. Alternative methods for measuring
sediment poss•ss limitations that preclude their
widespread application.
a. Under limited conditions turbidity may be effectively used
to estimate susp•nded solids ~oncentrations. Thera is, however,
no single expression which relates turbidity and sus~ended
solids on a regional or u~iversal basis. Th• development of any
predictive relationship between thes• parameters should be on a
d~ainage basin basis rather than a st•tewide bas••· Any
a~parent correlation should be a~companied by a rigorous
artalysis
associated
oF the
with
data
the
and include
~orrelat ic•n. · ·
a ~tatement of the error
In addition to treat1ng the
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE X
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data collectively, regression an~lyses should include calcula-
tions of coefficients of determination and confidence limits for
data in the low, medium, and high ranges.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS PAGE XI
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
a.o COMPARISON OF ALASKA CRITERIA TO OTHE~ STATES
AND CANADA
3.0 PARTICULATES REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER SUPPLIES
4.0 PARTICULATES REQUIREMENTS FOR RECREATION
5.0 PARTICULATES REQUIREMENTS FOR BIOTA
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 BACKGROUND
2.1 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
2.2 WATER QUALITY
2.2. 1 Fresh Water
2.2.2 Marine
2.3 AQUATIC ECOLOGY
2.3.1 Fresh Water
2.3.2 Marine
~.4 REFERENCES
3.0 PARTICULATE CRITERIA
3. 1 STATES
3.2 U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
3.3 CANADIAN PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES
3.4 REFERENCES
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iv
vii
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><Y
1
13
13
17
19
21
21
29
34
36
~.0 ADEQUACY AND SCIENTIFIC MERIT OF ALASKA CRITERIA 38
4.1 ALASKA CRITERIA 3S
4.2 DEMONSTRATED EFFECTS OF PARTICULATES 42
4.2. 1 W•t•r Supply 42
4.2.2 Recr•ation ~5
4.2.3 Biota 47
E~••o-~~t•~ 47
~·~iD! 65
4.3 SUGGESTED CRITERIA FROM THE LITERATURE 76
4.3.1 Wat•r Supply 76
4.3.2 Recr••tion 77
~.3.3 Biota 77
gr1~§ri~_!sr_§8gim~n~_in_1b~-~~~~r-~glgmn 77
~ri~~ri~_!gr_§~91m~n~-~-~2-~1~9_gn_1o~
§y~~~r§~~ so
4.4 REFERENCES S1
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/83 PAGE )(II
TABLE OF CONTENTS continued
5.0 POTENTIAL USE OF OTHER PARAMETERS
5. 1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TURBIDITY AND SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
5.2 WATER COLUMN MEASUREMENTS
5.3 SUBSTRATE MEASUREMENTS
5.4 REFERENCES
S.O PROPOSED PARTICULATES CRITERIA
G. 1 INTRODUCTION
5.Z PROPOSED CRITERIA
S.3 REFERENCES
APPENDIX A: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES--FRESH WATER
APPENDIX B: GENERAL LITERATURE--FRESH WATER
APPENDIX C: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES--MARINE
APPENDIX D: GENERAL LITE~ATURE--MARINE
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0'3/65 PAGE )(111
'30
90
101
104
105
10'3
10'3
110
127
A-1
B-1
c.~1
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LIST OF TABLES
J-1 Turbid1ty Criteria for U~ited St~tas ~nd Canada~
3-2 S•.lspended and Settleable Sol ids Cr~i"ter~ia fol~ the
United States and Canada
4-1 Effects of Settled Solids and Fines on SalMonid
30
Mortality &nd Survival SS
4-2 Miscellaneous Effects of Settled Solids and Fines
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
•:.n Salnlonids
Effects of Suspended Solids and Turbidity on
Salmonid Survival and Mortality
Miscellaneous Effects of Suspended Solids and
Turbidity on AQuatic Biota
Survival and Mortality of Marine Organisms
Miscellaneous Effects on Marine Ogranisms
~-1 Correlations Between Turbidity and Suspended Solida
Concentrations
6-1 Water Uses and Parameters for Which Standards Must be
5'3
60
61
71
73
'36,
Established to Meat Water Quality ObJectives 111 --
LIST OF FIGURES
5-1 Corr•lations Satwaan Turbidity and Suspended Solids
Concentrations
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE XIV
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Tne federal Water Pollution Control Act &s amended in 1972,
,-
Public l-aw 92-eoo, was modified and renamed the Clltan Water Act
in 1977. This Act reQuired all states to adopt standards of
Quality to protect their waters for specific uses. In Alaska,
the water Quality standards are the responsibility of the
Department of Environmental Conservation <ADEC>. Except in a
faw special cases, fresh
must meet all standards
the uses shown below.
and marine surface waters in Alaska
designed to protect water Quality for
The exceptions are noted in the 198e
water Quality standards which indicate that all w•ter bodies in
Alaska except the lower Chena River and Nolan Creek and all its
tributaries excluding Acme Creek are classified for all u•••·
Et:•!lh!!At•t:-Ya•a
+ Drinking, including cooking and food processing
+ Agriculture <irrigation and stock watering>
+ Aquaculture
+ Industry <mining, pulp milling, etc.>
+ Contact recreation <swimming, wading, bathing, etc.>
+ Secondary recr••tion <boating, hiking, camping, etc.>
+ Growth and propagation of fish, shellfish, and other
aquatic life
§A!t!!At•t:-Yatta
+ Seafood processing
+ Harvesting of clams or other aquatic life
+ Aquaculture
+ Industry <other than seafood processing>
+ Contact recreation (swimming, wading, bathing, etc.>
+ Secondary recreation <boating, hiking, camping, etc.>
+ Growth and propagation of fish, shellfish, and other
aquatic life
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/Se PAGE 1
Associated with each use a~e c~ite~ia fo~ diffe~ent wat•~
\
quality pa~amete~s. Fo~ eKample, d~inkin; wate~ quality
c~ite~ia s~ecify limits on bacte~ial contamination, colo~,
tempe~atu~e, tu~bidity, and sediment, as well as oth•~
~-~•met•~•· The wate~ quality s~anda~ds consist of the set of
most st~in;ent c~ite~ia associated with each wate~ use.
~a~ticulates include tha fine sediment in the wate~ column
and on the subst~ate. Typical measu~ements of pa~ticulate
levels include total suspended solids, tu~bidity, settleable
solids, and the pe~centage accumulation of fine sediment in
;~avel beds.
Pa...-ticulate
sediment loads
phase with
levels need to be cont~olled so that man-induced
do not significantly eMceed o~ become out of
nat u~al levels, th_~• adv•~••ly affecting t;h•
cha~acte~istics of the wat•~ column and subst~ate. The most
obvious effect is often the aesthetic impact on ~•c~eational
uses o~ visual evidence of pa~ticulate deposition. Howeve~,
oth•~ wate~ uses may be impacted, too. Heavy sediment loads in
wate~ used fo~ d~inking and food p~epa~ation, fo~ ag~icultu~•,
and fo~ indust~y may ~•nde~ it unfit o~ unsafe. In addition,
aquatic biota, wate~fowl, and fu~b•a~•~• may be adve~sely
affected by inc~eased ~a~ticulate levels. Impacts on biota may
~ange f~om mo~tality to sho~t-te~m effects on biotic p~ocesses
and/o~ behavio~t these effects may be di~•ct o~ indi~ect.
Inc~eased sediment loads can affect aquatic biota di~ectly
th~ough chan;•• in thai~ anatomy and phy•iology, and indi~ectly
th~ough changes in thai~ habitat. Eitn•~ of these b~oad classes
of effects may induce a va~iety of behavio~al ~•sponses,
including inhibited movement and fo~agin;, avoidance, modified
feeding selection and ~ate, and modified ~•p~oductive behavio~.
Cont~ols on
Cont~ol Act and
both nume~ical
sediment a~• mandated by the Wat•~ Pollution
administ•~•d by the AOEC in Alaska. AOEC uses
and n•~~ative c~ite~ia fo~ tu~bidity and
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS P~GE 2
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sed i mer'lt • _Thesa criteriA Ara describad in datAil in Saction
ganerAl, tha turbidity criteriA for the vArious
usas ranges from a ~ to 25 naphelometric turbidity
4. 1. In
protected
unit <NTU> incr•••• Abova nAturAl conditions. -The sedimel"'t
standards are mora subJactiva And includa such stataments as "No
increasa in concel"'tration of sadimant, including sattleabla
solids, above natural conditions" and "No imposed sedimant loads
that will intarfara with astablishad watar supply traatment
levals."
Num•rous mathods for maasuring particulatas, including both
diract and indiract mathods, cAn ba usad to sat critaria. Thase
mathods includa maasuramant of turbidity, total suspandad
solids, sattlaabla solids, transmissivity, Saccni disk dapth,
compansation point, and m•thods for maasuring tha amount of fine
sadimant in straambads. Th••• mathods ara di•cussad briafly_in
Saction 2.0 and in datail in Saction 5.0.
Tha purposa of this study is to avaluata tna affactivaness
of aMisting Alaska watar quality critaria for particulatas and
to racommand nacassary chan;•• to tn••• critaria. Tha spacific
ObJactivas araa
( 1 )
(2)
Raviaw partinant litaratura to datarmina stata-of-tha-
art maasuramant tacnnology, physical/chamical affacts,
and biological affects of particulatas.
Compila and a••••• particulatas critaria from othar
stat•• and Canadian provincas and tarritorias and
compila u.s. Environmantal Protaction Agancy <EPA)
guid8lin•• and raquiramants for particulatas
critaria.
<3> Evaluata tha adaquacy and sciantific marit of aMisting
Alaska critaria for particulatas.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 P~GE 3
(4) A••••• the potential for using parameters other than
turbidity, susl)ended and ••ttleable solids, and the
percentage accumulation of fines in sl)awning gravels.
(~) Propose new particulates criteria if sci•ntific
evidence sul)ports this action.
This study is limited to the problems of water I)Ollution
resulting from !)articulates and the direct and indirect methods
for measuring
information
part :Lculates,
Sect ion 2. 0.
particulates. The report provides background
pertaining to measurement techniques of
n•tural water quality, and aquatic ecology in
Section 3.0 summarizes particulates criteria used
in the United States and Canada. The purpose of the proJect is
to review Alaska's particulates criteria and the documented
effects of particulates on beneficial water us•• <Section 4.Q>;
the potential use of l)&rameters other than turbidity, suspended
and settle•ble solids, and the p•rcent•a• accumulation of fin••
in spawning
chana•• in
particulates
<Sect ion 6. 0).
grav•l• <Section ~.0)1 and to recommend necessary
Alaska'• criteria to assure that Alaska's
criteria are based on scientific information
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/8~ PAGE 4
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2.0 BACKGROUND
This chapter summarizes pertinent background information
regarding measurement techniques for particulates, natural water
quality, and aquatic ecology. Quantitative data obtained during
a comprehensive
regarding the effects of particulates on various water uses are
detail in Section 4.2, Demonstrated Effects of in
Literature reviewed appears in Appendices A, e, c, and D,
which are organized as follows•
Appendix A1
Appendix B1
Appendix· C1
Appendix D1
Annotated Bibliographies--Fresh Water
General Literature--Fresh Water
Annotated B~bliographies~-Marine
General Literature--Marine
References listed in Appendices B and D addressed the subJect of
this study but were not considered to provide pertinent
information due to the ganeral nature of the data or
availability of more detailed coverage in other references.
2.1 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Particulate levels in water are measured by numerous direct
and indirect techniques, summarized below. A more detailed
discussion of the techniques for measuring turbidity, suspended
solids, and settleable solids appears in Section ~.o.
Direct measurements of particulatas include parameters such
as total suspended solids, settleable solids, and the amount of
fine sediments
techniques for
the literature.
on streambeds and lake bottoms. Four different
measuring total suspendad solids are reported in
Tha most widely accepted technique involves
filtering, drying, and weighing. Centrifugation has bean used
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/8~ PAGE ~
to concentrate samples
there are disadvantages
followed by drying
to this teehni~u•.
and weighing, but
On• disadvantage
occurs with fine-grained material having organic matter
asaoeiat•d with it sine• soma organic matter can have a d•nsity
similar to wat•r, th•raby making it v•ry difficult to s•parata
<Gibbs 1974). Centrifugation also has limitations for dilut•
water having 1••• than about 10 m;/L suspand•d solids <Campb•ll
and Elliott 197~). Radioactive absorption has also bean used
baeaus• the absorption of radiation is proportional to the mass
present and th•r•for• a direct maasur•mant of the concentration
of susp•ndad s•dimant <Gibbs 1974>. Fischer and Karabashev
(1977> r•port that suspand•d organic matter can b• d•tarmin•d in
the marina •nvironm•nt by direct counting of particles under a
microscope. How•var, this taehniqu• is tim• consuming.
S•tt laab·la sol ids ar• directly m•asur•d by ••curing a 1
lit•r sampl• an~ allowing 1 hour of settling bafor• r•ading the
volum• of sattl•d material.
The volume· of fin•• in bedload samples ar• d•tarminad by
obtaining a sample using a b•dload sampler, such as a corer or a
dredge. Th• sample is th•n subJact•d to a grain size analysis.
Like oth•r sampling t•chniquas, diffar•nt b•dload samplers nave
advantages and disadvantag•s wh•n sampling diff•r•nt sized bad
material.
Indir•et m•asur.m•nts of particulates are related to light
pan•tration and ar• ••••ntially an indication of the
eone•ntration of partieulat•s• These m•asuram•nts include
turbidity and transmissivity, or its inverse, light aMtinction.
Parameters ealculat•d from light transmission measurements
inelud• compensation point <th• depth at which 1 p•rc•nt of
available surface light is found in tn• water>, light aMtinction
coefficient, pare•nt incident photosynthetically active
radiation <PRR>, and wave length analysis.
REVIEW DR~FT 9/09/8~ P~GE 6
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Indirect measurements quantify optical absorption and/or
lignt scattering. Nephelometric turbidity measures the SO
degree scattering of light by suspended particles, whereas the
beam transmittance meter measures the attenuatio~~of lignt by
scattering
irradiance
turbidity
1 974) I
and absorption.
meter whose
The Secchi disk is a simple kind of
and light eKtinction coefficients
correlated with
<McCarthy et al.
An alternative method for directly counting suspended
organic matter in the marine environment was employed by Fischer
and Karabashev <1977>. The volume concentration of particulate
matter of different size was measured using a conductometric
particle counter or Coulter count•~ and the abundance of
particles was measured by a nephelometer. A fl uorimet.ric
det•rmination of pigments <by luminescence> in phytoplankt~n
cells was then used to determine the amount of organic matter.
Z.2 WATER QUALITY
including
streams.
wet lands,
Although
ponds, lakes, rivers, and intermittent
all are interrelated, each type of aquatic
has unique
description
characteristics. This section provides a
of the particulate levels common to these
Lakes
'They may
nutrients,
are lentic, or
have inlet
but the level
non-flowing,
streams which contribute water and
of the lake remains essentially the
11ame and there are generally no permanent currents witnin the
water body. Lakes can be miles in length and hundreds of feet
in depth with numerous tributaries or they can be small tundra
ponds an acre or less in size. Alaska Mas a diversity of lake
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS PAGE 7
typas encompassing larga, clear water systems like Lake Iliamna,
silty lakas such as Tustumana Lake, and small, tea-colored melt
ponds characteristic of tha North Slopa. Glacier-fad lakes are
oftan naturally turbid.
Lakas genarally contain distinct habitats. The littoral
habitat, found along laka margins, is a relativaly warm habitat
whara light panatratas to tha bottom and whare rooted a~uatic
plants ;row. Many shallow lakes (ponds) can ba described as
littoral avan at thair daepest point. Vary daap lakas hava a
profundal zona where it is too dark to allow green plants,
including al;aa, to grow. The open watar araa above the
profundal is known as tha limnatic zona.
Sunlight and wind act upon lakas in ways which s.oma~imatl
rasult in tamparatura stratification. In ~••P lakas in ~he
tha uppar lay~r• raceiving tha most sun ara tha warmast,
thosa naHt to tha profundal zona ara tha coldast. Winds
can cau11a miMing currants, and tamparatura changas in tha spring
and fall can causa a lake to mix complataly or "turn ovar."
Whan a laka turns ovar, tha cold, oMygan-poor watar layar comas
to tha surfaca whila tha uppar layar is forcad to tha bottom.
Mixing currants can also bring bottom sadimants up causing a
normally claar laka to bacoma tamporarily turbid. In addition,
turbidity can ba introducad to a laka via its tributarietl.
Claar watar lakaa saldom aMcaad 1 to 2 mg/L total suspandad
solids and turbidity is typically 1••• than 1 to 2 NTU.
Sattlaabla solids ara commonly unmaasurabla and raraly aMcaad
0. 1 ml /L..
Rivars
Watar flow
with dapth,
and straams ara lotic, or flowing watar, systams.
is continuous and in ona diraction, valocity changes
and watar dapth and straam widths fluctuate with
pracipitation, runoff, and arosion. Thara is continual miMing
within tha watar column with parsistant or occasional turbidity,
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/S~ PAGE S
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and the
considel"'ed
stl"'eambed is l"'elativaly unstable. Stl"'eams al"'e
"open systems" with l"'espact to their interaction with
and intal"'dependence on the tel"'restl"'ial envil"'onment.
In lakes, matel"'ial bl"'ought in by tributaries Ol"' contl"'ibuted
by I"'Unoff usually is deposited on the lake bottom and l"'emains in
the system. In stl"'eams, matal"'ial is cal"'l"'iad downstl"'eam with
heaviel"' pal"'ticles settling out fail"'ly soon and lightel"' matal"'ial
l"'emaining in suspension longel"'. Low density matel"'ial may not
settle at all and may be cal"'l"'ied into lakes ol"' estu&l"'ies. This
is the case with glacial stl"'a&ms such as the Susitna River
whel"'e glacial silt is C&l"'l"'ied into Cook Inlet. Pal"'ticulates
cal"'l"'ied in the watel"' column &l"'e l"'efel"'l"'ed to as wash load,
whel"'eas those moving along a stl"'eambed al"'e bedload. The
pal"'ticles that bounce along the bed make up the saltation load.
Alaska has a wide variety of l"'ivel"'s and streams, most of
which al"'e impol"'tant to water-dependent life. Stl"'eam types l"'ange
fl"'om short, steep, cleal"'water systems in southeast Alaska to
small, slow-moving tannic tundl"'a streams, to enol"'mous systems
like the Yukon and Kuskokwim rival"'s. Stl"'eams can also be
classified as cleal"', colol"'ed, and glacial. Colol"'ed ol"' bl"'own
watel"' stl"'eams dl"'ain boggy al"'eas and have l"'elatively high colol"'
values due to organic leachates.
Life fol"'ms in streams must either drift with the cul"'rent or
possess some mechanism to remain stationary within the channel.
Cleal"' streams usually are not deep enough to have a profundal
zone; the whole stl"'eam is within the euphotic zone whel"'e light
l"'eaches all depths.
Undisturbed l"'eaches of clear and colol"'ed streams typically
exhibit low concentl"'ations of solids. Total suspended solids
concentl"'ations al"'e usually less than :5 mg/L but may incl"'eas• to
about 100 mg/L dul"'ing spring bl"'eakup and summel"' floods.
Howevel"', higher l•vels of sediment do occur in some systems
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS PAGE 9
during floods. Turbidity is generally less than 5 to 10 NTU,
but may be 25 to 50 NTU during periods of high water.
Settleable solids levels rarely exceed o. 1 ml/L. Glacial
stre_ams carry large suspended sediment loads during-summer, but
normally become clear water streams during winter. During
summer, glacial streams and lakes may exceed 1000 mg/L total
suspended solids and turbidity typically ranges between 50 and
1000 NTU.
Wetlands are a common and important type of a~:~uatic habitat
in Alaska. Many lakes are surrounded by both tundra bogs and
marshes with emergent a~:~uatic plants. These peripheral wetlands
furnish energy to the lake system in the form of insects,
plankton, and plant material. The same is true for many rivers.
Streams often receive much of their water from surrounding
wetlands. Wetlands also supply nutrients and furnish rearing
areas for fish such as coho salmon and grayling. Nearly all
wetlands in Alaska can be classified as clear water systems.
Hence, they seldom exceed 1 to 2 m;/L total suspended solids and
turbidity is typically less than 1 to 2 NTU.
2.2.2 Marine
Measurements of turbidity and/or suspended sediment load
within the marine waters of Alaska are highly variable and
dependent on several factors such as season, proximity to
sediment sources <mainly rivers>, distance from shore, current
structure, depth, temperature, and salinity. Particulates data
summarized herein are based on Burbank <1974) and Sharma <1979)
except as otherwise noted.
Within Boca de Quadra and Smeaton Bay in southeast Alaska,
the suspended sediment load is relatively low. The mean water
column concentration in the central basins is less than 0.5 mg/L
and less than 1.0 mg/L in the inner basins <Burrell 1984).
Conversely, Taku Inlet, also in southeast Alaska, Mas
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE 10
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e)(traordinarily
the Taku Riv•r
load at the
high suspended sediment levels from discharge of
and subglacial streams. The suspended sediment
head of the inl•t e)(ceeds 10,000 mg/L in
near-surface waters during summer months.
Concentrations of suspand•d sediment in continental shelf
surface waters off Icy Bay in the northeast Gulf of Alaska
generally decrease seaward Ci.a., 1.3 mg/L nearshore and 0.1
mg/L at 6~ km from snore in March>. The particulate
concentration is relatively constant with depth from the surface
to within about 10 m above tna bottom, and from snore to 30 km
offshore at the 100 m depth. A steady increase in suspended
solids levels within 10 m of the bottom suggests the presence of
a naphloid or turbid layer along the bottom.
In the northern Gulf· of Alaska during heavy runoff, t~a
glacial streams typically carry 1000 to 2000 mg/L of suspended
solids. Peak discharge in the Copper River in summer carries
appro)(imataly 1700 mg/L of suspended material at the delta.
Offshore from the Copper River during low discharge and minimal
glacial malt, surface values as high as 30 mg/L are present.
Coarse sediments rapidly settle out within the first few
kilometers, depending on the anergy of the environment. At
distances greater than 10 km offshore, surface suspended solids
levels of 2 to 10 mg/L are typical. The lowast concentrations
indicated by ERTS imagery in waters greater than ~0 km offshore
generally range from 1 to 3 mg/L.
Suspended sediment concentrations in Cook Inlet vary from
2000 mg/L near Anchorage to 1.0 mg/L near the east side of the
Inlet mouth. The Matanuska River, ona of several sediment
sources in the Inlet, has suspended sediment levels that
appro)(imata 3800 mg/L. The suspended load is mostly of glacial
ori§lin and ma)(imum values occur at depths of appro)(imataly 10 m
near the Inlet head. Concentrations increase with depth south
of the' Forelands, and concentrations in the lower Inlet
generally vary between 1 and 100 mg/L.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/Be PAGE 11
In the western Gulf of Alaska from Resurrection Bay thro~gh
Shelikof Strait to Unimak Pass, surface suspended solids vary
from O.S to 2.0 mg/L in July and August. Values are generally
higher to the east near the Kenai Peninsula and Shel1kof Strait.
On the shelf east, south, and southeast of Kodiak Island, there
is an app.arent absence of any input of suspended sediment.
In the Bristol Bay region of the southeastern Bering Sea,
streams flowing from the Alaska Peninsula contribute as much as
500 to ~000 mg/L of suspended solids. The dominant sediment
sources are the Kvichak and Nushagak Rivers at the head of the
bay. The Kuskokwim and Yukon rivers to the north provide
sediment input appro~imating 4 and 100 million metric tons per
year, respectively, which e~uates to more than 90 percent of all
river sediment input into the eastern Bering Sea. Suspe_nded
sediment levels for surface waters off the Yukon River and ,in
Norton Sound are between 1 and 5 mg/L in July. Surface
concentrations generally average between 0.5 and 2.0 mg/L in the
northern Bering Sea. Concentrations increase with depth. The
near-bottom sediment level from near Cape Romanzof to Nome
ranges from 7.5 to greater than 20 mg/L, respectively.
Susper•ded
range from
solids levels in the Berin; Strait and vicinity
1.2 to 4.1 mg/L for surface waters. The level
with increasing water depth immediately south of the
As the water moves northward through the Strait, the
decreases
Strait.
distribution becomes almost uniform. North and northeast of the
Strait, surface and sub-surface levels increase fourfold to
nearly 10 mg/L. Surface water concentrations reach 5.3 mg/L
near Point Hope while at depth, only about 1 mg/L is in
suspension in July and August.
In the northern Chukchi Sea, the suspended load at the
surface is low <less than 1 mg/L) and increases with depth.
Nearshore loads in suspension are higher than offshore.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/65 PAGE 12
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Measurements during twc open-water seasons in the Beaufort
Sea demonstrate the inter-annual variability of suspended solids
levels. During 1972, inshore surface waters had concent~aticns
av&raging 1.0 mg/L with a range of 0.1 to 4.2 mg/Lf however, in
the following year, nearly a threefold increase was noted.
Levels ranged from 0.5 to 31.0 mg/L and the average was 2.6
mg/L. Except during floods, waters low in suspended matter
<about 1.0 mg/L) are commonly discharged in late summer from the
maJor distributary mouths, while the presence of relatively
turbid waters can be delineated at some distance from the
mouths. These observations suggest that in mid-and
late-summer, turbidity in coastal waters for the most part is
associated with wave-induced resuspension from shallow water
regions <U.S. Coast Guard 1972; 1974).
2.3 AQU~TIC ECOLOGY
In a bread sense, freshwater ecosystems are divided into two
cat,agories, lent ic or standing water systems, and let ic or
running water systems. ~ll rivers, lakes, and wetlands support
communities of aquatic organisms. ~s such, these communities
are interrelated and interdependent, forming networks of
distinctly different habitats with respect to flora and fauna,
as well as the source of ener;y which drives the biological
system. Freshwater aquatic communities derive carbon energy
from terrestrial sources <allochthonous organic matter> or
through instream <autochthonus) productivity or a combination of
these sources. If one part of the community is disrupted,
rev•rberations may be experienced throughout th• entire system.
Aqu•tic systems have been subdivid•d into subordinate
communities and are discussed in this section.
stroam substrates.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS P~GE 13
of suitabl• substrat• mat•rials for attachm•nt, n•t building,
conc•alm•nt, mov•m•nt, and burrowing. Str•am b•ntnos diff•rs
from that found in quiesc•nt waters in th• r•sp•ct that str•am
organisms poss•ss a vari•ty of adaptations for-withstanding
stream curr•nts.
Th• b•nthic str•am community is •Ktr•m•ly important to th•
h•alth of th• •ntir• syst•m· Many of th•s• organisms provide
food for oth•r populations within th• aquatic community in th•
form of inv•rt•brat• drift. Fish, in particular, ar• d•p•nd•nt
on insect larva• and adult ins•cts which originat• in the
benthic community.
Plankton ar• drifting organisms and can b• •ith•r plants or
animals (phytoplankton and zooplankton). Som• plankt•rs may
actually hav• f••bl• pow•rs of locomotion and .in lak•s m•y mill
around and mov• up and down in th• wat•r column in r•spons• to
light int•nsity. In str•ams, th•y ar• usually subJ•ct to
transport by th• wat•r curr•nt.
Phytoplankton ar• compos•d primarily of alga• which •Kist
singly or as a coll•ction of on•-c•ll•d plants. In lak•s, alga•
activ•ly ;row only in th• •uphotic zon•· Zooplankt•r• f••d
•ith•r on oth•r sp•ci•s of zooplankton or on alga•· Plankton is
an •Ktr•m•ly important food SOQrc• for fish, •sp•eially JQV•nil•
fish. Physiological activiti•s o~ zooplankton d•p•nd on wat•r
t•mp•ratur•, light, and oMyg•n cont•nt.
Phytoplankton prodQction is important in many subarctic
lak•s and ponds, and ~rhaps in th• low•r r•aen•s o~ a f•w lar;•
riv•rs' production is a•n•rally low in arctic ponds and lak••·
P•riphyton <attacn•d alga•> ar• dominant in high-v•locity el•ar
water str•ams wh•r• light p•n•tration is suffici•nt for
photosynth•sis, and th•y can also b• important in slow moving or
standing s~allow wat•r. In c•rtain lotic habitats, the
evaluation of p•riphyton communiti•s provid•s an accurat• and
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/8~ PAGE 14
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reliable
aquatic
in the
quiescent
indicator of water quality. Macrophytes <rooted
plants) are often abundant in shallow lakes and ponds,
littoral zone of deep lakes, and along the edges of
rivers. Zooplankton diversity, biomass, and
production rates are low in arctic lakes and ponds but are often
significant in subarctic lakes.
Fish are the most highly studied component of the fresh-
water community. In Alaska, fish can be divided into resident
and anadromous species. Resid•nt fish liv• th•ir •ntire lives in
fr•sh water, often in th• same wat•r body. In many regions of
Alaska, resid•nt sp•cies such as Arctic grayling migrate
upstream during spring to spawn, th•n r•turn to deeper wat•r
downstream in th• fall to ov•rwinter. Anadromous fish spawn and
hatch in fr•sh water, liv• th• M&Jority of their adult liv•s in
saltwater and return to fr•sh wat•r, usually th_•ir natal strea_m,
to spawn. Th• fiv• sp•cies of Pacific salmon which inhabit
Ala:ska waters are the most obvious •xampl•• of anadromous fish.
Sev~ral anadromous salmon species utiliz• silt-lad•n glacial
rivers as migration corridors to r•ach clearwat•r tributary
spawning and rearing habitat.
Fish occupy a vari•ty of
Som11, lik• th• slimy sculpin
nich•s within aquatic systems.
liv• at th• bottom of lakes and
swi't~"t-flowing streams and fe•d primarily on ins•cts. Trout and
gra~fling may hide und•r instr•am cov•r sueh as debris or log
Jam•, or ov•rhanging streambanks, coming to th• sur~ace to f•ed
on zooplankton or insects whieh have fall•n into the wat•r or
which hav• dri~t•d down from upstream.
sight-f••ders.
Th•se fish are primarily
Di•t and habitat requirements of fish vary with species and
lifu stage. For •xampl•, adult salmon return from th• sea to
th•ir natal str•am to spawn often not feeding from th• tim• they
enter fresh water.
in the grav•l of
The fish construct redds <spawning nests>,
th• str•amb•d and deposit th•ir •;gs. Other
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/8~ PAGE 1~
fish such as Arctic grayling and lake trout are broadcast
spawners. The preferred size of the gravel in which the radds
are constructed varies with the species. Salmon favor clear
water streams but, in Alaska, often use turbid rivers as
migratory corridors. In soma cases, redds are dug in the turbid
streams, but the newly hatched fish move to clearer backwater
sloughs or tributaries to rear. This is the case with both the
Kenai and Susitne rivers.
Fish are often used as "tar;et 11 organisms in setting water
quality criteria. The criteria for acceptable water quality
standards are usually determined with bioassays, eith•r 1n ~1!Y
or !n ~!tc2 using the rel•vant wat•r and speci•s.
Aquatic systems are also important to waterfowl, furbearers,
and big game. Ducks, geese, and swans feed and nest near lak•s
and wetlands. Many species of waterfowl depend on emergent
aquatic vegetation for food. Mallards, Canada gees•, and brant
are eMamples of waterfowl which primarily consume plants.
Species such as mergansers feed on small fish and depend on
their ability to see their prey under water.
B•aver, mink, and riv•r ott•rs ar• among the Alaska
furb•arars that inhabit riparian areas. Beavers construct
lodges in str•am courses and wetlands and feed on v•;•tation
along stream banks. Otters live along str•am banks and fa•d on
fish within streams. They ar• highly dependant on their ability
to sea their prey.
Moose
vegetation
use lowland areas in the summer and feed on emergent
in wetlands and along lak• and stream margins. Both
black and brown/grizzly bears consum• salmon which move into
Alaska rivers to spawn in th• summ•r and late fall.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS PAGE 16
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a.=~. a Marine
Variations in co&st&l topography, geology, climate, surface
hydrology, and physical oceanographic factors i~fluance the
di9tribution and abund&nce of marine organisms along Alaska's
33,000 miles of tidal shoreline. The coastal ecosystem has been
intensively studied in si~ geographical re~ions in Alaska
inc~ludingl <1> Arctic Alask&' <2> the Bering Sea coastJ (J)
)
Kodiak Island, the Alaska Peninsula, and the Aleutian Islands;
<4> Cook Inlet' (3) the northern Gulf of' Alaska; and, <5>
southeastern Alaska. Characteristic ecosystems that have not
been thoroughly studied by marine scientists have been described
through information derived f'rom similar habitats in other
regions.
The lower trophic level organisms in marine and estuar1ne
waters of' Alaska are comprised of' two groups; the producers and
cor11sumers. The primary producers are the phytoplankton,
macrophytes, ice algae, and benthic microalgae. Lower level
consumers include the zooplankton, ichthyoplankton, and
intertidal
pro1d uct i vi t y
throughout
and sub-tidal invertebrates. The degree of
and diversity among these organisms varies
Alaska's coastal waters. Important resource
organisms such
whales depend
as king cra?, herrin;, halibut, salmon, and
either directly or indirectly on the lower level
producers and consumers f'or their survival.
Phytoplankton undergo seasonal net increases and decreases
in productivity, coincidental to ever changing levels of'
sunlight, nutrients, ;razing pressure, wind mi~in;, and depth of'
light penetration. The maJor phytoplankton groups are the
diatoms, dinoflagellates, and naked flagellates. These
microscopic plants collectively represent the energy base f'or
many higher f'orms of marine lif'e such as f'ish, shellfish,
marine birds, and marine mammals. Benthic microalgae are
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/Se PAGE 17
restricted to portions of the subtidal zone that receive
sufficient light for photosynthesis.
S•aw••d• and
rocky shores of
ar••• of Alaska.
••• ;rass•s <macrophyt•s> are common along th•
th• int•rtidal zon• and in shallow subtidal
S•aw••d• ar• primitiv• sp•ci•• that lack root
syst•ms and
E•l;rass is
in ••dim•nt
Alaska coast.
d•riv• th•ir nutri•nts •Hclusiv•ly from th• water.
a common and important marine macrophyt• that roots
in prot•cted bays, inl•ts, and lagoons along the
E•lgrass communiti•s ar• oft•n highly productive
and s•rv• as a maJor food sourc• for wat•rfowl and as a nursery
and f••ding ar•a for many marine vert•brates and inv•rt•brat••·
Zooplankton
acosyst•m and ••rv• as a lar;• pot•ntial •n•r;y pool .fo~ ~ish
and whal••· Zooplankton ar• distribut•d in-all Alaska wat•r•
with productivity b•ing gr•at•st in spring and •arly summ•r·
T•mp•ratur• and salinity hav• a maJOr · influ•nc• on the
distribution of zooplankton' som• pr•f•r ••tuarin• watars,
wh•reas oth•rs pr•f•r tha op•n wat•r environm•nt. Physical
factors such as light l•v•l• and ••• ic• aff•ct th•ir v•rtical
distribution and productivity rat••· Virtually all of Alaska's
comm•rcially-important sn•llfish hav• a zooplanktonic larval
stag• in th•ir lif• history and sp•nd up to thr•• months in th•
n•ar-surfac• lay•r• f••ding int•nsiv•ly on phytoplankton b•for•
s•ttling on th• bottom to matur•.
Th• b•nthos is compos•d of bottom dwelling or attachad
inv•rt•brat•• found in th• int•rtidal and subtidal zon• of the
oc•an. This important group may b• divid•d into organisms
living on th• substrat• surfac• (epifauna>, and thos• living in
the substrat• <infauna). Th• distribution and richn••• of the
subtidal b•nthos within a region is det•rmin•d by a numb•r of
factors including ••dim•nt typ•, t•mp•ratur•, salinity,
pressure, availabl• food, sp•ci•• comp•tition for space, and
larval settling succ•ss. Factors influ•ncing the distribution
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/S~ PAGE 18
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-
-
-
-
-
-
of intertidal invertebrates are substrate availability,
competition, and ability to withstand surf and aHposura to air.
Food is
mechanisms.
supplied to bottom invertebrates through several
A continuous flux of organic material tb the bottom
is provided by dead phytoplankton and zooplankton and the
remains of higher organisms. A second important source of
energy is provided by detritus entering the system through river
runoff and ocean currents.
An obvious trend among the benthos in Alaska is that
communities on the continental shelf are richer than those
This is probably due to the higher
primary productivity of nearshore waters as compared to offshore
waters, as well as the high detritus input from river systems.
They represent a maJor source of food for
shorebirds and waterfowl, as well as a variety of fish and
marine mammals. Due to their relatively stationary nature,
int•rtidal and subtidal species are one of the most susceptible
of organisms to damage from water-borne sediments.
Con1sequent ly, benthic organisms are useful indicators of changes
2.4 REFERENCES
Burbank., D.C., 1'974. Suspended sediment transport and deposi-
tion in ~laskan ~oastal waters with spe~ial emphasis on
remote sensing by the ERTS-1 satellite. M.S. Thesis, Univ.
of ~laska, Fairbanks, Alaska. 222 pp.
Burrell, D.C., 1984. Seasonal turbidity patterns in in Boca de
Quadra and Smeaton Bay. Interim Report Prepared for U.S.
Borax and Chemi~al Corp. ,and Pa~ifi~ Coast Molybdenum Co.
~4 pp.
Campbell, P., and s. Elliott, 1'975. Assessment of centrifuga-
tion and filtration as methods for determining low
conc•ntrations of suspended sediment in natural waters.
Fisheries and Marine Service Research and Development
Directorate Technical Report No. ~4~, Department of the
Environment, Winnipeg, Manitoba. 19 pp.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/S~ PAGE 19
Fischer, ~.K., and G.S. Karabashev, 1977. ~comparison of the
size distribution of suspended particles and their optical
properties. Pol. ~rcMs. Hydrobiol., 24 <suppl. >, pp. 109-
113.
Gibbs, R.J., 1974. Principles of studying suspended materials
in water. In: Suspended Solids in Water. Plenum Press,
New York, NY, pp. 3-15.
McCarthy, J.C., T.E. Pyle, and S.M. Griffin, 1974. Light trans-
missivity, suspended sediments and the legal definition of
turbidity. Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science, 2, pp.
291-299.
Sharma, G.D., 1979. The ~laskan shelf; hydrographic,
sedimentary and geochemical environment. Springer-Verlag,
New York, NY. 498 PP•
u.s. Coast Guard, 197e. ~n ecological survey in the eastern
Ct'lukchi Sea: September-October 1970. WEBSEC-70,
Oceanographic Report No. ~0 <CG 373-~0). 206 pp.
u.s. Coast Guard, 1974. An ecological survey in the Beaufort
Seaa Au;·u~t-September; 1971-1972. WEBSEC 71-72,
Oceanographic Report No. 64 <CG 373-64). 268 pp.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS PAGE 20
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3.0 PARTICULATE CRITERIA
Existing particulates criteria for each state in the United
States and for Canadian provinces are summarized in~Sections 3. 1
and 3.3, respectively. Information regarding the establishment
of water quality parameters and criteria for particulates by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency <EPA> is also summarized
and appears in Section 3.2.
Telephone contacts to personnel in each state were made to
determine particulates criteria currently used in regulations
and guidelines by other states and in Canadian provinces and
territories. During the initial telephone contact, each
individual interviewed was apprised of the purpose of this study
and questioned concerning his/her agency's water quality
criteria for instream levels of particulates, specifically . . ·.
turbidity, su~pended solids, and settleable solids. Inquiries
war·• also made concerning recent or proposed changes to
regulations, protected uses of water bodies, availability of
se~arata standards for marine waters (where appropriate>, and
the basis for any quantitative standards or limitations
identified in pertinent regulations. Where particulate
standards existed, the interviewee was also questioned as to
recognized problems associated with compliance, field sampling,
or enforcement of the standards. A copy of pertinent
regulations was request•d for r•view from each agency.
3. 1 STATES
Based on
and the water
i dent i f i ed in
information received durin; telephone interviews
quality standards and beneficial water uses
individual state regulations, a summary of the
water uses and associated criteria for turbidity was
~0 states and District of Columbia <Table compiled
3-1).
to the
for
To the •~tent possible, water use categories are ~imilar
Alaska criteria for ease of comparison. Where
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/S~ PAGE 21
~
Alabama
(Feb 81)
A 1 ask a
(Apr 84)
Arizona
(Feb 8S)
Arkansas
v 84)
California
(Nov 83)
TABLE 3-1
TURBIDITY CRITERIA FOR UNITED STATES AND CANADA
Designated Water Use<1 l
A, B, D, E, C, M
A
B
c
D
E
F
c
H
J
K
L
H
N
E, F
c
A, s, o-c
A-C
Turbidity Criteria
NTE (2 ) 50 NTU above ambient
NTE 5 NTU above ambient wnen the~atural turbidity
is SO NTU or less; limit of 10% increase when
natural exceeds 50 NTU; maximum increase of 25 NTU
narrative
NTE 2S NTU above ambient for streams; NTE S NTU for
lakes
narrative
NTE 5 NTU above ambient when natural turbidity is
SO NTU or less; limit of 10% increase when ambient
exceeds SO NTU, NTE 1S NTU increase; NTE S NTU over
ambient for lakes
NTE 10 NTU above ambient when natural turbidity is
SO NTU or less; limit of 20\ increase when ambient
exceeds SO NTU, NTE SO NTU increase; NTE S NTU over
ambient for lakes
NTE 2S NTU above ambient; NTE 5 NTU over ambient
for lakes
NTE 2S NTU
narrative
narrative
NTE 25 NTU
NTE 25 NTU
compensation depth reduction limit of 10\; Secchi
disk depth reduction limit of 10'
same as M
NTE SO NTU in streams; NTE 25 NTU in lakes
NTE 10 NTU for cold water fishery in streams and
lakes
special standards for "unique" 111aters as low as 3
· NTU change 1 imit
***basin specific standards or uae clasaification
NTE 10 NTU for trout or coolwater streams
***basin specific standards or use classification
turbidity standards by basin Example: NTE 20\
increase where a.Ofent is less than 50 JTU; NTE 10
JTU increase where ambient fa between 50-100 JTU;
NTE 10\ increase where ambient exceeds 100 JTU
J-M narrative
***basin specific standards or uae classification
Canada (Provincess Territories, and Federal Government)
(Feb 85)
Federal
Government
International
Joint Ccnn.
(Creat Lakes)
Alberta
British Columbia
Manitoba
E, F
c
Unknown
Unknown
A
c
NTE SO JTU • NTE 10\~rease in Secchi disk depth
NTE 25 JTU over ambient (objective only)
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as applicable
5 NTU (draft regulation)
NTE 10 JTU for cold water fisheries; NTE 2S JTU for
111arm water fisheries; narrative proposed as
replacement for numeric criteria in draft revisions
~
-
-
-
-
State
Manitt)ba
Newfoundland
Northnest
Te1·ri tori es
Nova Scotia
Ontario
Pri nee~ Edward
Island
Quebec:
Saskat:chewan
Yukon
"""' _/Colorado 7 ' (Jan 84)
/
Connecticut
(Sep 80)
Delaware
(Jul 83)
District of Columbia
(Mar 84)
Florida
(Feb 8.3)
Georgia
(Oct 81))
Hawa;;
(Oct SA•)
Idaho
(Oct 8:1)
Ill i noh
(Apr 8~f)
Designated Water Use<1 l
E, F
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
c
Unknown
A
E, F
Unknown
Unknown
A
A, E
B, O, F, C
H-N
A-C
H·N
B
A-C
A
C (special case)
A-C, K·N
A, B, E-C
A, e. o-G
NTE10 "turbidity units" for cold water fisheries;
NTE 25 "turbidity units" for warm water fisheries;
draft revision proposes change to 50 JTU for both
uses
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as applicable
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as applicable
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as appHcable
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as applicable
NTE 10\ increase in Secchi disk reading above
ambient
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as applicable
NTE S "turbidity units" (guideline only)
NTE 10\ increase in nonfilterable residue or less
than 3 mg/1 absolute (draft regulation)
NTE 25 "turbidity units" over ambient (objective
only)
guidelines of other agencies are used and amended
as applicable
NTE 1.0 turbidity unit
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 10 JTU above ambient
NTE 10 JTU above ambient or more than 25 JTU total
narr; Secchi disk transparency mid-summer from 0-6
ineters depth
***basin specific standards for lakes
NTE 10 NTU above ambient or 25 NTU total
NTE 150 NTU in tidal areas of stream basins
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 20 NTU above ambient
narrative
NTE 29 NTU above ambient; depth of compensation
point not reduced more than 10\ from ambient
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative
NTE 1 turbidity unit
streams designated as wild or scenic shall have no
alteration of ambient water quality
***basin specific standards or use classification
strea.s: 2-15 NTU, NTE 25 NTU
estuaries: 1.5-3.0 NTU, NTE 5.0 NTU
embayments: O.lt-3.0 NTU, NTE 5.0 NTU
oceanic waters: 0.03·0.10 NTU, NTE 0.20 NTU
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative; also stream water quality requirements
for point source discharges outside the mixing
zone: NTE S NTU above ambient when background is SO
NTU or less; NTE 10\ increase when background is
more than SO NTU, up t~ a maximum increase of 25
NTU
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
•3
State
Indiana
(Mar 84)
Iowa
(Dec 83)
Kansas
(Sep 83}
Kentucky
(Mar 83)
Louisiana
(Oct 84)
Maine
(Sept 79)
Maryland
(no date)
Massachusetts
(no date}
Michigan
(Jun 84}
1 Mipryesota V lFeb 81)
Mississippi
(Jan 85)
Missouri
Montana
(Mar 82)
Nebraska
(Feb 83)
Nevada
(Nov 84)
New Hampshire
(May 84)
New Jersey
(Oct 84)
Designated Water Use<1 l
A, B, 0-G
A, a, o-c
A, E-C
A, B, E-C
A, o-c
H, J•N
E-C
A, E-H, L·N .
A
E, C
F, C
A, E-C
Unknown
A
a, o-c
A, e, o-c
A, a, o-c
A
o-c
E·C
K·N (estuarine)
K-N (marine)
Turbidity Criteria
identified spawning, rearing, or imprinting areas
for salmonids NTE 10 JTU total; identified salmonid
migration routes NTE 2S JTU total
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 2S NTU above ambient from any point source
discharge
***basin specific standards or u~. classification
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
freshwater lakes, reservoirs, and oxbows which are
not naturally turbid and designated scenic streams
and outstanding resource waters NTE 2S NTU total;
other waters NTE 10\ increase above ambient
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative; "great ponds" NLT 2 meters Secchi disk
transparency or as naturally occurs
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 150 NTU at any time or 50 NTU as a monthly
average
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative; for ·public water supplies, no tnerease-·
above ambient
narrative
use classification
or use
narrative; NTE 50 NTU above ambient in proposed
amendments
***drainage specific standards or use
classification
narrative
NTE ambient conditions
NTE 5·10 NTU above ambient
***drafnage specfffc standards or use
claaafficatfon
NTE 10\ increase above ambient
***drainage specific standards or use
classification
none as general criteria; stream/reach specific
criteria NTE 10·50 NTU, based on location
***drainage specific standards or use
classification
NTE 5 "turbidity units"
NTE 10 "turbidity units" in cold water fisheries
nor 25 "turbidity units" in warm water fisheries
NTE 15 NTU for 30-day average;
NTE SO NTU max. at any time
NTE 10 NTU for 30-day average;
NTE 30 NTU max. at any tfme
NTE 10 NTU
***basin specific standards or use classification
.14
-
,J!;.
-
New Mexico
(Feb 8.5)
New York
(Sep 7'+)
North Car<:) I ina
(Jan s;s)
North Dakt)ta
(Apr 8~5)
Ohio
Oklahoma
( 1982)
Oregon
(Aug 8lf)
Pennsyl varli a
(Feb 8~1)
Rhode r s 1 alnd
(Dec 811·)
South Carc1l ina
(Feb 851)
South Dakota
(Aug 84)
Tennessee
(no date)
Texas
Utah
(Oct 78)
Vermont
(Jan 85)
Designated Water Use(1 )
E-C
A, E-C
I, K-N
A, E-C
K-M
A, B1 E-C
Unknown
A, a, o-c
E-C
Unknown
A
B, E, C
D, F, C
J-M
A
c
E
B, D, F
K, H (high quality)
A, s. o-c
A, B, o-c
A, B, D-G
J-M
A
B
D
E-C
C(non-game)
A
B, E, C
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative
narrative
NTE SO NTU in streams other than trout waters;
NTE 10 NTU in streams, lakes, or--l"eservoirs
designated as trout waters
NTE 25 NTU; if ambient exceeds this level, no
increase is allowed
narrative
narrative
NTE 50 NTU in warm water streams;
NTE 25 NTU in warm water lakes;
NTE 10 NTU in cold water streams.
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 10\ increase over ambient
***basin specific standards or use classification
effluent standards only; do not attempt to control
in-stream water quality
***basin specific criteria for Delaware River
Cccllnfuion
NTE S JTU; none of other than natural origin
NTE 10 JTU
NTE 1S JTU
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification
natural conditions maintained
NTE 10\ above ambient
none
none
natural conditions maintained
***basin specific standards or use classification
narrative
***basin specific standards or use classification;
also seasonal criteria
narrative
narrative
narrative
none; case by case determination
none; case by case determination
none
NTE 10 NTU above ambient for natural conditions
leu than 100 NTU; NTE 1~ increase when ambient
conditions exceed 100 NTU
NTE 15 NTU above ambient with provisions for case
by case determination
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 10 NTU or ambient, whichever is lower
NTE 10 NTU for cold water fish habitat; NTE 25 NTU
for warm water fish habitat
***basin specific standards or use classification;
~rovision for seasonal criteria for fish habitats
State
Virginia
(Oct 84)
Designated Water Use{l)
A, E-G
Turbidity Criteria
narrative
Washington
(Jun 82)
West Virginia
( 1983)
Wisconsin
(Nov 79)
Wyoming
(Sep 83)
A, E, C, K, M, N
B, 0, C, J, L
A, B, o-c (lakes)
Unknown
A, s, o-c
A, s, o-c
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 5 NTU over ambient when background is 50 NTU or
less; NTE 10\ increase when background fs more than
50 NTU
NTE 10 NTU over ambient when background fs 50 NTU
or less; NTE 20\ increase when background is more
than 50 NTU.
NTE 5 NTU over ambient
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 10 NTU over ambient
nar::-atfve
***basin specific standards or use classification
NTE 10/15 NTU increase over ambient, depending on
water class
( 1 ) Designated Water Uses Comparable to Alaska Categories
Designated Water Uses:
A
B
c
0
E
F
G
Designated Water Uses:
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
Fresh Water
water Supply: drinking, culinary, food processing
water Supply: agriculture, irrigation, stock watering
-Water Supply:
Water Supply:
aquaculture
industrial
Water Recreation: contact
Water Recreation: secondary
Growth and Propagation of Fish, Shellfish, and Wildlife
Marine Water
Water Supply:
Water Supply:
Water Supply:
aquaculture
seafood processing
industrial
Water Recreation: contact
Water Recreation: secondary
Growth and Propagation of Fish, Shellfish, and Wildlife
Harvesting for Consumption of Raw Mollusks or Other Raw Aquatics
(2) NTE • Not to EXceed
NLT • Not Less Than
("'
'
ap~~r~opriate,
pre!santed.
turbidity ~riteria for marine waters are also
Although many states identify beneficial or prdtected water
uses similar to those in the Alaska ~riteria, it is apparent
that water quality ~oncerns associated with parti~ulates are
approached diffRrently by other state agencies. As a result of
interviews and review of individual state standards, it was
evident that turbidity and sediment ~oncerns differ among
agencies because of:
<1> The presence of naturally turbid systems ~arrying high
sediment loads;
<2> Difficulties of addressing seasonal fluctuations in
particulate concentrations;
<3> AQuatic flora and fauna adapted to warm water systerns
versus ~old water ecosystems,
(4) Philosophical approach to turbidity control <instream
water quality standards versus control of point sour~•
effluents) 1
<3) Lack of specific studies which document the threshold
for adv•rse impacts to aQuatic resources or water uses;
and,
<6> Lack of basin-specific information on the natural
occurrence of particulate loads.
None
provide
of the
specific
watar rasource agencies contactad were able to
information to document tha background
information for sattin; Quantitativa criteria in their watar
qua.L ity ra;ulat ions. In general, most respondents were unaware
of thair state's basis for turbidity, suspended solids, or
sattleabla solids criteria •~cept in raferanc• to Hgenarally
acc11tpt•d" standards or tha 11 Red Book" <EPA 1975). West Virginia
~urrantly has studias in progress on trout streams and heavily
industrialized waterways that will attempt to correlate
particulate standards with identifiable impacts to biota. Idaho
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/Se PAGE 27
is
is
currently
attempting
involved ~itn a "serious inJury 11 task force ~hic:h
to define thresholds of impact and acceptable
levels of inJury to stream systems and biota.
Personnel in sev•ral states acknowledged that the
implementation of turbidity criteria was not aggressively
pursued b•caus• th•ir standards do not address natural or
seasonal turbidity and/or th• diff•r•nc•• b•tw••n co!d and warm
~ater aquatic systems.
the standards wer• unr•asonably low or did not have a scientific:
basis. Other a;enci•s focus their c:onc•rns on affluent
standards for point sourc• discharg•• and b•st management
practices from non-point sourc• dischar;•s, •s••ntially avoiding
r•;ulation of instr•am wat•r quality.
Approximat•ly . 30 p•rc•nt of th•
gen•ral narrativ• crit•ria d•fining
stat•• · <17) only
turbidity limits.
narrativ• crit•ria ran;• from ;•n•ral "antid•;radation 11 stat•-
ments to broad guid•lin•s that prohibit turbidity l•vels which
would impact oth•r u•••· Th• r•maining 70 p•rc:•nt (33 stat••>
nave at l•ast some prot•cted wat•r us•s with quantitative
crit•ria for instr•am turbidity. V•ry f•w stat•• hav•
established quantitativ• turbidity crit•ria for all water uses.
Evaluation of 20 stat•• which nave quantitativ• turbidity
crit•ria and cold-water systems similar to Alaska r•v•al•d that
tn•ir turbidity standards for recr•ation and fish and wildlif•
propagation ar• num•rieally •qual to or, in most cas•s, mor•
string•nt than Alaska criteria for tn••• same us••· Th•
turbidity standards for lak•s are also comparable.
Of the 22 states with marine or estuarine waters along their
bord•rs, 14 hav• specific crit•ria for turbidity in marine or
tidal waters. Of thes• 14 states, seven employ quantitativ•
criteria.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/S~ P~GE 28-
-
-
-
A summary of states with narrative or quantitative criteria
for instream water quality pertaining to suspel"'ded al"'d settle-
able sol ids is presented il"' Table 3-2. None ot' the states have
qual"'titative criteria for settleable sol ids leveltlj Ol"'ly four
states other thal"' Alaska, Nevada, New Jersey, South Dakota, al"'d
West Virgil"'ia, currently have numeric standards for suspended
solids in the water column. Nevada employs specific limits for
some stream reaches. The eKisting or higher quality is to be
maintained where the natural suspended solids concentration is
eq~al to or less than 1~ mg/L. The limit for the protection of
all beneficial uses in the upper reaches of a watershed is 25
rng/IL. and eo mg/L in the lower reaches. New Jersey limits
suspended solids concentrations to 25 to 40 mg/L on specific
str•ams while South Dakota has a 30 m;/L maKimum limit for
coldwater fisheries. West Virginia employs a 30 mg/L maKi~um
suspended
remcaining
add1r-essin;
con!lider
sol ids
states,
these
suspended
concentration in receiving waters. Of -the
17 have
parameters.
general narrative statements
The balance of the states do not
or settleable solids in their general water
qua.l i ty criteria. Hawaii is the only state which has
est~blished standards for maKimum allowable depth of deposition
for settleable solids. Alaska is the only state with standards
addl~essing the accumulation of sediments as a maKimum percent by
wei~ht of spawning bed ;ravels.
Most states nave appr-oac:ned the problems of suspended and
set1~ leable sol ids by regulat in; the rnaM imt..Lm concentration
all(;:~wable in efflt..Lents discharged from point sot..Lrces. Control
of non-point sot..Lr-ces are generally addressed by best management
prac:tices or spacial conditions attached to proJect
at..Lttlor i zat ions.
3.2 U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
This section summarizes information used by EPA to establish
watetr qt..Lal i ty and criteria for particulates.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS PAGE 2Cl
State
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
TABLE 3-Z
SUSPENDED AND SETTLEABLE SOLIDS CRITERIA
FOR THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA
Suspended/Settleable Solids Criteria(1 )
none
narratives for most water uses
sprinkler irrigation: no particles 0.074 or coarser; NTE
200 mg/1 for an extended period; fish, shellfish, &
wildlife: \accumulation of sediment 0.1 mm to 4.0 mm in
the gravel bed of spawning waters NTE 5\ increase by
weight over natural conditions; in no case may sediments
in the 0.1 mm to 4.0 mm range exceed 30\ by weight in the
gravel of spawning beds
none
none
California narrative
Canada (Provinces, Territories, and Federal Government)
Federal Government narra.; regulations for effluents for some industrial
processing and mining (other than gold) are limits of ZS
mg/1 maximum monthly arithmetic mean
International Joint
Commission (Great Lakes)
Alberta
British Columbia
Manitoba
New Brunswick
Newfoundland
Northwest Territories
Nova Scotia
Ontario
Prince Edward Island
Quebec
Saskatchewan
Yukon
Colorado
Connecticut
Oelawa,.e
Oist,.ict of Columbia
Flor-ida
Ceo,.gia
Hawaii
na,.rative
NTE tO mg/1 over amQient (objective only)
·none
narrative (draft regulations)
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
NTE 10 mg/1 over ambient (objective only)
none; proposed effluent standardf 2 ~or stream classes
based on biological productivity
high biological importance -no suspended solids
effluent discharge
110derate biological i111p0rtance -NTE tOO mg/1
suspended solids in effluent
low biological importance -NTE tOOO mg/1 suspended
solids unless it is tributary to a higher class
str•• (then it must meet 100 mg/1 effluent
standard}
designated placer mining areas -NTE 1000 mg/1
suspended solids unless it fs tributary to a higher
class stre• (then ft must meet 100 1119/l effluent
standard)
narrative; also use effluent limitations and best
management practices
none
narrative; also use effluent limits
none
none
none
standards fo,. maximum depth of deposition
-
-
__ ..:S::.:t:;:a:.:t!._ Suspended/Settleable Solids Criteria(l)
Idaho
r llinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusl!tts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico,
New York
North carol ina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Vfrgi1,ia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
narrative
none
narrative for salmonid waters
none
narrative
narrative for aquatic life waters
narrative
narrative
effluent limits on suspended solids in treated sewage
none
narrative
narrative; also effluent standard of 30 mg/1 for treated
sewage
none
none
none
narrative
narrative; specific mg/1 limits for some stream reaches
none
narrative and 25-~0 mg/1 limits on specific streams
none
narrative
narrative
none
narrative
narrative
narrative
narrative
narrative
narrative
narrative and 30 mg/1 limit for coldwater fisheries
narrative
narrative
narrative
narrative
narrative
none
30 mg/1 maximum
narrative; also effluent limit of 30 mg/1
narrative; also effluent limit of 30 mg/1
{, l
{2)
NTE • Not to Exceed
Sourcn: Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 1983. A rationale for standards relating to
discharge of sediments into Yukon streams for placer mines. Environment Canada, New
Westminster, British Columbia. 24 pp.
31
According to Keup <1983>, thare are eight reports of primary
interest to this
Book" <EPA 1976>,
subJect: the "Blue Book" CNAS 1973), "Red
"Green Book 11 <Sorensen at al. 197_7>, three EPA
funded proJects completed in 1978 and 1S7S <Iwamoto at al. 1976;
Farnworth et al. 1979' Muncy et al. 1979>, and two current
reports by Camp, Dresser & McKee CGaor;e and Lehnig 1964;
Clarkson at al. 198~).
The Blue Book, or ~•1•~--QY•!11~--~~11•~1~-l~Zs, presents
discussions of turbidity and sediment only in relation to
drinking water and agricultural uses of water. Recommendations
regarding turbidity and suspended solids concentrations in water
used for these purposes ware not made, apparently because of the
lack of information regarding the affects of particulates.
The Red Book, or Q~•!!~~-~~lt•~i--!2~~~-tt~, established the
first EPA crit~rion for solids <suspended, settleable) a~d
turbidity to protect freshwater fish and other aquatic life.
The criterion is1 "Settleable and suspended solids should not
r'aduca the depth of the compensation point for photosynthetic
activity by mora than 10 percent from the seasonally established
norm for aquatic life." This criterion, as wall as all others
in the Red Book, was reviewed by the American Fisheries Society
<Thurston at al. 1979>, who state that the criterion is
difficult to apply under most conditions and impossible to apply
in others. According to the reviewers, "it attempts to make
solids and turbidity synonymous, which they are not, and no
method is propose ,or measl.lring the compensation point ... Other
problems noted by the reviewers include• <1> The usa of a
compensation point is meaningless in shallow water bodies where
the photic zone eMtends to the bottom, and, <2> It is
unrealistic to aMpect adequate data to be available for all
points to determine a
compensation
criterion be
separately.
point.
rewritten
"seasonally established norm" for the
The reviewers recommended that the
with solids and turbidity considered
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/83 PAGE 3~
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The Green Book by Sorensen et al. <1977) is a literature
revi•w of th• eff•cts of dissolv•d and suspend•d solids on
freshwater biota. Included ar• the affects of suspended solids
on aquatic photosynth•tic systems, zooplankton and m•croinv•rte-
brates, salmonid fishes, oth•r fishes, aesth•tic pr•farenca, and
public and industrial water supply. MaJor conclusions d•rived
from this r•vi•w concerning th• biological eff•cts of susp•nd•d
solids includ•• <1> ~cut• effects on specific organisms w•re
difficult to demonstrate; <2> Susp•nd•d solids have significant
effects on community dynamics due to turbidityl (3) Susp•nd•d
solids may hav• significant effects on community succession,
con1munity stabi 1 ity, and fish avoidanc• react ions; C4) S•dim•nts
may serve as a res•rvoir of toxic ch•micals; and, (~) Relatively
high suspended solids were ne•d•d to cause b•havioral reactions
<2CI,OOO mg/L) or d•ath <200,000 mgiL.> in fish ov•r th• short
Of th• thr•• EP~ funded proJ•cts compl•t•d in 1978 and 1979,
Iwamoto et al. <1978> is tha most applicable to this study since
it an
freshwater salmonid habitats. Farnworth et al. <1979> revi•w•d
lit•ratur• d•aling with impacts of s•dim•nt, nitro;•n, and
phc,sphorus on aquatic biota in ord•r to sugg•st futur• res•arch
and' mana;•m•nt sch•m•s for fr•shwat•r syst•ms. Muncy et al.
<1979) r•vi•w•d lit•ratur• r•garding th• eff•cts of susp•nd•d
solids and ••dim•nt on th• r•production and •arly lif• of
warmwater fish••· Th•ir r•vi•w cit•• lit•ratur• that provides
•vid•nc• of d•trim•ntal •ff•cts of ••dim•nt on r•productiv•
b•havior,
Juv•nil••·
•mbryonic larval
The Camp, Dr••s•r & McK•• r•ports ar• th• most r•c•nt EP~
fund•d lit•ratur• r•vi•ws. !WCQ1Q1t~-•nQ_§gl1Q§ by G•orge and
Lehni g < 1 '384) !ii.Jmmari zes recent literature pertaining to the
impacts of turbidity and s•dim•nt on primary production and on
the survival, growth, and propagation of zooplankton,
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/8e PAGE la
macroinvertebrates, and fish. Numerical data from several key
investigations are presented including results from bioassay
studies, state water quality standards, and Alaska and Canada
placer mining studies. In addition, the report examines
Canadian water quality obJectives for turbidity, supporting
rationale, guidelines for setting turbidity and sediment
standards, and recommended levels for the protection of a
variety of water uses ir. Canada.
The ~~g~212~i~--~••!•--!2~--3~•~•ng•g __ 32lig•--g~i1•~!~ by
Clarkson et al. (19SS) discusses several factors that are
important to the development of a water quality criterion for
suspended solids/turbidity for the protection of aquatic biota.
These factors include regional, physiographic, and seasonal
considerations, and related hydrologic: phenomena. The natural
solids loading to a wat.rbody will vary from site to si~e,
depending upon physiographic factors (including slope, soil
type, and type of ground cover) and upon rainfall and runoff.
Hence, seasonal and regional criteria need to be developed that
take into account the significance of natural and other nonpoint
source loadings. Water quality criteria should be developed for
suspended solids in the water column as well as for settled
sediment, and these criteria need to address the complex
situation of toxics sorbed to suspended and settled solids.
Additionally, the effects of sustained exposure to suspended
solids versus short-term storm-related pulses need to be quanti-
fied. ~lthough the report does not recommend criteria to
protect aquatic life, it does establish a framework for
consideration of regional, seasonal, and biological factors.
3.3 CANADIAN PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES
The Canadian federal government, through the o'f'fices of
Environment Canada and the Canadian Council of Resource and
Environment Ministers <CCREM>, establishes guidelines and
obJectives for water quality parameters for the provinces and
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS PAGE 34
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-i
te~ritories. They also prepare guidelines and r•gulations which
address sp•cific activities <•.;., M•tal Mining Liquid Effluent
Regulations and Guidelines; Potato Processing Plant Liquid
Efrluent Regulations and Guid•lines, Fish Processi~; Op•rations
Liquid Effluent Guidelines; Pulp and Pap•r Effluent
Regulations>. Th• CCAEM Task Fore• on Water Quality Guidelin•s
han pr•J:Iar•d an l!:!~t!Di.2!:~--2f--~Ai.tl!: __ QY.A!1t~--!i!::l1Qtt!1n••--~ng
QQ~L•~i-1~!!!, __ .!.~§~ which contains a compilation of guid•l:. n•s and
obJectives currently used in Canada <CCREM 1985). From these
guidelines, the gov•rnm•nts of the provinc•s and territories
dev•lop specific water quality crit•ria.
Th• curr•nt standards for turbidity in Canadian provinc•s
ancl t•rritori•s appear in Tabl• 3-1. In addition to provincial
re~ulations, th• f•d•ral gov•rnm•nt has establish•d standards
for• c•rtain water uses and has promulgat•d standards for
boundary wat•rs with th• Unit•d Stat•• <International Joint
Commission--Gr•at Lak•s>. Only Manitoba and Ontario hav•
dev•lop•d
r•rr•a in i ng
guidelines,
•nforc•abl•
provincial
or draft
r•gulations for some water
gov•rnments only have
r•gulations at this time.
us••· The
ObJect i v•s,
Sritish
Columbia, N•w Brunswick, Newfoundland, Northwest T•rritori•s,
Nova Scotia, Prine• Edward Island, and the Yukon Territory use
th•1 guidelines of other agencies on a case by cas• basis.
Quantitativ• turbidity crit•ria for r•creation and for fish and
wildlif• propagation are comJ:Iarable to Alaska crit•ria for thes•
same wat•r uses.
Wat•r quality standards for susp•nd•d and settleabl• solids
in Canadian provinces and t•rritori•s app•ar in Tabl• 3-2.
Th•,re are no regulations for water column standards curr•nt ly in
affect. Quantitativ• crit•ria for Alberta and Saskatchewan are
obJectives
standards
only. Th•
for susp•nd•d
Yukon Territory has propos•d •ffluent
and settl•able solids based on classes
REVIEW CRAFT 9/09/8~ PAGE !S
3.4 REFERENCES
CCREM, 19SS. I~va~tory of water quality guidali~es and
ObJectives 1964. Prepared by Canadia~ Cou~cil ~ R•source.
a~d Environment Mi~isters Task Force on Water Guility Guide-
lines, Ottawa. SO pp. + Table.
Clarkson, c.c., D.E. Lehnig, s.v. Plante, R.S. Taylor, and W.M.
Williams, 1Se~. Hydrologic basis for suspended solids
crit•ria. Pr•pared for Enviro~mental Protection Agency by
Camp, Dresser & McKe•, Annandal•, VA.
EPA, 1976. Quality criteria for
Protection Ag•ncy, Washington, D.C.
water.
2~3 pp.
Environmental
Farnworth, E.G., M.C. Nichols, C.N. Van~, L.G. Wolfson, R.W.
Bosserma~, P.R. He~drix, F.B. Golley, and J.L. Cooley, 1979.
Impacts of sediments and nutrients on biota in surface
waters of th• United States. EPA-600/3-79-10~,
Environmental Protection Ag•ncy, Washington, D.C., Athens,
GA. 333 pp.
George, T.S.~ and D.E. Lehnig, 1SS4. Turbidity and solids.
Pr•par•d for Environm•ntal Prot•ction A;•ncy by Camp,
Dr•sser & McK••• Annandale, VA._
Iwamoto, R.M., E.O. Salo, M.A. Mad•J• and R.L. McComas, 1978.
Sedim•nt and wat•r quality: a r•vi•w of' th• literatur•
including a sugg•st•d approach for wat•r quality criteria
with summary of workshop and conclusions and r•commendations
by E.O. Salo and R.L Rulifson. EPA-S10/S-7S-04S,
Environmental Protection Ag•ncy, Region X, S•attle, WA.
K•up, L.E., 1983.
Environmental
Communication
Inc. on May s.
Crit•ria and Standards Oivisic:~n, u.s.
Prot•ction Ag•ncy, Washington, D.C., P•rsonal
to Larry P•t•rson, L.A. P•t•rson & Associates,
Muncy, R.J., G.J. Atchison, R.V. Bulkley, B.W. Menzel, L.G.
P•rry, and R.C. Summ•rf•lt, 1S7S. Eff•cts of susp•~d•d
solids and s•diment on r•production and •arly lif• of warm-
wat•r fish••• a r•vi•w. EPA-600/3-79-042. Environm•~tal
Prot•ction Ag•ncy, Corvallis, OR.
NAS, 1973. Water quality criteria 1972. EPA Ecol. Res. Series
EPA-RJ-73-033, Pr•par•d for Environm•ntal Prot•ction Ag•ncy
by National Acad•my of Sci•nc•s, National Acad•my of
Engin•ering, Washington, D.C. ~S4 pp.
Sor•nsen, D.L., M.M. McCarthy, E.J. Middl•brooks, and O.B
Porcella, 1977. Susp•nd•d and dissolv•d solids •f'f•cts on
freshwater biotal a review. EPA-600/3-77-042, Corvallis
Environmental Research Laboratory, Offic• of R•seareh and
O•v•lopm•nt, Environm•ntal Prot•ction A;•ncy, Corvallis,
OR. 64 pp.
REVIEW DRAFT S/09/85 PAGE ~
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Th•.lrston, R. V., R. C. Russo, C. M. Fetterolf, .Jr., T. A. Edsall,
Y. M. Barber, .Jr. <eds.), 1'379. A review of the EPA Red
Book~ quality criteria for water. Water Quality Section,
~merican Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD. 313 pp.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/S~ PAGE 37
4.0 ADEQUACY AND SCIENTIFIC MERIT OF ALASKA CRITERIA
This section summarizes Alaska criteria for water su~ply,
recreation, and protection of biota for both fresh and marine
waters; summarizes scientifically documented levels of
t1..1rt:l1dity, suspended solids, settleable solids, and fine
particles in streambeds that have demonstrated effects on
various water uses; and, presents suggested criter1a from the
lit en~at ure.
4. 1 ALASKA CRITERIA
The purpose of this section is t~ describe protected water
uses for both fresh and marine water, and existing turbiditY. and
sediment criteria for the various protected •.Lses. B.efo_I'e
describing the protected water uses and particulates criteria,
1·1owever,
stal"1dir,g
four points. are
of the st.ar•dards.
made to enhance the reader's under-
First, the standards apply only to
human activities which result in alterations to waters within
the state. In this context, the standards constitute the level
of degradation which may not be exceeded in a water body.
Second, sediment refers to particulates in the water column as
well as particulates that settle to the ~ottom. Sediment 1n the
water column may be measured as total suspended solids or
settleable solids <Easton 19SS>. Third, the methods of analysis
used to determine water quality are in accordance with ~l~n~~~~
!!!!i!lb.2Q.§ __ fQt: __ ltl!!LE21!!f!!i.n!l!li!2n_!2f_~!!l@~-!l!n!;L~e§l@~sl!!!t: < APHA 1980 >
and ~~ln!2g~ __ !!2t: __ ~tl-miS!!l __ 9n~l~-i~--2f __ ~!J!t~l::--!l!ng_~s§l~~ <EPA
1979). This requirement insures that accepted methods are used
for measuring turbidity, total suspended solids, and settleable
solids. Fourth, if .a w•ter is classified for more than one use,
the most stringent w•ter Qu.ality criteria of all the included
uses applies. All waters in Alaska except the lower Chena River
and Nol~n Creek and all its tribut~ries, c~cludinQ Acme Cra~K.
are classified for all uses. Therefore, the most stringent
criteria ~pplies to all waters except tMoze noted above.
REV!EW or;AFT C7/Q9/85 PAGE 38
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criteria for protection of drinking water sources and contact
recreation are the most stringent for particulates, but are not
necessarily the most stringent for all other water quality
Existing turbidity and sediment standards for the protection
of identified water uses in both fresh and marine waters appear
below CADEC 198~)1
FRESH WATER
1. WATER SUPPLY1 DRINKING, CULINARY, AND FOOD PROCESSING
IY~~i91!~= Shall not exceed 5 NTU above natural conditions
when the natural turbidity is ~0 NTU or lass, and not have
more than 10 percent increase in turbidity when the naturAl
-condition is more th~n.50 NTU, not to exceed a maximu~
increase of 2~ NTU.
§•a1m•n!• No increase in concentrations of sediment,
including settleable solids, above natural conditions.
2. WATER SUPPLY1 AGRICULTURE, INCLUDING IRRIGATION AND STOCK
WATERING
Ig~.Q1911~= Shall not cause detrimental effects •::.n indicated
~§a.im~n1• For sprinkler irrigation, water shall be free of
particles of 0.074 mm or coarser. For irrigation or water
spreading, shall not exceed 200 mg/L for an extended period
of time.
3. WATER SUPPLY• AQUACULTURE
!Y~91g!1~• Shall not exceed 2~ NTU above natural condition
level. For all lake waters, shall not exceed 5 NTU over
natural conditions.
§§a1m•n1• No imposed loads that will interfere with estab-
lished water supply treatment levels.
4. WATER SUPPLY: INDUSTRIAL
IYr~i9i!~= Shall not cause detrimental effects on estab-
lished water supply treatment levels.
REVIEW DRAFT ,/49/S~ PAGE~
§~gimHDif No imposed loads that will interfere with estab-
liahad water supply treatment levels.
5. WATER RECREATION: CONTACT RECREATION
I~r~igi!~= Shall not exceed S NTU above natural conditions
when the natural turbidity is 50 NTU or lesa, and not have
more than 10 percent increase in turbidity when the natural
condition is more than 50 NTU, not to exceed a maximum
increase of 13 NTU. Shall not eHceed 5 NTU over the natural
condition for all lake waters.
§@.d.im§tnt: No increase in cor.centrat ions of sediment,
including settleable solids, above natural conditions.
6. WATER RECREATION• SECONDARY RECREATION
I~r~ig11~• Shall not exceed 10 NTU over natural conditions
when natural turbidity is 50 NTU or less, and not have more
than 20 percent increase in turbidity when the natural
condition ·is more than·3o NTU, not to eHc:eed a maximum
increase of 50 NTU. For all lake waters turbidity shall not
exceed 5 NTU over natural conditions.
Shall not pose hazards to incidental human
contact or cause interference with the use.
7. GROWTH AND PROPAGATION OF FISH, SHELLFISH, AND OTHER AQUATIC
LIFE
IYr~ig11~• Shall not eHceed 23 NTU above natural condition
level. For all lake waters, shall not exceed 3 NTU over
natural conditions.
3•91m•n1• The percent accumulation of' fine sediment in the
range of' o. 1 mm to 4.0 mm in the gravel bed of waters
utilized by anadramous or resident fish f'or spawning may not
be increased more than 5 percent by weight over natural
condition <as shown from grain size accumulation graph>.
In no case may the o. 1 mm to 4.0 mm f'ine sediment range in
the gravel bed of waters utilized by anadramous or resident
fish for spawning exceed • maximum of 30 percent by weight
<as shown from grain size acc:umulatiol"' graph>. In all other
surf'ace waters no sediment loads (suspended or deposited>
which can cause adverse effects on aquatic: al"'imal or plant
life, their reproduction, or habitat.
REVIEW DRAFT 9109185 PAGE~
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MARINE WATER
1. WATER SUPPLY: AQUACULTURE
I~r~i9i!~= Shall not aMce•d 23 NTU.
a.
3.
§~9im~n!: No imposed loads that will interfere with estab-
lished water supply tr•atment levels.
WATER SUPPLY1 SE~FOOD PROCESSING
I~r~i9i!~: Shall not int•rfere with disinfection.
§•9im•.o!J Below normally d•tectabl• amounts.
WATER SUPPLY: INDUSTRIAL
!~r~!9!!~= Shall not cause detrimental effects on estab-
lish•d levels of water supply treatm•nt.
§•g1m•ni• No impos•d loads th•t will interf•r• with •stab-
lished water supply treatment levels.
4. WATER RECREATION• CONTACT RECREATION
I~r~i9!!~= Shall not •~c••d 2~ ~TU~
§•sim!m!: No m•asure•bl• incr•••• in conc•ntrat ion •bov•
n•tural conditions.
5. WATER RECREATION: SECONDARY RECREATION
I~ra19i!~= Shall not •Mc••d 2~ NTU.
cont•ct or caus• interfer•nc• with th• us•.
5. GROWTH AND PROPAGATION OF FISH, SHELLFISH, AND OTHER AQUATIC
LIFE
7.
I~r~!gi~~= Sh•ll not r•duc• th• depth of the comp•nsation
point for photosynth•tic activity by mor• than 10 percent.
In addition, shall not r•duc• th• ma~imum S•cchi disk d•pth
by mor• than 10 p•rc•nt.
§~g!m~n!: No measureable increase in concentrations above
natural conditions.
HARVESTING FOR CONSUMPTION OF RAW MOLLUSKS OR OTHER RAW
AQUATIC LIFE
I~r~igi1~= Shall not reduce th• d•pth of the compensation
point for photosynth•tic •ctivity by mor• th•n 10 percent.
REVIEW DRAFT cr/G9/S:S PAGE-41
In addition, shall not reduce the maximum Secchi disk depth
by more than 10 percent.
§~91m~n~: Not applicable.
4.2 DEMONSTRATED EFFECTS OF PARTICULATES
4.2. 1 Water Supply
The effects of particulates on water supply summarized in
this section include information pertaining to both fresh and
marina waters. Fresh water uses include drinking, culinary, and
food processing; agriculture; a~uaculture; and industrial.
Marine uses include a~uaculture, seafood processing, and indus-
trial. The affects of particulates on these various water uses
are ~uantified in this section where possible.
The extant ~o which suspended solids can be tolerated .in
water supplies varies widely. Solids in water used for
drinking, culinary, and food processing can support growth of
harmful microorganisms and reduce the effectiveness of chlorina-
tion, resulting in health hazards. For most water supplies,
high levels of suspended solids are obJectionable for aesthetic
reasons and can interfere with treatment processes and chemical
and biological tests. Suspended solids may also transport
nutrients and toxic substances, such as pesticides, herbicides,
and certain metals.
The amount of particulates allowable in raw water supplies
depends on the type and dagraa of treatment used to produce
finished water. Sorensen at al. (1977> note that an excellent
source of
treatment,
good source
filtration
water supply, ra~uiring only disinfection as
would have a turbidity range of 0 to 10 units. A
of water supply, requiring usual treatment such as
and disinfection would have a turbidity range of 10
to 250 units. Waters with turbidities over 250 units are poor
sources of water supply ra~uiring special or auxiliary treatment
REVIEW DRAFT 91d9/S3 PAGE4~
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and disinfection. The ability of common water treatment
processes (i.e., coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and
chlorination) to remove suspended matter to achieve water with
acceptably low turbidity is a function of the compo~ition of the
material as well as its concentration <EPA 1976). The type of
plankton, clay, or earth particles, their siz•, and electrical
charges, influence coagulation more than the number of turbidity
units <NAS 1973>. For eMample, a water with 30 turbidity units
may coagulate more rapidly than one with ~ to 10 units and water
with 30 turbidity units sometimes may be more difficult to
coagulate than water with 100 units <NAS 1973>.
Although the Alaska criteria for drin~ing water refer to a ~
NTIJ increase in turbidity above background in raw water, the
following information pertaining to turbidity levels ·in finished
drinking water is provided to giv• the read•~ a feeling for ~he
importance of low turbidity levels. It should be noted that raw
wa1;er at a low tl.lrbidity level is the same as finished drinkirq;
water with respect to the following information. Sruvold
<H~7~>, reporting the results of a consl.lmer acceptance survey of
finished tap water conducted by Harris, notes that 11 percent of
tho respondents Judged ~ turbidity units to be acceptable for
drinking water. This water also had 1~ color units and a
tht .. eshold odor nl.lmber of 3. For drinking water, ~ units of
turbidity become obJectionable to a considerable number of
pec)ple, and many people t~Jrn to alternate Sl.lppl ies which may be
letls safe. Symons and Hoff <197:i) discuss the relationship
bet: ween particulates in water and the presence of disease-
causing organisms. Low levels of particl.llates interfere with
d it1infect ion and can prevent maintenance of an affect iva
dit.infectant a;ent Ca.;., chlorine) throughout the distribl.ltion
syt'.tem. Indic:at ions are that bactaria and viruses can be
protected by certain kinds of particles from inactivation by
chlorine. Inorganic particles can cal.lse turbidity and probably
have no bearfng on tha potential protection of pathogens. Small
organic particles, however, may protect pathogens. Therefore,
REVIEW DRAFT ~/49/S:; PAGE~l
in evaluating water supplies, the nature of the particles in the
water should be taken into account. Hence, if only disinfection
is applied, the raw water source should be limited to low levels
of particulates. George and Lennig (1984> note that a level of
5 turbidity units should not be e)(ceeded for drinking water.
EP~ C1976> notes that finished drinking water should have a
ma)(imum limit of 1 turbidity unit where the water enters the
distribution system.
be adversely affected
sediments reduces the
in many
capacity
ways. Deposition of suspended
of irrigation structures and
systems
1'378).
and decrease reservoir storage capacity (King et al. .
Deposition on land can produce crusts that innibit water
infiltration and plant emergence, impedes soil aeration, and car.
contribute to salinity problems by hindering -leaching of saUna
soils <King et al. 1978>. High colloidal content in water used
for sprinkler irrigation may result in deposition of films on
leaf surfaces that may reduce photosyntnetic activity and,
therefore, growth. The films may also affect marketability of
leafy vegetable crops such as lettuce CNAS 1973>.
Quality requirements regarding tne amount of particulates
vary among different industrial uses. For e)(ample, rayon
manufacture requires water with only 0.3 turbidity units,
whereas water used for cooling can have up to ~0 turbidity units
<McGauhey 1968). Although industrial cooling water can tolerate
relatively high levels of suspended solids without significant
problems, modern high pressure boilers require water that is
virtually free of all impurities <Hach 1983). The quality
requirements even vary within some industries, such as the p1.1lp
and paper industry. Different processes within this industry
require different levels of turbidity. The groundwood process
is the least sensitive to particulates and can tolerate up to SO
turbidity units, the kraft process up to 2S units, the soda and
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I
sulfite process up to 15 units, &nd light paper production
tol•r&tes up to 3 turbidity units <McGauhey 1968>.
Crit•ria •stablish•d for evaluating and id•ntifying water
treatment n•eds for fish hatch•ries by Sigma Resource
Consult&nts <1979) includ• limits on susp•nd•d solids. Th•
s•.11ggest•d
m1:;1/L and
limit for susp•nd•d solids for incubating •ggs is 3
for r•aring and holding th• limit is Z3 mg/L in the
al:1senc• of oth•r pollutants.
4.3.Z R•cr•ation
Contact r•cr•ation r•f•rs to activiti•• wh•r• th•r• is
dir•ct and intimat• contact with wat•r and includ•s wading,
swimming, diving, wat•r skiing, surfing, &nd any oth•r intimat•
with wat•r
activities. S•condary r•cr•ation r•f•rs to activiti•s wher•
w&t•r us• is incid•ntal, accid~ntal, or visual, and includes
fishing, boating, camping, hunting, hiking, and vacationing.
TMI• eff•cts of particulat•• on contact and s•condary r•cr•ation
summarized in this ••ction includ• information p•rtaining to
both fresh and marin• wat•rs.
Wat•r quality is rar•ly d•fin•d by th• public in t•rms of
cn:•mistry, physics, or
of quality ar• attun•d
bact•riology b•caus• public p•rc•ptions
to th• s•ns•s <Wolman 1974) such as
sight. Tn• public p•rc•iv•s wat•r quality in t•rms such a$
alga•, foam, and turbidity. Contact and s•condary r•cr•ational
us,es of wat•r vary wid•ly with r•sp•ct to th• amount of
p•1rt iculat•s that ar• acc•ptabl•• Wat•r contact us•• such as
w&ding, swimming,
w&t•r for saf•ty.
and diving r•quir• cl•ar to mod•rat•ly clear
Th• l•ss turbid th• wat•r th• mor• d•sir•able
it b•com•s for swimming and oth•r wat•r contact sports <EPA
1$176). McGauh•y < 1968) not•• that th• not ic•abl• thr•shold is
10 turbidity units and th• limiting thr•shold is 50 units for
contact r•creation. Th• guid•lin•s for Canadian
REVIEW OR~FT 9/49/83 PAGE4~
recreational· water ~uality <National Health and Welfare 1983)
note that the ma~imum limit for turbidity is suggested as 50
turbidity units and the water should be sufficie~tly clear so
that a Secchi disk is visible at a minimum of 1.2 meters (4
feet>. These obJectives insure the protection of waters
suitable for contact recreation,
diving, water skiing, and surfing.
including wading, swimming,
Fishermen tend not to fish in areas of turbid water because
game fishes are not found there in as great abundance as in
clear waters <Bartsch 1960). Fishing success is reduced where
turbidity is greater than 2~ ppm <Phillips 1971> to 30 JTU
<Grundy 1976). According to Townsend (1983), one of the most
popular
fishing
from the
recreational activities on the Chatanika River is sport
for Arctic grayling. He notes that numerous-complaints
public were received about muddy water conditions-in
the Chatanika drainage in 1979, the first season of increased
placer mining activity in this drainage. Townsend states that
fishermen probably refrained from fishing because of turbid
conditions. He also notes that in 1977 and 1978 the Chatanika
was the second most popular waterbody for sport fishing in the
Interior but it fell to seventh place in 1979.
Boating, canoeing, and kayaking are enJoyed in ~laska in a
variety of clear and turbid systems. There is really no upper
limit to the amount of turbidity for these activities. For
e)(ampla, river boating (for pleasure and transportation) is
popular on the Tanana and Yukon rivers and kayaking and rafting
are popular on the Nenana Riverf all are turbid systems.
~ccording to McGauhey <196&>, the noticeable threshold is 20
turbidity units for boating and aesthetic uses but "no level
tisJ likely to be found in surface waters CthatJ would impede
ttheseJ usetsJ." That is, high turbidity levels do not
eliminate boating and aesthetic uses. However, given a choice,
most people prefer clear water conditions for these uses.
REVIEW DRAFT '?109/8:5 PAGE Iff.
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4. ~~. 3 Biota
Scientific data describe many ways in which turbidity and
excessive concentrations of sediment may adversely affect
aquatic organisms. In general, these effects include•
(1) Direct actions which either kill or reduce growth rate
and resistence to diseaset
(2) Prevention of the successful development of eggs and/or
larvae,
(3) Modification of natural movements and migration, and,
(4) Reduction in the abundance of available food items.
A substantial amount of information exists ragarcling tne
general effects of suspended solids, settleable solids,
tu~bidity, and the accumulation-of ~ines in spawning ;ravel on
f'rttshwater aquatic organisms. A large percentage of the
published literature summarizes the results of investigations
undertaken by other authors, and relatively few present original
data that quantify the levels which cause deleterious effects.
Furthermore, many of the frequently cited publications address
the• effects of part ieulates on organisms not found in Alaska
waters. Difficulties arise in deriving conclusions about the
ef1~eets of part ieulates on speci fie organisms •• a result of the
wide range of tolerance among different species, among
individuals of different a;•• and stag•• of d•v•lopm•nt, and
amcmg individuals of th• sam• sp•eies which have adapted to
di1'f•r•nt natural conditions. For example, salmonid egg
inc:ubation is advers•ly affected by suspttnd•d sol ids
concentrations
not: adversely
;rttater than
;r•ater than 3 mg/L, but som• adult salmonids are
affected by short-term exposur• to concentrations
100,000 mg/L. Th•r• is a wid• rang• of effects on
i ncl i v id•.lals,
par•t iculat•
their age class, and habitat over a wide range of
typas and lev•ls. Furthermore, the various units of
REVIEW DRAFT 9119/Se PAGE~?
measure and methods of measuring turbidity and suspended matter
make it difficult to compare results.
Particulates hava direct and indirect effects on aquatic
biota. Direct effects include anatomical and physiological
influences on the organisms themselves, whereas indirect effects
involve impacts
al tarat ion.
such as a reduction in prey species or habitat
~dditionally, the biological effects of
particulates are interactive in that a change in natural levels
may affect the structure of an entire aquatic community, as
opposed to only one functional group of organisms.
Data from early field studies indicate that it is often
difficult to assess the effects of suspended solids independent
of factors such as sorbed toxic metals and pesticides, biochemi-
cal oxygen demand, and nutrient content. -Consequently, ~he
obJective of more recent studies has been to identify the
biological effects of inert particulate material, similar in
size and composition to those found in natural waters. Another
problem with early studies is that investigators used a variety
of units for turbidity. Hence, there are a variety of units,
ppm, mg/L, JTU, FTU, NTU <not directly translated one to
another>, making it appear that there are inconsistencies in tha
reported data. The actual units reported in the literature
appear in the following discussion of the affects of
particulates on biota.
Particulates, especially turbidity, are considered to have a
deleterious effect on plant communities within waterbodies. Few
quantitative results are reported in the literature. Bell
<1973> reported that algal-based food production for JUvenile
•almonids was reduced at turbidities above 2~ JTU. In Sraat
Britain, Nuttall and Bilby (1973) stated that rooted aquatic
ve!iletation was
exceeded 2000
Read et al.
absent at stations where suspended solids levels
ppm in a river polluted with china-clay wastes.
(1983> found in experimental ponds in North
REVIEW DR~FT Cf/Q9/S~ PASE 48
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Carolina, that a reduction of turbidity from 12 to 6 NTU allowed
submerged plants to grow in deeper water areas because of the
corresponding increase in light at depth. In Ya-Ya Lake, NWT,
phy'toplanktol"' productivity was lowest in the roegion where
turbidity and suspended solids were highest <McCart at al.
1980>. Van Nieuwel"'huyse C1983) observed a strong correlation
between incident photosynthetically activ• radiation <PAR> and
gro~s productivity which
Nieuwenhuyse <LaPerriere
different turbidity levels.
lead to development of a model by Van
1983) to predict algal productivity at
Benthic organisms and other invertebrates are also adversely
affected by particulates. Gammon <1970) reported a 23 percent
red~..&ction in macroinvartebrate populations downstream from A
1 imtestone quarry where sedimer~t loads were less than 40 mg'IL.
Popt~..&lat ion reduct ior~s of. . 40 percent ware. r~otad in stretches -of
the river wh.re the sediment load was 80 to 120 mg/L and, ir~
are,as wh•re 120 mg/L. was exceeded, the macroinvertabrate
population reduction was 60 percer~t. Sedimer~t which settled out
caused a reduction of 40 percent in population density
regardless of susper~ded sediment concentration. Invertebrate
drift increased immediately when introductions of 160 mg/L
sediment were made to the stream.
Wilber <1983>, citing Herbert et al. <1961>, reported that
mac1rooinvertebrate populations are reduced at turbidity levels of
S:61 to 390 ppm ar~d that der~sity is reduced at 1000 to 6000 ppm.
Red,Jced numbers were reported for turbidities of 40 to 200 JTU
<Sorensen et al. 1977). In McCart et al. <1980>, a discernible
eff•ct on the species composition and relative abundance of
zoo1~lanktor~ was noted in the silty south and of Ya-Ya Lake,
NWT. Species diversity, equitability, ar~d taxor~omic diversity
appli!ared to be negatively correlated to siltation. Mortality of
Qt.e!l!:li!. sp. occurred at 82 ppm suspended sol ids according to
EIFI~C < 1965).
REVIEW DRAFT q /0'9/8:5 PAGE .q.q
McCart et al. (1980> also discussed tMe effects of siltation
on various ~ish species within Ya-Ya Lake, including two species
of sculpins, lake trout, northern pike, trout-perc:~, lake chub,
inconnu Cshee~ish> and several other white~ish species. The
study focused on the distribution o~ the sp•c:ies in the lake.
They concluded th.at l.ak•
c:har.ac:teristic s~ecies o~ c:le.arw.ater conditions, whereas the
trout-~erc:h .and s~oonhe.ad sc:ul~in ap~eared in turbid ~arts of
the lake. M.any s~•c:ies which w•r• tolerant o~ turbid conditions
~r•~erred to ~eed in the c:learw.ater end o~ the lake. These
species inc:lud•d north•rn ~ike and hum~bac:k and bro.ad whitefish.
In l.abor.atory tests, th• torrent sculpin .ap~e.ared to be
~airly tol•r.ant o~ susp•nded s•diments, and no -~~ec:t on ~••ding
WAS evident at levels r.anging ~rom 0 to 1250 mg{L behavior
CBrusven
laboratory
.acclimated
sediment
and Rose 1981); Mc:Leay et .al. -(1983) c:ond uct-ed
t•sts on Arctic: gray~ing and re~orted that, when
to U5 degre•s c, they survived .. 4-d.ay •x~osure to
sus~ensions 0~ mor• than 250,000 mg/L and a 16-d.ay
exposure to 50,000 mg/L. arayling which were .ac:c:lirn.ated to :5
degrees c survived 4 d.ays in sus~ensions o~ less th.an 10,000
mg/L. Sus~ensions ;r•ater th.an 10,000 mg/L c:aus•d grayling to
surface. Although gill histologies .a~peared normal in the fish
held ~or 4 days, .ac:ut• stress responses such .as elev.at•d .and/or
v.aried blood glueos• l•vels, were noted. Gill hyp•rtrophy and
hy~erpl.asia w•r• reported for gr.ayling ea~tur•d in th• fi•ld in
wat•r with low susp•nd•d solids and then h•ld in w.ater with
susp•nded solids l•v•ls of ·~proximately 1210 mg/L and 3:5 mg/L.
It was c:onelud•d thAt gr.ayling subJ•c:ted to short-t•rm subl•thal
.amounts of susp•nded solids c.an •xhibit v.arious r•s~onses
including acut• str•ss.
A r•l.ativ•ly lArge body o~ literature exists d•.aling with
the •ffec:ts of p.articulates on trout and s.almon. Th• •ffec:ts on
adult
Bell
fish,
(1973>
Juv•niles, and
reports that
•mbryos .are c:onsid•red s•parately.
r•l.atively larg• ~uantities <~00 to
REVIEW DRAFT ~/QS/S~ PAGE So
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1000 ppm> of sediment
any appa~ant d•t~im•nt
load can be ca~~ied in a st~•am without
to adult salmon and t~out fo~ sho~t
periods of tim•. Conc•nt~ations of 4000 ppm can cause salmon to
cease inst~eam movements, howeve~. H•~be~t at al. <1961>
concluded that b~own t~out populations in th• ~ive~s Fal and Pa~
in Co~nwall w•~• ~•duc•d in •~•a• having susp•nded s•diment
conc•nt~ations of 1000 ppm but w•~• unaff•ct•d at 60 ppm.
Reductions in th• standing c~op of b~ook t~out in a B~itish
Columbia st~eam app••~•d to b• th• ~esult of dec~eased spawning
and d•st~uction of hiding plac•• du• to siltation <Saunde~s and
Smith 196~>. Bachmann <19~8) ~•v•al•d that cutth~oat t~out
c••·•• f••d in; at 3:5 ppm susp•nd•d sol ids and that cutth~oat may
abandon ~edds if silt is p~•••nt. Rainbow t~out exhibit•d th•
following ~•spon••• to va~yin; amounts of susp•nd•d solids• <1>
~0 ppm--~•duc•d ;~owthl <2> 90 ppm--20 P•~c•nt mo~tality in 2 to
6 months; <3> 100 to 270 ppm--fin. ~ot 1 (4) 200 ppm--~0 p•~c~_nt
mo~tality in 16 w••ksl (~) 1000 to 2~00 ppm--100 p•~cent
mortality in 20 days' (6) 1000 ppm--20 p•~c•nt mo~tality in 37
days; <7> 42~0 ppm--~0 p•~c•nt mo~tality in 28 days; and, <S>
160,000 ppm--100 p•~c•nt mo~tality in 1 day.
R•sults of acut• <4 days o~ 1•••> •xposu~• to susp•nd•d
s•diments indicat• that Juv•nil• salmonids •xhibit ••asonal
chang•• in th•i~ tol•~anc• to susp•nd•d ••dim•nts <Noggl•
1978). Bioassays conduct•d in summ•~ p~oduc•d L.C~O's 1••• than
1:500 mg/L., whil• autumn bioassay• show•d L.C:50's in •xc••• of
30,000 m;/L.. Th• tol•~anc• of wild coho salmon to susp•nd•d
solids was high•~ than hatch•~Y p~oduc•d cohos, appa~ently
becaus• of p~io~ •xposu~• to susp•nd•d ••dim•nts.
L.an;•~
tu~biditi•s
< 1980) ~• po~t •d f••ding among salmonids at
B~ook t~out •xhibit•d
inc~eas•d v•ntilato~y ~••pons• (a st~••• ~•action> at 231 NTU
clay in wat•~ CCa~lson 1984). Pacific salmon su~viv•d 3 to 4
weeks in 300 to 7~0 ppm susp•nd•d solids and avoid•d muddy
wate~s du~ing mig~ations acco~ding to th• lit•~atu~• ~eview by
W i l be~ < 1 983) •
REVIEW ORRFT 9/G9/8:5 PRGESI
The effects of particulates on salmonid Juveniles and eggs
have been studied more extensively than those on adults. In
laboratory tests, Bisson and Bilby C19S2> found that turbidities
of 70 to 100 NTU caused reduced feeding among coho Juveniles.
Crouse et al. ( 1981) found that 26 to 31 percent sediment in
laboratory
coho fry.
was reduced
stream gravels increased mortality among emerging
<1978> found that feeding by coho JUVeniles Noggle
at 100 mg/L and ceased at concentrations greater
than 200 mg/L.
and at 3~,000
Mortality <LC50> occurred at 1198 mg/L in August
mg/L suspended solids in November indicating
perhaps a seasonal tolerance
affect of increased maturity
of JUVenile coho salmon or the
of individuals. NCASI (19S4b)
conducted a literature review pertaining to the effects of
sediments on salmon habitat. It was discovered that the time
necessary for coho fry_ to emerge from the gravel in. wh-ich. they
were hatched increased from 10 to 47 d·ays when the amount.·of
fines <less than 3.327 mm in diameter> was increased from 36.6
to 42.3 percent <Koski 1966>.
sediment levels increased from 27 to 51 percent. Coho biomass
decreased 65 percent when sediment smaller than o.e mm increased
from 20 to 31 percent as a result of road construction <Burns
1972). Juvenile coho productivity was reduced from 8.8 grams
per square meter to 5.0 grams per square meter as sediment
embeddedness was increased from 0 to 100 percent in a laboratory
stream <Crouse at al. 1961; NC~SI 1964a). Sigler at al. <1984)
reported that coho and steelhead fry showed a reduction in
growth at 25 NTU turbidity.
Work
suspensions
negligible
period in
and more
by Herbert
of 30 ppm
damage to
laboratory
than half the
and Mer kens <1961> indicated that
kaolin and diatomaceous earth caused
JUvenile rainbow trout over a 6 mc•1"1th
tests. Some mortality occurred at 90 ppm
trout died at 270 !=IPm and 810 ppm. Fish
e~posed to 30 to 90 ppm suspended solids exhibited normal gills,
but those e~posed to concentrations of 270 to SlO ppm displayed
thickening or. fusing of gill lamellae. Caudal fin damage was
REVIEW DRAFT 9/49/85 PAGESa
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also evident after exposure for 37 days to 270 ppm suspended
solids.
Salmon eggs ar• usually laid in depr•ssions excavated in th•
gravel
gravel.
through
of stream bottoms and th•n cover•d over with more
Oev•lopm•nt of th• eggs depends on water flowing
the gravel, bringing oxyg•n to the eggs and removing
metabolic products. Wh•n grav•l int•rstic•s are covered or
clogged with fin• material, succ•ssful developm•nt of the eggs
is impair•d· BJornn •t al. < 1'377) r•port•d r•duc•d survival of
salmon eggs in an Idaho str•am when th•r• was 20 to 30 percent
sand in th• grav•l. Incr•as•d mortality of brook trout eggs in
laboratory str•ams was not•d by Hausl• and Cobl• (1976) wh•n
there was mor• than 20 perc•nt fines in grav•l. A lit•rature
revi•w by Iwamoto •t al. (1978) r•veal•d that coho •g;s suff•red
incr•ased mortality wh•n th• fin•s cont•nt of' grav•l was gr•a~:Sr
than 15 perc•nt.
fines content was
Th• sam• was tru• of' st••lh•ad eggs wh•n the
;r•at•r than 20 p•rc•nt. Th• siz• of bottom
str•ams utiliz•d for spawning by pink salmon varies
According to McN•il and Ahn•ll <1964), •scap•ment
material in
consid•rably.
was v•ry high
0.833-mm si•v•
th• perc•ntag• of solids passing through a
about ~ perc•nt, m•dium to high at 10
BJornn (1969) r•ported that chinook f'ry had difficulty
during •m•rgenc• wh•n sand C0.2S mm) in th• grav•l was incr•as•d
20 to 40 perc•nt. ~ortality of chinook embryos approach•d 30
p•rc•nt as a r•sult of 30 to 40 perc•nt sand in the grav•l.
Lan;•r (1980> reported an incr•ase in st••lhead fry mortality
wh•n grav•ls contained mor• than 10 perc•nt s•diments. Survival
of st•elhead declined to 3.3 p•rc•nt wh•n fine s•diment <6.4 mm)
r•a<c:h•d 39.4 p•rc•nt in gravel <NCASI 1984b>. Approximat•ly 18
perc•nt survival was achi8ved with 70 percent 1 to 3 mm s•dim•nt
<Phillips •t al. 1975) and 10 perc•nt survival occurred when
0.85 mm sediment reached 19.5 perc•nt <Tappel and BJornn 1983)
in gravel. Only 6 percent survival occurr•d when there was 50
REVIEW DRAFT <f/Q9/85 PAGES!
percent fine sediment <9.3 mm> present CTappel and 9Jornn
1983>. Steelhead fry survival decreased from 49 to 52 percent
to 3 to 9 percent when 20 percent fines <0.23 mm> were
introduced in the gravel CNCASI 19S4b>. Steelhea~ populations
declined by SS percent when sediment smaller than o.s mm
increased from eo.6 percent to 34.2 percent after road
construction <Burns 1972>.
Rainbow trout alevins and eggs showed reduced survival of 1
to 1.3 percent for avery 1 percent increase in o.a mm fines ir1
gravel <NCASI 19S4a). Phillips <1971) reported a 37 percent
decrease in the population of JUvenile rainbow trout in 20 days
in an area 1 1/2 miles downstream from a gold dredge where the
suspended sediment concentration in the water ranged from 1000
to 2500 ppm.
H•usle •nd Cobl~ (1976) r•ported that emergence time for
brook trout ambryos was incr•as•d and their survival decreased
when 2. 0 mm s•d im•nt in gravel greater tha.n 20 percent. Ch1Jm
salmon •;;s eHhibit•d a deer•••• in survival of 1.25 percent for
every 1 p•rcent incr•ase in sand <Koski 197S>. For coho eggs,
the ratio was 3.1 percent decreas• in survival for every 1
percent increase in sand <Cederholm at al. 1990), Sockeye
salmon aggs show•d a 40 perc•nt decrease in survival when fines
of less than 0.336 em wer• introduced into gravel. The survival
of chinook •;;• decreas•d from 88 to 18 pwrcwnt whwn 39 percent
fin•• <6.4 mm) w•r• in the ;rav•l. Coho eggs show•d a r•duced
Sl.lrViVal from 96 to 8 pwrc:wnt with a 0 to 70 p•rcent increase in
fine (1 to 3 mm) sedim•nt <Phillips et al. 197S).
In laboratory tests, Phillips et al. ( 197S) found that the
survival of coho eggs c:orr•lated nwga.tiv•ly with the addition of
sand to the substrat• with the following results. There was 96
pwrcent survival in the control mi~ture, aa percent survival in
10 percent sand, 64 percent survival in 20 percent sand, 38
percwnt survival in 30 pwrcant sand, 20 percent survival in 40
REVIEW DAAFT 9/49/S5 PAGES4
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percent sand 1 aa percent survival in ~0 percent sand, and S to
10 percent survival in 60 to 70 percent sand. Steelhead eggs
showed a similar response; survival was reduced from 99 to 1S
percent when sand was increased to 70 percent.
percent of chinook salmon eggs survived when 15 to 30 percent of
the gravel voids were filled with sediment in laboratory
(1976) observed that survival of coho eggs in
the Clearwater River in Washington was negatively correlated
with the percent of "poor" (fines less than 0.85 mm in diameter>
In Great Britain, Turnpenny and
Williams <1980) found that rainbow trout eggs suffered 98 to 100
perc:ent mortality in 2 to 2481 mg/L suspended sol ids where the
permeability of the gravel was 5 to 74 c:m/hr and dissolved
0)(yg1en in t.he water was 2.4 to 7.8 mg/L. At S':J,spended sediment
concentrations of 3 to 1810 mgiL, where the permeability was 7
to 2950. cm/hr and dissolved O)(ygen-was 3.8 to e.G mg/L, survival
of the eggs ranged from 24 to 98 percent. Witzel and MacCrimmon
( 19Si1 > found that only 1 percent of the rainbow eggs survived
when the gravel was 2 mm in diameter but that 76 percent
survival was achieved when the gravel diameter was 26.5 mm.
The main concern with regard to the protection of aquatic
fauna from lethal sediment concentrations is the amount of
solids in suspension that can potentially settle out <settleable
solids> as flow decreases <Duckrow and Everhart 1971>. It is
the sessile, immobile forms in or on the streambed which are the
most susceptible to being smothered. Sedimentation of the
str•am substrate, particularly the gravel used for spawning,
produces significant detrimental effects on salmonid resources
<Iwamoto et al. 1978). Iwamoto et al. <1978) note th.at there are
subst.anti.al data describing the deleterious effects of p.articles
of si:es less than 0.850 mm in diameter when they e)(ceed
approMimately 20 percent of the ·total. They also note that
sediments ranging between 0.1 and 3.3 mm appear to cause the
most significant impact.
REVIEW DRAFT lf/49/95 PAGE SS
Sediment deposited on the streambed sur~ace or within the
gravel can reduce
the gravel <Cooper
and direction of
the exchange of water between the stream and
1965>. Three factors affect ~he magnitude
water interchange in spawning beds: (1) The
surface profile of the streambed; (2) depth of the streambed;
and <3> streambed permeability. Water exchange occurs in stream
gravels as either downwelling or upwelling. Downwelling is
predominant in convex streambed surfaces, whereas upwelling
occurs where the streambed is concave. Furthermore, increased
stream gravel permeability induces downwelling, whereas
decreased permeability induces upwelling <Vaux 1968>.
Substantial reductions in flow through the gravel may result
from a reduction in the size of particles in the gravel bad
<Cooper 196~>. Permeability may be increased by removing fine
material from the stream gravels CMcNeil and ~hnell.1964> such
as during flood events that wash fines out ofi the gravel.
The intrusion of fines into •tream ;ravels is a complicated
and not fully understood process <Beschta and Jackson 1979>.
Presently there is little known about the mechanisms and rates
of sediment interchange between the water column and the inter-
stitial environment <Carling 1984>. Sediment intrusion involves
the transport and deposition of particles into gravel voids at
the surface, and the settling of particles into deeper gravel
voids under the influence of gravity, assisted by turbulent
pulses at the gravel surface <Beschta and Jackson 1979>. Since
there is o~ten an exchange of flow between a stream and the
gravel bed of a stream, it is logical to expect that suspended
sediments might be carried into the gravel and deposited even if
they are not deposited on the streambed. While conducting
bedload experiments with gravel, Einstein <1968> noticed that
murky water gradually cleared up at low bedload rates, and
postulated that the deposition of suspended silt particles must
occur in the pores o~ the gravel bed. Subse~uent experiments
showed that the depo~ition rate of suspended silt particles
begin to fill the pores of the ;ravel ~rom the bottom up. The
concentration of silt ranging from 3.~ to 30 microns decre~sed
REVIEW DRAFT 9/G9/S:i PAGE Si
-
-
-
-
-
....
r
exponentially. downstream as sediment was deposited in the stream
gravels. As a result of these experiments, Einstein (1'368>
concluded that the deposition of silt is primarily a function of
the sediment concentration close to the sediment-watlfr interface
and that hydraulic controls are of secondary importance.
Carling <1'364) notes a similar experiment in which low concen-
trations of silty clay <less than 300 mg/L) decreased
exponentially downstream although high concentrations decreased
logarithmically.
A series of experiments conducted by Beschta and Jackson
(1'379> demonstrate that flow conditions, as indexed by Froude
numbers, significantly influenced the degree of gravel intrusion
by sand. Other flow indicators such as shear velocity and
Reynold's number did not significantly affect the amount of
intrUsion. At low F~oud~ numbers, 0.~ mm sand quick~~
established a sand "seal" withir'l the upper :5 ern of the gravel.
Or'lce the sar'ld seal had formed and the intergravel spaces had
filled with fines, the downward movern•nt of additior'lal sediment
was prevented ar'ld the ir'ltrusion process stopped. In comparison
with 0.:5 mm sand, the intrusior'! of 0.2 mm sand was more
extensive suggestir'lg that particle size is an important variable
affecting the intrusior'l of stable gravels. Instead of forming a
sand seal in the upper gravels, the finer sands generally
migrated dowr'l through the test gravels by gravity ar'!d began to
fill tnem from the bottom up. The amour'!t of ir'ltl"'usion of 0.2 mm
sand decreased as the Frouda r'!umber increased from 0.6 to 1. 1.
These observatior'ls support the findings of Einsteir'l <1'368> that
intrusior'l by fine sediments fills stream gravels from the bottom
up.
!Ex;~eriments were cor'!duc:ted by Cooper <1963) using 0. 5 to 74
micron silt in concentrations of 200 ar'ld 2000 ppm to determine
the rate ar'!d magr'litude of fine sediment deposition. Data show
that stream gravels act as a filter il"1 removir•Q SI..ISpended
sediments from the water flowing through the gravel. The rate
REVIEW DRAFT 910'3/85 PAGE5'7
of silt accumulation in the gravel varied in proportion to the
flow through the gravel.
Carling (1984) found that porous gravels could physically
entrap particles in the dead zones on the lee side of gravel
grains and prevent resuspension. In base level flow conditions
an.d low concentrations of sediment, the grain size of particles
settling onto the gravel bed is similar to particles filling the
gravel void spaces. For all concentrations, the deposition rate
was strongly linearly correlated with the suspended sediment
concentration. Results indicate that open-work gravels will
rapidly become silted even with water containing low concentra-
tions of suspended solids.
Thus, the amount of silt and. larger particles trans~orted in
suspension may have a pronounced affect on the natural qual~ty
and composition of gravel substrates in streams. However,
McNeil and ~hnell <1964) report that fines in the gravel can be
locally removed by salmon during spawning. Nevertheless,
additional sediment deposition and infiltration after spawning
may reduce the rate and magnitude of water eMchange in spawning
gravels, to the detriment of developing eggs.
~lthough
particles in
of clay-sized
embedded ness
this proJect.
it is well documented that silt .and larger
suspension may fill streambed gravels, the effects
and other non-settleable particles on streambed
are not reported in the literature reviewed for
In summary, numerous field and laboratory investigations
have documented lethal and sub-lethal effects of suspended and
deposited sediments on freshwater aquatic organisms. These
effects are summarized in Tables 4-1 through 4-4. Most of the
numerical data appearing in these tables pertain to salmonids
and their
t•Jrbidity
habitat. The impacts of a wide range of sediment and
levels have been documented for all stages of salmonid
REVIEW DRAFT CJ/09/8~ PAGE 58
-I
-
-
-
-
-
TABLE 4-3
.:rreCTS OF SUSPENDED SDL!:JS ~NO TUimiDITY ON SAU:CNiil Sl.i~VIVAL AND ~OiliALITY
Qq;aru.§f:L_._ ~iature ano Extent ·:>f_Effe£~ Level •:>r Cone. QyratlOn cf)tm~ents ___ ~efgr~£! ________
Grayling ~ortali;y 2'50, 000 i11g/L 4 days s~spenced solids McLeay et a!. 1'383
Mortali;y 50,000 mgil :6 days Susper.aed solids McLeay et al. ~ 'lJl~ ... .-·-o.J
Survived 10,000 mg/L 5 cays Suswenaed solids !'!ci...ea.y et al. 1'383
No mortality 950 to 8200 NTU 9 days T'JrOidity Si1111110ns 1984
No mortality 880 to 6600 mg/L '3 days Total sol ids Siauoons 1984
RaH:COw Trout <20% :nortali ty '30 ppm 2-6 rocmths DiatoDJa.ceous earth Heroert and Merker.s -:'361
20% ;nortali ty 1000 ppm 37 days Cellulose fiber EIFAC 1'365
50" !!lort alit y 200 ppll 16 weeks Spruce fiber ~~r3ert and Richards -1'363
50:( l!lortal i ty 4250 ppll 28 days Suspenaed gypsum Herbert and Wakeford
1962
Greater than 5~ Greater than 1-6 months Suspended kaolin & Herbert and ~erkens
i.Drtality 270 po• dia.toaaceous earth 1961
No 111ortality 30 ?PM 2-€. months Suspended kaolin ! .ierbert and i"'erkens
diatomaceous earth 1961 .
1 oc~ 110rta.l i ty · 1 &0, 000 ·ppm 1 day Suspenced solids EIFAC 1965
SB-100~ egg mortality 2 to 2481 lllJIL Suspended solids Turnoenny and ~1ll1~s
1580
24-98% egg r110rtali ty 3 to 1810 mg/L Suspended solids Turnpenny and ~illiams
1980
~ortality occurred 1000 to 2500 PPI 20 days SuspenDed solids Campbell 1'354
No mortality 50 and 100 PPII 8 1110nths Coal-washery waste Herbert and Ricnards
1963
No n10rtality 200 POl 9-10 months Coal-washery waste Herbert and Ricnards
1S6.3
No mortality 5S3ppm 4 weeks Suspended gypsUII Herbert and Wa.keford
1'362
Cono Sa.lroor1 50% mortality 1200 in August 4 days Suspended solids ~ggle 1'3iS
35, 000 PPII in
Nov111ber
Chilli Sal1110n egg survival decreased by Increased by 1~ Suspended solids Langer nao
"""' 5'S1o
r
:>i r.K Sal mor. ~ow escapement success Abo•lt 20t.
~d1um escacment success About 1~
high escaper.~nt success About 5%
C:ll'Ej Salmon Fry emergence tiue Increased from
increased 37 to 4~
Emergence success decreased Increased from
27 to Sll'
Juvenile productivity Increased fi'OIG
decreased 44% 0 to lOC%
Biomass decreased 65% Increased from
20 to 31~
Ciunoo)( Salmon S1ergence impaired Ir.creased from
20 to 4~
BrooK rr_out E:abryo emergence time rncreased from
1 rcreaset:l 0 to 1201(.
ateei~.ead Population C:ect-easea oy Increased from
Tro•n as,; 21 to 34"'
BiOIIIiss decreaSeci by ~'"'% Increased frora
20 to 3lt.
Saimonids Deleterious effects Greater than 201
Most siqnificant impact Not stated
0.,833 i!tl1
(), 833 !1111
0.833 rGIII
(3. 32.7 r11111
Fines
<2. 0 mm
(0.8 fll<ll
Sand
<2 mm sand
0. 8 :lllll
o. a •
{0.850 IIIII
Between 0.:
and 3.3 111111
Emc~dedness
,\1;::Neil and ~·mell :?£4
~~Neil and Anne": :954
Mc~ieil and Ai'meL ~36-t
Koski 1966
NCASi 1984!J
Cro•lse et al. 1'381
Burns l972
BJc•rnn 1969
Hausle m: C•Ji:lle 1976
Burns 1'372
Iwamoto et al. 1973
IwaAloto et al. 1978
-
-
-
EFFECiS OF SETILED SOLIDS AND Fir->ES ON SAw'!!GNID :"'O~iHLIH AND SURVIVAL
Src-o±< ~r'•J\It
S.o:;;;.:•n
C.'lum Salmon
S•Jrvi val to a!Dergence
Egg survl'/al cec:reased
Egg surv1val oecreased
1.25%.
u'i inoo!< Sal:~n Egg survival decreased
from 54 to 18~
-~bryo r£rtal i ty
aooroac:'led 50%
-
up to 85% ~rta~ity
E;g survival decr·eased
frc•m 96 to 8%
~g surv1 val aecreased
3.1~
Egg surv1 val decreased
fl"'Ol SE. to lOJ'
E;g survival averaged
22.1~
Egg mortality increasec
Fry mortality increased
Egg mortality averaged
27. 1%
Ralnwfl 7Nut Egg survival decreased
L 1 to 1. ~
Steelheaa
Egg surv1val decreased
by 0.8"
Egg survival ranged
frora 1 to 76%
Egg mortality increased
Egg surv1val aecreased
fma 99 to 18%
S;g survival decreased
to 3.~
Egg survival decreased
to lBJ'
qg survival decreased
to 10%
~g survival decreased
to 6lC.
~q survi ·tal aecreased
frolll 52 to 3-~
Greater tnan 20%
20 to 3~ range
Each 1% increase
Increased from
28 to 3'3%
30 to 40%
15 ~o 30% of
gravel vo1as
Increased from
0 to 70'/.
2 J1D1 sand
Fines
Sand
6.4 Olilll
Sand
Silt
1 to 3 lll'l1
Each i% increase Sana
Increased from
0 to 70r.
Sand
0.85 rilll
Greater than 1~% Fines
Increased frou Fines
25 to 31:t
2.7 to 51% fines 3. 327 11111
Each 1% increase 0.6 111111 fines
Each l~ increase 6.4 mm fines
Not stated 2 to 26.5 aa
Breater than 201. Fines
Increased to 70% Sand
Increased to 6. 4 11111 fines
39.4%
Increased to 701. 1 to 3 mrn
fines
Increased to 0. 085 :nm
13.5% fines
Increased to 501. '3.5 mm fines
I ncreasec to 20% !), 25 ;,1~1 f ~ nes
~,:an egg s1Jrv1vai was 17. IJ' Exceecea 20% 0. 35 ·,1m
C:;g SIJrvlva~ cecreasec: 3. 4% C:ac::J 1% 1ncrease ·). S5 mm
In gravel
Filled gravel
voids
In gravel
In gravel
In ~ravel
In gravel
3~fer~-------
Mausle and Ccule :976
BJornn et al. ~374
:'.oski 1'375
NCASI 1984o
Shelton arn:j Poi lack
1'365
Phillios et a.l. 1'375
Cedernolm et ai.. :sao
~~illips et al 1375
Tagart 1'376
:waw~to et al. 1378
Crouse et al. :sa:
Kos~.i 1 '3€5
NCASI 1984a
NCAS! l984a
Witzel and ;r'.ac:Crir.11110n
1381
Iwamoto et al. 1978
Phillips et al. 1975
NCASI 1S84b
Phil:ios et al. 1975
Tappel and S.Jornn 1383
C~Cet .. :-;c.:~1 :: a:. :·380
Cecerhv:r~ =t a.i.. • ?2{i
7ABli: 4-4
MISCELL..O.'oiEOUS EF~CTS OF SUSPEN:JED SCL.i::lS AND T'JRBrD!TY C.~ AGUAT!C 3IG7A
cr~cg,n;.~}! ___ ,IJat:lte and Extent •Jf Effects Level or Cone. Durati.c.:-1 _ Ccm~nt~---1~fgr:ence -,.. . .
~aLmc•mos lTi Cease instream movements l;(K)Q ppm Sed i Dl£!rrt load Bell 1'3i3
genera~ No aocarent detriment 500 to 1000 JODI Seaiment load Bell :'373
~educed feeding Greater than 25 Turbidity L~nger 1360 _.,"'it.
liTU
;Jroouction reduce<i Greater than 25 Turbidity NCASI 19840
JTU
.~ainbow Tro•lt Proouction increased 35% itedllced tly 85% Sane Alexander and fiansen ~
1983
Slight effect on gro"th 50 t•) 60 00111 Coal wash~ry ~ste Herbert and ~ichards
1;53 II!IW'1
Reduced growth rate 270 ppm 4.5 f!!Onths Suspended matter iiert:lert anc "erkens
1'361
Juvenile coculat1on 1000 to 2000 ppm 20 days Suscenoed sol ids ;J:,illios et al. !Si5 ~
decreased 57~
i'fJt'Rial gills 30 ~Pftl il.aolin & 2 1110nths Suspended solids Hertlert and il!er~.er1s
aiato:naceoiJS earth 1961 -)~r111al ;i!l histology 30 to 90 Oil/A >5 months Suscendea solids ner:Jert and )'!erll.ens
kaolin & ciato-1961
~~aceous eartn ~"
Gill thickening or fusing 270 and B 10 Pill >S 110nths Sus!]ended solids Herbert aTid Merkens
1961
No st;n of d1sease SO POll 8 months Wood fiber Herbert arid !l!erkens
1'361 ~
Caudal fin disease 270 PPIII 57 days Diat ~mace<:••Js earth Herbert and l'lerkens
!951
Some fln duease 200 PCII 8 1110nths Wood fiber Her':lert and :~erkens -l%1
Steel head Avoidance ) 167 NTU Turbid1ty Sigler et al. 1984
Trout neduted growth 2S NTli TuriJidity Sig:i.er et al. 1'384
Displacement 40 to SO NiU Turblliity Sigler et al. 1384
Cono Salr.10n Avoidance ) 167 NT't.l Turbidity Sigler et al. 1'384
Feeding reduced 100 1g/L Suspended sol ids Noggle 1~78
Feeding reduced 70 to 100 NTU Turbidity ~labaster 1972; Sykora
et al. 1'372
Feec1ng ceased 200 illg/L 51Jsper!Ged sol ias Noggle 19i8
Reduced gr0111th 25~ 7uraldi ty Sigler et :tl. 1384
Avotaance by Juveniles 70 NTU i•lr':lidity Bisson and Bilby 1982
Displacement 4V to 50 NTU T•Jrblaity Sigler 138!
Bel I 1973 ~"'' Alga: 3aseo Recucec 25 NTU Turtmllty
PtQCI!C~ivlty
R·~otea iJ:ar•ts Absem .) 2000 OOID China .:lay i<ltls:es ,~ut';all ar;d B:~Jy ,-........
... jij_
·3u:Jmer;ec are" ~:'l :ee;::er water !{e!llltec fro111 •? 7•Jr~:.c: ':y Reec et al. ,cc,-, .... .... l..!w
Pi ants to o :·;TU
Aauat ic ~la.r;~s Rec•lc:eu or•::Gilct i -:;n 0 tc. :~00 iliU "T•!rtliility 'ianNieflwerr:ll'fSc : ;e3
TABLE 4-4 Continued
~ISCELLANEOUS EFrECTS OF SUSPENDED SEDI~ENT w~D TURBIDITY CN AQLATIC BIGiA
Qrcar.l§_m __ ~e!!J~_and E~f Effec1 Leye 1 ot' Cone. Duration Cc:,m~.t~-----·: Jjefere!!£~---------
Benthic Poouiation reduced by ~~ 40 [J]g/L Suspended so! i as Gai~ri:r:.n !370
Inverteorates Populat1on reduced by 40% 80 to 120 mg/L Susoendea sol ids Gisillmon :SiO
~ooulations reduced by 60~ ) 120 111g/L Susoended solids GariiiROn 1970
Poo•Jlatlon reduced to 25% 261 to 390 pp11 Susoer!ded soluis Sorensen et al. :'377
Bottom fauna absent 250ppm Susoended solias EiFAC 1%5
Populat1on numbers reduced 40 to 200 JiU Turbidity Sorensen et al. J.S77
Density reduced to w: 1000 to 6000 JTU -Susoended solids Heroert et al. 1561
Abunaance unaffected 60 ppra Susl]enaed solids Herbert et ai. 1561
~~ 1ncrease in drift 40 mg/L increase -Susper~ed solids GalllfiiOn 1370
'30% increase in drift 80 mg/L increase -Suspended solids Gammon :370
Reduced abundance 0 to >2250 NTU i:Jrbidity La.::erriere et al. 198:3
iorrent 3cuLi:lin Impaired Feeding 0 to 1250 11g/L Suspended solios Brus·,..er. and Rose 1 '381
Grayling c:levated blood ~lucose, 10,000 •giL 4 days Suspended solids .'lfcLeay ~t al. 1983
reduced leucocrit
Gill hypertropny and 34 and 1210 mq/L ---Susper~ed solids )!c!.eay et al. 1983
hyperolasia
SNam to surface 110,000 rng/L Suspended solids i'llcLeay et al. 1983
NorNal iill histologies · 170 mg/L 4 days Total sol ids SiAliDOns 1984
Moderate gill tissue casage 1205 mg/L 2 days Total solids s i il'olll0n5 1984
Ex~ensive gill daeage 1388 mg/L ~ days Total solios Simmons 1984
Limited food intake 1150 to 4825 NTU 6 days Turbidity SiiiiiiiOnS 1'?84
LiMited food intake 1340 to 6280 6 days Total sollds Simmons 1964
tg/L
Br•:.wn irout ~·Joulation urliffected 60 PDII Suspended S(Jlids Herbert et al. 1'361
Reauced abundance 1000 ppm Suspended sol ics Herbert et al. 1961
De!lSlty reduced by 86f; 1000 to 6000 PP• ---Suspended solids EIFAC 1365
Production increased by 41~ Reduced by asy; Sand Alexancer ar.d Hansen
1983
Ciltthroat Cease Feea1ng 35 pplll Suspended solids BachiNTin 1958
Trout
BrooK Trout Increased ventilatory 231 NTU Clay Car 1 son 1984
r95ponse
Q!onnu !!~£!~ Har11ful effects 92 to 102 PPII Kaolinite and E!FAC 1%5
110ntmorillonite
development
and adtJlt
perforn1ed
including eggs and embryos, alevins, fry, Juveniles,
fish. Ft.~rthermore, quantit&tive analyses nave been
to determine the effects of sediment on feeding,
growth, prodtJctivity, biomass,
and behavior. Nonetheless, a
abundance, anatomy~ physiology,
number of data g&ps exist with
regard to threshold levels having a specific effect on a
particular species.
The above discussion demonstrates that particulates have
detrimental effects on freshwater aquatic biota.
(1) Turbidity reduces the •mount of light available for
green pl&nt growth and photosynthesis within water
bodies, can inhibit instream movements of fish, and
may inhibit the &bility of fish to see their prey.
<~> Turbidity and sett1ed solids can cause reductions in
invertebrate populations and can cause an increase in
invertebrate drift.
<3> Ability of fish to withstand various concentrations of
settled and/or suspended solids depends on their life
stage. Adult fish can withstand relatively high concen-
trations of suspended solids for limited amounts of time
without suffering mortality, although other physiologi-
cal effects such as fin and ;ill damage and stress
reactions may result.
C4> Survival of fish eggs and JUVeniles may be significantly
reduced by settled solids in spawning and rearing areas.
<S> Settled solids have direct effects on aquatic biota and
habitat by smothering fish eggs, alevins, and inverte-
brates, reducing intergravel flow, and by coating
aquatic vegetation, thus reducing the potential for
photosynthesis.
<6> Solids in suspension can cause invertebrate drift, cause
fish to avoid previously usable habitat, prevent fish
from seeing their prey, and cause physical damage, such
as gill irritation, to fish.
REVIEW DRAFT ~/QS/85 PAGE'~
.~.
-
-
I"'"'
-
-
(7) Silt ~nd larger particles in the water column can fill
open-work gravels •ven when the concentration of
suspended solids in the water is low.
The biological effects of inorganic suspended solids on
marine communities are complex and extremely difficult to
quantify. The effects on zooplankton and higher aquatic
organisms are more difficult to evaluate than the effects on
phytoplankton <:Brehmer 1965). With the exception of a few
commercially important species, little is known about the
effects of turbidity and suspended material on marine
i r1vert ebratas <Stern and Stickle 1978). Different species of
marine organisms are affected to different degrees by the same
concentrations of turbidity~causing sediments <Loosanoff 196~i
Moor~e 1977; McFarland and Peddicord 1 980). Many species of
-marine ~hellfish and finfish are sensitiv• to increases in
suspended solids, which undoubtedly have an inJurious effect on
the estuarine community as a whole <Brehmer 1965). Filter
feeders and early-life stages of estuarine fish are more
sensitive to suspended sediments than bottom dwelling organisms
and adult fish <Sherk et al. 1973). As filter feeders, bivalves
are particularly susceptible to the mechanical or abrasive
action of suspended sediments <Cairns 1967; Moore 1977). Other
filt•r-feeding invertebrates at risk from inorganic suspensions
include mollusks, certain crustaceans, sponges, ascidians, and
E!metl.!.2!i~! (Moore 1977).
The effects of particulates on marine biota are divided into
discussions of plankton, egg development and hatching success,
larva• survival and development, and adult survival. This is
followed by a discussion of feeding and growth and finally
distribution.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/QS/85 PAGE6S
Carbon assimilation rates by four species of phytoplankton
were si;nificantly reduced by the light attenuating properties
of fine silicon dioxide suspensions. A concentration of 1000
mg/L caused a ~0 to 90 percent reduction in carbon uptake among
the four species tasted. A concentration of asoo mg/~ caused an
eo percent reduction in one of the species tested <Sherk et al.
1 S7G>.
The presence of an open-ocean turbidity plume in the North
Equatorial Pacific, havin; an average suspended sediment concen-
tration of 440 ug/L, reduced primary productivity by 40 percent
over the entire euphotic zone. However, because particulate
concentrations return to ambient within a few days, it is
believed that
<Ozt urgut et
speci•s composition changes would not take place
al. 1981). The results of two sets ~f plankton
tows indicated there was no maJor.de~rease in the abun~ance~of
neustonic macrozooplankton or sufficient amounts of particulates
ingested to cause alteration in their chemical composition at
turbidity concentrations of less than 1 mg/L.
The relationship between gastropod eggs and suspended solids
concentrations is discussed in a literature review by Stern and
Stickle C197S). One species of planorbid snail showed normal
egg development at 190 to 3&0 ppm, while another species
experienced high mortality at the same concentrations. A third
species did not lay eggs in the 360 ppm water but did so in
water containing 190 ppm suspended solids.
Loosanoff and Davis <1963) report that silt is considerably
more harmful to oyster e;;s than to clam eggs. at
concentrations of 2~0 mg/L silt, only 73 percent of oyster eggs
survived, while more than 9~ percent of clam eggs developed
normally. Practically all clam eggs developed in concentrations
of 500 mg/~ silt, while only 31 percent of oyster eggs survived.
In a 1000 mg/L suspension of kaolin and Fuller's earth, on the
other hand, practically all oyster aggs developed normally,
REVIEW DRAFT C1 /~9/SS PAGE hh
-
-
-
llllm!o.•
-
-
-
~·,
.~
-
-
-
while
showed
eggs
earth
only 37 to
that the
decreased
increased
57 percent of clam eggs survived. Davis <1'360)
normal development of clam CY~n~§ m~rs~n~r1~l
as concentrations of clay, chalk, and Fuller's
up to 4000 mg/L. The same was ~~ue for silt
concentrations exceeding 750 mg/L. Furthermore, no clam eggs
developed normally in silt concentrations of 3000 or 4000 mg/L.
In a subsequent paper, Davis and Hidu <1'369>, report that 188
mg/L silt, 3000 mg/L kaolin, or 4000 mg/L Fuller's earth
significantly reduced the normal development of American oyster
eggs. Oyster eggs were not, however, affected by 4000 mg/L
silicon dioxide, . regardless of the particle size. These
findings suggest that the composition, as well as the concentra-
tion of different sediments may be critical to the normal
development of bivalve eggs.
Auld and. Sch•Jbel ( 1 '376> note that suspe-nded sediment concen-
trations up to 1000 mg/L did not significantly affect the
hatching success of a variety of non-salmonid anadromous and
estt.Larine fish. The same concentrations did, however, reduce
the hatching success of white perch and striped bass. Kiorboe
et al. <1'381) report that herring eggs are unaffected by
s•Jspended silt. They note that the embryonic development of
herring is unaffected by either short-term exposure to 500 mg/L,
or long-term exposure to 5 to 300 mg/L suspended silt.
With respect to larval survival and development,
experimental results indicate that suspended sediment concentra-
tions of 500 mg/L significantly reduced the survival of striped
bass and white perch larvae, whereas short-term exp9sure to 100
mg/L reduced the survival of American shad larvae CAuld and
Schubel 1'378). As in the case of clam and oyster eggs,
Loo:sanoff and Davis ( 1'363) found silt to be more harmful to
oyster larvae than to clam larvae. At a concentration of 750
mg/1_ silt, oyster larvae growth was markedly decreased, while
clam larvae grew normally in 1000 mg/L silt. Moreover, clam
larvae survived for 1i2 days in 3000 to 4000 mg/L silt. In
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0'3/85 PAGE lt7
contrast to si 1 t, 1000 mg/L kaolin caused total mortality in
clam larvae in 12 days, while the growth of oyster larvae was
not affected by 1000 mg/L kaolin. Silicon dioxide particles
ranging from S to 50 microns had little effect o~·the survival
of either
pert icles
clam or American oyster larvae. The smallest
<<5 microns> had the greatest affect on the larvae of
both species. Growth of American oyster larvae decreased
progressively as the size of silicon dioxide particles decreased
<Davis and Hidu 1969>. From these studies, it was concluded
that bivalve larvae grew faster in low concentrations of
suspended solids than in clear sea water <Davis and Hidu 1969).
With respect to adult survival, McFarland and Peddicord
(19S0) observed a wide range of sensitivities to suspended
kaolin among the 16 marine species they studied. Eight species
exhibit•d lass than 10 percent mortality aft•r exposure to ~00
g/L suspended sediment. Several other species were found to be
rnore sens it i ve.
was 96 giL. Two species of tunicates we~e relatively tolerant
of suspended solids with a 12-day LC~O of 100 giL. The 200-hr
LCSO for the spot-tailed sand shrimp was ~0 g/L. The 400-hr
LC30 for the same species was 40 giL indicating a high tolerance
to suspended clay. The euryhaline grass shrimp was even less
sensitive to suspended kaolin. The Oungeness crab, ~Ans~r
m~a1§t@~, was found to be more sensitive than any of the shrimp
species, with a 200-hr LC50 of 32 giL. The amphipod,
8n1~2QA!!!!!l!.~Y~
sensitivity to
£2Df•c~i~2!Y•• demonstrated an intermediate
suspended sediment with a 100-hr LCSO of 78 g/L.
The kaolin concentration which caused SO percent mortality in
the polychaete
Er•gl ish sole,
10 days at a
percent mortality occurred after 10 days at 117 giL. The shiner
perch, ~.!. §~.;r•.;§1.!h was the most sensitive sp•cies tested with
only one fish alive after 26 hotirs i~ 14 g/L suspe~ded kaolin
<McFarland and Peddiccrd 1960). In a similar publication,
REVIEW DRRFT <J /09/65 PAGE "8
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Peddicord <1980> states that marine and estuarine invertebrates
were able to tolerate continuous exposure to suspensions of
kaolin and bentonite in the grams/liter range for several days
to several weeks without substantial mortality. Fi~h tolerated
similar concentrations for similar periods under similar
conc:l it ions. Even at high temperatures and low dissolved oxygen
concentrations, most invertebrates tolerated continuous exposure
to 60 g/L suspended bentonite for several days before mortality
occurred. An exception is noted for JUVenile Dungeness crabs
which were affected to a greater degree by kaolin suspensions
than other species. Moore <1977) notes an experiment in which
shrimp <gr~!!.EI.2!! sp.> survived immersion for 14 days in a clay
suspension of 3000 mg/L.. In another experiment, grs!!.EI2!! sr~!!.EI.2!!
survived red mud suspensions up to 33 g/L for 72 hours, but were
heavily coated on the gills. Experiments using seed scallops
showed elevated respira~iQn rates at-kaolin concentrat~ons-o~
250 to 1000 mg/L.. Adult bivalves <Br.EI2Q§SI~!! 1rrs912!!~> also
showed higher respiration rates at ~00 and 1000 mg/L kaolin.
The bivalve ~~~ ~r§n~r1~ survived for only 11 days at 1220 mg/L
suspended mud and 1~ days at 1~20 mg/L. chalk <Moore 1977>~ In
their literature review, Stern
suspended sediment concentrations
and Stickle <1978> report that
from 4 to 32 g/L can be
detrimental to oysters. Furthermore, they note that scallop and
quah1og <clam> reproduction may be impaired by high
concentrations of suspended solids.
Pedd ic:ord et al. < 197~> note several investigations in which
deposited sediments increased the mortality rate of bottom
dwelling marina invertebrates. Oysters <gr•~~Q3Ir§2 ~ira1niss>
suffered ~7 percent mortality where they were covered with 2 to
15 em of sediment near a dredge spoil site. This compared to 17
percent mortality in the same oyster bed where little
sedimentation had occurred. Cumaceans and harpacticoid c:opeoods
were killed by deposition of 15 em of sediment. The same amount
of deposition reduced the number of large bivalves by 50
percent.· In experiments conducted by Peddic:c•rd at al. < 1'375>,
REVIEW DRAFT 9/119/85 PAGE""
the rnc•rt ali ty
60 percent
of mussels C~L §lMll~> was 10 percent under 4 em
under 6 and 8 em of sediment deposited on the
Static bioassays conducted by Sherk et al. <1'375>
established the lethal concentration of Fuller's earth on a
variety of non-salmonid estuarine fish. Species were classified
as tolerant 010 g/L), sensitive <1.0 to 10 g/L), or highly
sensitive <<1.0 giL.>, based on a ~4-hour L.C10. Lethal
concentrations ranged from O.~a to 24.~ giL., depending on the
species. E~posure to sublethal concentrations of Fuller's earth
significantly increased the hematocrit value, hemoglobin concen-
tration, and erythrocyte numbers among the species tested.
With
( 1 '380)
levels
respect to feeding and growth, Johnston and Wildish
conducted an lnvestigation to determine if increa~~d
of suspended sediment reduced the feeding rate of larval
herring.
the same
However,
Larvae fed in water containing 4 and a mg/L. consumed
quantity of zooplankters as those fed in clear water.
larvae fed at 20 mg/L consumed significantly fewer zoo-
plankters than did the controls. They concluded that decreased
light intensity at the lower sediment concentrations (4 and e
mg/L>, is not sufficient to depress larval feeding rates. At
greater suspended sediment concentrations (20 mg/L), light
intensity and visibility of prey are reduced sufficiently to
cause depressed feeding rat••· Brehmer <196~) reports that the
feeding activity· of certain filter-feeding shellfish is
ir·1hibited by high suspended solids levels. At"t &K&mple is noted
by Moore <1977) in which the filtration rate of a mollusk
<~r-~1gY1A sp.) was significantly reduced as turbidity increased
from 140 to 200 mg/L. Likewise, Johnson <1971) found that the
filtration rates of ~. fQ~nl~&t~ decreased as natural suspended
solids levels increased from 2 to 250 mg/L. Ha also found that
the filtration rate decreased significantly as the concentration
of silt, Fuller's earth, and kaolin was increased up to 6 g/L
under experimental conditions. It is interesting to note the
REVIEW DRAFT q;Q3/85 PAGE 70
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difference between natural and e~perimental sediment
concentrations which produced the same reported effect. The
presence of 0 to SOO mg/L suspended kaolin reduced the filtering
rate of the scallop !:l!!~9.e~~i~n mee.~llen.i£!:!§. and-the mahogany
quahog 8~~ii£!! ialen~i£~ <Peddicord et al. 197~>.
In
< 1 9,eo>
the lower sediment concentration range, Kiorboe et al.
indicate that the blue mussel M~iil!:!a ~~!:!lia is well
adapted to feeding in silt suspensions up to SS mg/L, and even
benefits from concentrations up to a~ mg/L. Furthermore, Stern
and Stickle (1978) cite a report in which the pumping rate of ~·
!!9.!:!l.ia
In ar1
little
was not reduced by bentonite suspensions of 1000 mg/L.
e~periment conducted by Loosanoff and Tommers <1948>, as
as 100 mg/L silt significantly reduced the water pumping
and shell movements of adult oysters. At concentrations of
to 4000 mg/L the Rumping rate was reduced by 94 percen~~
In another eHperiment, oysters failed to resume normal pumping
rat<es shell movements after being subJected to water
containing 1000 to 4000 mg/L suspended sediment for 48 hours
<Loosanoff 1961>. It as apparent that suspended sediments
or
adversely
pal ps.
affect adult oysters by damaging their gills and
Furthermore, it was apparent that oysters and clams feed
most effectively in relatively clean water. In contrast, Stern
and Stickle <1978) cite a report which states that oyster
feeding rates were not impaired by 100 to 700 ppm of suspended
mud.
The ingestion rate of two calanoid copepods was
significantly reduced during exposure to a 2~0 mg/L mixture of
Fuller's earth, fine silicon dioxide, and river silt <Sherk et
al. 197~; 1976>. At a concentration of 300 mg/L river silt, the
ingestion rate was reduced by 77.3 percent <Sherk et al. 1976>.
The distribution of marine organisms may be affected by
turbid conditions. Resulting from an investigation of the
filtration and shell growth rate of the filter feeding gastropod
REVIEW DRAFT q/49/S:S PAGE 11
~. f2~ni~~~~' Johnson (1'371) suggests that sustained high
turbidity levels May have a liMiting effect on its distribution.
Moore (1977> notes that an inshore cephalopod, ~~lia~n~~l~
Q!:.~Y.ia, pr~eferred intermediate t•.trbidities <70 t<::. '30 percent
light transmission> and was limited seaward by higher
turbidities.
Several anadromous salmonid investigations perfo~med in
fresh water are cited in the marine literature. The results of
such studies apply to both fresh water and marine systems and
are presented above in Tables 4-1 through 4-4. The quantitative
effects of suspended solids and turbidity on marine plankton and
macroinvertebrates are summari:ed in Tables 4-5 and 4-6.
The above discussion demonstrates that particulates may_ have
detrimental . effects on marina biota. These effects ~re
summarized below.
<1> The biological affects of particulates on marine biota
are similar to the affects on freshwatar aquatic biota.
Particulates in the water column reduce the amount of
light availabla for photosynthasis, can inhibit move-
ments of fish, and may inhibit the ability of fish and
other sight-feeders to sae their prey. Filter feeders,
which are p&rticularly susceptible to the mechanical or
abrasive action of suspandad sadimants, and early-life
stages of astuarina fish are more sensitive to suspended
sadimants than bottom dwalling organisms and adult fish.
<2> Much of the marine literatura refers to the effects
caused by clay, silt, chalk, Fullar's aarth, and kaolin.
It appears that tha composition and/or particle size, as
well as the concentration of different sediments may be
critical to predicting the effects of particles on
Marine organisms.
<3> The difference between natural and experimental sediment
concentrations producing the same reported effect should
REVIEW CRAFT q /Q9/SS PAGE 7'-
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'-TABLE: 4-5
SURVIVAL AND MORTALITY 0? MARINE ORGANISMS
O"rgaD~m ____ ~~and g~~ent of Effeg, b~vel~~ Qurat ig_n __ Commems ~g _____
Alewife, YeiloM ~4tching success unaffected 1000 111g/L Suspended sol ids Au~d and Sch•1iiel 1'378
Perch, American
Slao, Bl uec,ac!t
"""' Herring
lo.tlite Perch,, Hatching success affected 1000 mg/L Suspended solids Auld and Sch•Joel 1'378
Striced Bas!>
'"""' Ye llON Perch, Reduced survival of larvae lSOO mgiL Suspended solids Auld arrd Schubel 1978
Striped Bas!>
Hiler ican Sh<id Reduced survival of larvae }100 mg/L 4 days Susoenaed solids Auld arrd Schubel 1'378
Five Scecie!> 1~ 110rtali ty 580 to 24,500 24 hours Susaended solids Sherk et ai. 1'375
1g/L
iierrirrg Egg!; Survival reduceci to 40-50~ 1 to 10 111l/L Suspended t'ed !D•Jd Rosanthal 1971
and Larvae Surv1val reduced to 0-22J 1.25 to 12.5 Suspended red ~ud Rosenthal 1971
11l/L
8 Scecle!> o1F 10~ 110rtali ty 100,000 mg/L 5-12 days Suspended kaolin JIII:Fariand and
Estuarine Pecdicord 1980
itlacrofauna
Shiner Perch Near 100% mortality 14,000 mg/L 26 hours Suspended kaol1n ll!cF ar 1 and arro
Peddicord 1980
Errgl1sh Sol!! No 1110rtality } 70,000 11g/L 10 days Suspenaed kaolin McFarland and
Peddicoro 1S80
80% mortality 117,000 mg/L 10 days Suspended kaolin l'lc:Farland and
Peddicord 1980
Hdult Bivalve Jllortality 1ncreased frca Increased from 15 days Suspended chalk Moore 19n
t~. ~n~ii~l 0 to 100% 440 to 1520 mg/L -Bl\le mussel 1~ iDOrtal i ty 100,000 11g/L 11 days Susoended kaolirr Peddicord et al. !'375
Coast musse:i 50% mortality 96,000 ag/L 200 hours Suspended clay McFarland and
Peddicord 1980
Polyd1aete 50% 1110rtali ty 48, 000 IIQ/L 200 hours Suspended kaolin Mcfarland and
Pedaicord 1980
Clam larvae <90% 1110rtali ty 250-500 ag/L Mixed suspension Davis 1960
No appreciable .ortality 4000 11g/L Silt Davis 1960
Clu & oystt!r Severe 110rtal i ty 500 IIIQ/l Silicon dioxide Davis and Hidu 1969
larvae
Sea Urctun No 110rtality 100, 000 ;g/L 9 days ~eddicord et al. 1375
Oysters 57% 110rtality 2 to 15 ca Depes1ted sediment Pecdicord et al. 1975
Cusaceans & !'lortality 15 Clll Deoosi ted sed ient Peddicord et al. 1975
cooecocs
Bivalie!> Mortality 15 em Oeoosited seciment Peddicord et a:. :975
"~ussel 10~ !IIOrtality 4 Cll Deposited sediment Peddicoro et al. 19i'5
(~. ~Qllll 60% :aortall ty 6 and a em Deoos1ted seaiment Peddicord et a:. 1575
~EV:EW riRAFT '3/09/35 PAGE 7'3
IAEL: ~-5 Continued
stiRVIVAL AND i'\ORT~LITY OF i"!ARIIIE ORG~ISMS
Croa!:!U:!! __ Nature and Extent of Effect Leve~ or Co~-Duration Collllllent aeference
T'Jnicates (2) 5:)~ mortality 100,000 rngJL. 12 cays Suspenceri clay McFarlane and
Pedaicord :sao
Arncniood 5()1' 110rtali ty 55, COO mg/L 2.00 ;,ours SusoeJ'Idea ll.aol in PeC!dicord et al. 1'.175
SO% 10rtality 78,000 mg/L 100 hours Suspel'll1ed clay McFarLand ana
Peddicord 1380
20~ illortali ty 35,000 mg/L 200 hours Susoended kaol ir, Peild icord et a 1. 1975
Euryhaline 20% iDOrtality 77,000 mg/L 200 hours Suspended kaolin Peddic:ora at al. 1'375
Grass Sh r1r~o
Soot-talled 50% 1110rtal1 ty !0,000 mg/L 200 hours Suspended c:iay l'tcF ar land ar1d
Sano Shrimo Peddicord 1980
Shnmp Surv1ved clay concentrations 3000 mg/L 1~ days Suspendea clay J!toore 1977
\~ancQn so. l Survtvec red mud Up to 33 1 000 !IIQ/L 72 hours Suspended clay Moore 1977
L.obster IJo mortality SO, 000 rdg/L Suspended kaolin Stern and Stickle
1978
No 1110rt al it y 1600 ppll Turbidity Stern and Stickle
!'379·
Junge ness 50,; IDOrt aii ty 32, 000 mg/L 200 hours Suspenced·clay :o!c:Farland and'
Crao Peddicord lSBO
Estuarine Ito s•Jbstar.t 1al 110rtality Uc to 60,000 mg/L Several days Suscended Kaolin and P!!ddtcord 1960
Invertebrates bentonite
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REVIEw DRAFT 3/09/85 ~Gt: 7'i
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1
I
TABLE 4-6
~iSCELLANEOUS EFrEC7S ON MARINE ORGANISMS
Araer1c:an Clyster >22% decrease in normal egg 188-4000 rng/L
developent
O'fsters
Seed Sc:all ops
Clams
Q•Jahog
i"'~liiJSK
1-brmal egg development
Reduced average pWip i ng
rate !:ly 57%
Reeuc:ed average pu.ping
rate by 94%
Failed to resulllt! noM!al
functions
No effect on feeding
Elevated respiration rate
No eggs developed normally
Decreased development
Ceased feeding
Reduced filtration rate
Filtration rate
\Cre:wlula sp. l s1gm fic:antly reauced
~ussel Well adaoted to silt cone.
(~til•Js sp. l Benefits fro~~ silt cone.
Increased respiration rates
No reduction in pumping
rates
Phytoalankton Production reduced to 40%
Carbon assimilation
decreased by 5o-S~
Carbon assi•ilation
Prireary
decreased !:ly 80%
Reduced by SQ1.
To 1000-2000 mg/L
100 oog/L
3000-4000 mg/L
1000-4000 mg/L
lOQ-700 ppm
250-1000 111g/L
3000-4000 111g/L
Up to 4000 mg/L
1000 JTU avera~e
0 to 500 11g/L
Increased fr011
140-200 IIQ/l
Up to 55 mg/L
Up to 2S 1g/l
5()0-1000 11g/L
1000 mg/L
0.440 11g/L
1000 •giL
2500 11q/L
41-43 JTU average
Proc•1chon
Zooplankto:n No significant decrease in 1 ~~g/L
abundance
Calanoid
Copecods
Cephalopod
Sastrocod
Hernng
Ingestion rate reduced 77%
Ingestion rate reduced
si gnficantl y
Preferred intermediate
turbidities
Decreased filtration rate
500 :nq/L
250 11g/L
70-90% light
transmission
r ncreased fi'OII
2 to 250 mg/L
Decreased shell growth rate Increasea from
80 to 1560 mg/l
~iltration rate decreased Uc to 6000 lllQ/L
~bryonic deveiocment
•maFected cy con'o inuous
exoos•J~
Larval feeaing signifi-
cantly reduced
Up ~o 300 mg/L
20 rr.g/l.
48 hours
5 days
7-14 days
Te~~corary
T~ary
:....:>ng-term
Suspended silt
~ixed suspensions
Silt
Silt
Silt suspens1ons
Suspended sol ids
Kaolin suspensions
Silt susoensions
~ixed suspens1ons
Turbidity
Suspended ~aolin
Sus~ed solids
Silt
Silt
Kaolin suspensions
Bentonite
Suspensions
!IJining plume
Silicon diollide
suspension
Silicon dioxide
suspension
TIJrbidity
Mining plUIIE!
Suspended si 1 t
Mixed suscension
Natural seaiment
~ixed sus~ension
~ixed susoension
Suspended silt
Suscenc.ed so: ias
Davis and Hid•J 1'369
Davis and iiidu 1969
Loosanoff and T011mers
1'348
Loosar:off and iommers
~S48
Loosanoff 1361
Stern and Stickle
1978
!'!core 1977
Davis 1960
Davis 1960
Stern and Stickle
:978
Peodicord et..ai. 1'375
Moore 1'377
Kiorboe et al. 1980
Kiorboe et al. 1980
Moore 1977
Stern and Stickle
1978
Ozturgut et al. 1981
Sherk et al. 1976
Sherk et al. 1g]6
Stern and Stickle
1978
Ozturgut et al. 1981
Sherk et al. 1376
Sher~ et al. 1'375;
1976
1>1oore 1977
Johnson 1971
.:-d1nson :371
r:i·~r'X•E er. a:. 1'38:
• 'jQ':·
.... \.IL.
be noted. Laboratory experiments often do not duplicate
natural conditions or reflect natural levels of organism
tolerance to turbidity and suspended material.
4.3 SUGGESTED CRITERIA FROM THE LITERATURE
Various authors suggest different criteria for the
prctection of water used for supply, recreation, and biota.
This section presents these suggested criteria. It should be
noted that there is general agreement on the criteria for water
supply and recreation,
aquatic biota are varied.
but the criteria for the protection of
4.3. 1 Water Supply
For drinking water, ··the raw water source should be limi1;ed
to 5 turbidity units if only disinfection is applied <George and
Lehnig 1984>. Higher levels of particulates are acceptable if
the source water is adequately treated <coagulation,
sedimentation, prior to chlorination or other means
of disinfection. EPA C1976) notes that finished drinking water
should have a maximum limit of 1 turbidity unit where the water
enters the distribution system.
The water quality criteria for particulates varies amor-1g
industrial uses. At one extreme, rayon manufacture requires
water with only 0.3 turbidity units, whereas water used for
cooling can have l.lp to ~0 turbidity units CMcGauhey 1 968>.
Other industrial uses require maximum turbidity levels within
this range.
Criteria established for evaluating and identifying water
treatment
Consultants
needs
( 1 979)
for fish
include
hatcheries by Sigma Resource
limits on suspended solids. The
suggested limit for sr.tspended solids for incubating eggs is 3
REVIEW DRAFT CfiQ9/S~ PAGE 'Tw
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rtJt!L. and for rearing and holding the limit is 25 mg/L in the
absence of other pollutants.
4.3.2 Recreation
The noticeable
turbidity units,
<Mc6auhey 1968>.
threshold for water contact recreation is 10
and the limiting threshold is 50 units
Tha suggested maximum turbidity limit for
Cana1dian contact recreational water quality is 50 turbidity
units and the minimum Secchi disk visibility depth is 1.2 meters
<National Health and Welfare 1983>. Fishing success is reduced
whar·e turbidity is greater than 23 <Phillips 1971) to 30 NTU
<Grundy 197S>. According to McGauhey (1968>, the noticeable
threshold for boating and aesthetic uses is 20 turbidity units.
However, there is no evidence that boating and aesthetic uses
are precluded at higher t~rbiditias.
4. 3. 3 Biota
Sugestad particulates criteria from the literature are
divided into two categories in the following discussion: <1>
Criteria for sediment in the water column <suspended solids and
turbidity)f and, <2> Criteria for sediment deposited on the
substrata <settleable solids and substrate measurements>.
by
aqu•.t ic
SUQ!;i&Sted
m1aters
surf' ace.
suspended sadim•nt criteria were initially proposed
(1937; 1944) with respect to light penetration and
life. For the restoration of streams, Ellis (1937)
th• silt load should not reduce the light intensity at
by mora than one millionth of its intensity at the
Ellis (1944) restated this criterion for the
prevention of direct damage to the gills and delicate exposed
structures of fish, mollusks, and insects. For the protection
of fish, Berger (1977> suggests that turbidity shall not average
REVIEW DRAFT q/49/83 PAGE7~
more than 27 times the natural level during any a-hour period,
or more than 9 times the natural level during any 96-hour
period, or more than 3 times the natural level during any 30-day
period. These suspended sediment standards shall apply during
and for 2 years after they have ceased.
turbidity and macroinvertebrates during
period were stated as follows. In the
construction activities
Berger's criteria for
the post-construction
year that starts 12 m~nths after completion of a construction
should not exceed one-half of the levels
and the Shannon Diversity Index for
macroinvertebrates shall not be changed
from the natural value as a result of
activity,
recommended
t•..lrbidity
above
bottom-living aquatic
more than as percent
finely-divided solids.
The first definite suspended solids criteria for ·fresh water
were proposed by the European Inland Fisheries Advis~ry
Commission CEIFAC> ln 1965. According to the commission, there
is no evidence that suspended solids levels less than 25 ppm
have any harmful effects on fish; suspended sol ids ir• the range
of 25 to 80 ppm will maintain good to moderate fisheries; eo to
400 ppm suspended sol ids are unlikely to support good freshwater
fisheries; and, at best only poor fisheries are present in
waters containing greater than 400 ppm suspended solids. These
tentative criteria proposed by EIFAC were based on a survey of
existing literature, and were presented as a basis for
discussions of criteria necessary for the maintenance of
freshwater fish. They are by far the most frequently cited
criteria. Not all authors, however, indicate if they simply
concur with the criteria suggested by EIFAC or are suggesting
identical criteria based on conclusions derived independently.
Those who suggest or state criteria similar to EIFAC include
Gammon <1970>, Alabaster (1972), Bell <1973>, NAS (1973>,
Sorensen et al. (1~77>, Alabaster and Lloyd <19Sa>, Wilber
<1SS3>, and George and Lehnig (1984>. In addition, Van
Nieuwenhuyse <1983> and Simmo~s <1984> suggest turbidity
criteria levels <NTU> similar to the EIFAC criteria for
suspended solids Cppm>.
REVIEW DRAFT '/c:1'3/SS PAGE 7S
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,.,...
In their_ review of the EPI=I Red Book, Thurston et al. <1979>
support a limit of 100 mg/L of suspended solids to prevent the
mortality of fresh and marine organisms. However, one of the
r·evtewet•s felt that 100 mg/L is too restrictive and t-hat concen-
trations could be much higher without causing adverse effects.
These values are higher than those suggested by EIFI=IC (1965) to
r11a i rlt a in
effetcts
a good fishery, but do not account for the sublethal
discussed by several authors and presented in this
1 it e1rat ure review. Thurston et al. (1979) state that no
exists as to the level of turbidity to be
and Richards <1963) note that there is a
separation at 100 m;IL, between rivers
and those devoid of fish, thus supporting the
of Thurston et al. (1979) regarding lethal
universal agreement
allowed. ~erbert
fairly distinct
cont:aining fish
recc)mmandat ion
conc:entrat ions.
The most conservative recommended turbidity standard is 25
NTU above natural conditions in streams and ~ NTU above natural
conditions in lakes for moderate protection, and 5 NTU in both
lakes and streams for a high level of protection <Lloyd 1985).
With regard to incubating eggs, Sigma Resource Consultants
<1979) propose an acceptable limit of 3 mg/L suspended solids
and 25 mg/L would be acceptable for fish rearing and holding in
the absence of other pollutants.
OFO <1983> has proposed sediment discharge standards, as
opposed to receiving water standards, for five different classes
of streams. For streams which are important as salmon and trout
spawning habitat (1=1 classifications>, the recommended sediment
standard is 0 m;/L. Streams which are rearing areas for salmon
and trout <B crassifications> and those which provide habitat
for grayling, whitefish, and burbot <C classifications> would
have a discharge limit of 100 mg/L. In streams having low or no
use by any of the above fish except as migration routes, the
recommended standard is 100 or 1000 mg/L. The same is true for
all streams having a reduced biological capacity due to past
placer min1ng activities <X classification).
REVIEW ORI=IFT q;~9/8~ PI=IGE 79
Sherk. et al. <1975) state that the use of lethal concel"rtra-
tions <LC30) to establish suspended solids criteria ignores
biologically significant sublethal effects on estuarine
organisms. Therefore, in establishing criteria for the
protection of estuarine organisms, the sublethal effects of
suspended sediment on the most sensitive biological cofl1pol"lel"lts
<important species and life stages> must be considered.
Adequate knowledge of local conditions, such as life-history
stages, sediment types, sediment concentrations, species,
duration of e~posure, and habitat preference, is required.
Tarzwell ( 19~7)
numerical criteria
states that it is not possible to establish
for settleable solids which are applicable
over wide areas. The criteria should be established to protect
environmental conditions but will vary from stream to stream,
depending on local concditions. With regard to deposited
sediment, EIF~C <196S> concluded that spawning grounds for
salmon and trout should be l<ept as free as possible from finely
divided solids. BJornl"l et al. (1974) suggested that the amount
of sediments that should be allowed to enter a stream before
detrimental effects will occur on the aquatic habitat will
depend on the amount of fines already contained within the
stream channel. The amount that can enter the stream is the
difference between the present level and the allowable, plus the
amount transported. BJornn et al. <1977> state that fine
sediment should not be allowed to fill pools or fully embed the
larger substrate rocl<s, to avoid reducing the salmonid
production capacity. They advocate using the percentage of fine
sediment in selected riffle areas as the primary inde~ for
monitoring fine sediment deposition in streams. Along these
sarne lines, I~amoto et al. <1'378> indicate that the best
alternative appears to ba the establishment of criteria which
limits the percentage of fines i~ the streambed, and suggest a
limit of 10 to ZO percent for sediment less than 0.95 mm in
REVIEW PR~FT q;Q9/S~ P~GE So
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diameter. 1n an earlier report, Ellis (1944) thought that fine
sediment should be controlled to the extent that it does not
blanket the bottom to a depth of more than one-quarter of an
inch.
Van Nieuwenhuyse ( 1 '383) and Simmons (1'384) propose a
settleable solids standard of <0.1 ml/L for a high level of
protection in receiving waters. Simmons (1984) goes a step
further and suggests settleable solids levels of 0.1 to 0.2 ml/L
for a moderate level,
protection.
and )0.2 ml/L for a low level of
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Johnston, D.D~, and D.J. Wildish, 196a. Effect of suspended
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LaPerriere, J.D., 198~. University of Alaska, Fairbanks,
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~
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NCASI, 1984a. _ A laboratory study of the effects of sediments of
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J'ourn.al
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Rosenthal, H., 1971. Effects of "red mud" on embryos ar•d larvae
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Environm•ntal Prot•ction Rg•ncy, Corvallis, OR. 65 pp.
Stern, E. M., and W. B. Stickle, 1978. Effects of turbidity ar•d
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REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE 89
-5.0 POTENTIAL USE OF OTHER PARAMETERS
This section presents a discussion of potential alternatives
to the parameters c::urrer.tly used by Alaska -for defirdng
particulates criteria for tha various protected water uses.
Parameters currently employed include turbidity, total suspended
solids, settleable solids, and the percentage accumulation of
fine particles in the substrate. This discussion is divi~ed
into water column measurements and substrate measurements. The
settleable solids test, although a water column measurement, is
discussed
frequently
with substrate measurements because settleable solids
become part of the substrate. A discussion of the
between turbidity and suspended solids appears r•el at i onsh i p
before the of' water column and substrate
5. 1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TURBIDITY AND SUSPENDED SOLIDS
The accepted technique for measuring suspended solids <APHA
1985) is time consuming, costly, and normally performed in a
laboratory. Due to these constraints, many field investigators
have used turbidity as an indirect measurement of the concentra-
tton of suspended solids. In order to adequately assess the
potential for a relationship, if one exists, one must understand
the principles of turbidity and suspended solids measurement, be
familiar with the various methods of measurement and analysis,
an~ be awar• of the potential variability inherent in each of
these methods.
In
the
simple terms, turbidity may be interpreted as a measure
relative clarity of water <Hach et al. 1984). However,
t~rbidity is not •• precisely defi~ed as dissolved oxygen, pH,
alkalinity or many other water quality parameters. It must be
recognized that turbidity, like color, is a visual or optical
property. Consequently, the word means different things to
different people. Pickering <1976> notes that turbidity should
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be treated as a non-quantitative term similar to the term
"wa1rmtn," in the respect that one measures temperat1.1re and not
warmth.
With respect to measuring particulates, turbidity has
received the most attention. Some water quality experts believe
that the turbidity measurement is subJect to great uncertainty
and variability as a unit of measurement. This belief primarily
originates from a number of studies related to placer mining
where exceedingly high levels of turbidity have been measured.
Turbidity measurements are less precise at high levels.
Attempts to quantify turbidity have led to the development
of methods, instruments, standards, and units of
measure. Consequently, there is a gr~at deal of c:onfus~on over
whi1:h methods, instrument's, standards, and units of measure are
the most appropriate. McCluney C1975) has summarized the
various definitions of turbidity. These include tha intensity
of light transmitted (unscattered) through the sample, ratio of
the intensity of light scattered by a sample to the intensity of
the light source, the amount of light scattered and absorbed
rather than transmitted in straight lines through the sample,
and a reduction in transparency of a sample due to the presence
of particulate matter. Turbidity has also been defined as the
amount of suspended matter, in ppm, as ascertained by optical
observation, and in terms of different measurement techniques
<e.g., Jackson Candle and nephelometric: turbidity>. The units
of measure for turbidity have included mg/L, ppm, Jackson
turl::~idity units CJTU), formazin turbidity units <FTU>, and
nephelometric: turbidity units <NTU>. Because of the variety of
different methods, instruments, standards, and units of measure,
many of the supposed equivalent measurements presented in the
literature are actually expressions of different properties of
nat1.1ral water (McCarthy et al. 1974). Today, however~, mos·~
investigators use nephelometers and report results in NTU rather
than the older units. Hence, recent data are more comparable.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/65 PAGE q1
Comparability of turbidity measurements may not only be
affected by the numerous ways of measuring it, but may also be
influenced by the variability among instruments <Beschta 1980>.
Even among nephelometers, there is a variety 6f different
physical designs. This situation makes it difficult to compare
turbidity levels. Even using the same standard suspension for
calibrating different instruments does not insure that turbidity
values will be the same. Pickering (1976) reports that
different types of instruments were calibrated with the same
formazin standard and then used to measure various natural water
samples. This resulted in a variety of turbidity values for
the san1e sample.
The only means for reducing the confusion surrounding
turbidity measurements is to standardize the definition of
turbidity and th~ instrum~nt design specifications. This has
been accomplished according to §t~OQ~~g-~~t~2Q~ <APHA 1985) and _.
the EPR < 1983} methods mar.ual. §t9'0Q~~Q_M!!th2Q§ is JOintly
published by the American Water Works Association, a drinking
water group, the Water Pollution Control Federation, a waste and
sewage group, and the American Public Health Association, a
public health group. The EPA methods manual is used by many
among these groups as well as scientists interested in streams,
lakes, wetlands, estuaries, and coastal areas. Hence, much of
the confusion could, and should, be avoided by adhering to the
definition of turbidity and instrument design specified by APHA
( 1985) •
APHA <1985) defines turbidity as an expression of the
optical property that causes light to be scattered and absorbed
rather than transmitted in straight lines through the samples.
Turbidity in water is caused by suspended matter, such as clay,
silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, soluble
colored organic compounds, and plankton and other micro$COpic
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS PAGE q~
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
r_
-
According_ to APHA (1985), the standard instrument for
measuring low turbidities is the nephelometer, for which a
formazin polymer is used as the standard reference suspension.
The light source is a tungsten-filament lamp operated at a color
temperature between a,aoo and 3,000 K, where the angle of light
acceptance by the detector is 90 degrees plus or minus 30
degrees. The distance traversed by incident light and scattered
light with1n the sample tube is not to exceed 10 em. Turbidity
measurements less than 40 NTU can be read directly from the
instrument. Turbidities above 40 NTU need to be diluted with
turbidity-free water until turbidity falls between 30 and 40
NTU.
The precision and accuracy of nephelometric turbidity
measurements are highest at lower levels, the leve1s at which
c:r•it:eria are currently set. This s_tatament is supported by t':'e
proper reporting of significant figures according to APHA
( 19E~5) , which is:
Turbidity R.-nge
_____ t:iiY ______ _
0-1.0
1-10
10-40
40-100
100-400
400-1000
>1000
Report to the
_t:i!Ult:t!.t_t:iiY_
0.0!5
o. 1
1
3
10
30
100
There are fewer direct methods for measuring total suspended
solids than there are for turbidity. Hance, there is less
variability in suspend•d solids determinations. Total suspended
solids represent the m•terial retained on a standard
glass-fiber filter after a well-mixed sample is filtered, then
dried at 1<)3 to 103 degrees C <APHA 1985). Some investigators
have inappropriately used 0.45 micron filters. Some marine
scientists have used centrifugation for concentrating suspended
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/83 PAGE q3
particulates-followed by drying and weighing. However, this
method is imprecise for dilute waters having less than 10 mg/L
suspended solids (Campbell and Elliott 1975>.
A maJor source of variability in both turbidity and total
SI..Lspended solids measi..Lremerrt s is obtaining a sample that is
represerrt at i ve of the water being sampled. It is diffic•Jlt to
collect repr•esent at i ve samples fol"' s•.Lspended sol ids and
turbidity. Many i rrvest i gat ors simply collect grab samples,
which may Ol"' may not be representative of the stream water being
<5ampled. This depends on the amount of variability in the
sampled strearn,
vario1..1s t..lses,
In determining the suitability of the watel"' for
it is essential that a sample represent the total
or average discharge, as opposed to an isolated cell of watel"'.
Hence, some investigators obtain composite samples ove~~i~e-by
manually collecting grao samples acl"'os~ a cross-section or.by
the use of automatic samplers. Automatic samplers, however, are
usually set to sample only one location at a cross-section and
may not collect all particle sizes. Composite samples can be
time-weighted by combining equal volumes of individual samples
at a specified time interval, or discharge-weighted where the
volume of each individual sample is proportional to the stream
discharge, Each type of composite can result in different
report~d particulates levels.
The difficulty in obtaining representative and reliable
particulates data from automatic samplers has been documented
for municipal wastewater treatment plants. Reed <1977) reported
the results of Harris and Keffer who note that the suspended
solids data for a raw municipal wastewater treatme~t stream,
rnonitored conc•Jrrently with more than one commercial automatic:
sampler, can vary by as muc~ as 300 percent depending on the
type of automatic sampler used,
The most reliable suspended solids data al"'e those collected
using depth-integrated samplel"'s. These samplers are lowered at
REVIEW DR~FT 9/09/85 PAGE q4
....
-
-
-
-
ll!fffl.
a uniform rate with water being admitted throughout the vertical
profile. The number of verticals collected across a stream
depends on the accuracy being sought and on the the variation of
sediment concentrations across the stream. Variability
typically increases as the concentration of sediment increases.
Another source of variability in turbidity and suspended
solids analyses occurs in the analytical process. Subsampling a
relatively small sample for analysis is difficult when the
particulates concentration is moderate to high, and when the
particle size is equivalent to sm~ll sand or lar~er. This
situation arises when rel~tively l~rge samples <typically 250 ml
to 1 liter> are collected in the field but the volume required
for turbidity and total suspended solids analyses is small.
Turbidity requires about 25 ml and suspended solids requires a
few to 100 ml or more depending on ·the ~oncentration qf
particulates. Consequently, the analyst must thoroughly mix the
sample ~nd then obtain a representative subsample by decanting,
pipetting, or other appropriate means. This process is
exceedingly difficult and is a source of significant variability
among samples containing high particulates concentrations and/or
samples containing sand-sized particles. Sand settles too fast
to enable an analyst to obtain a representative subsample.
Assessment of the relationship between turbidity and total
suspended solids must consider the sources of variability
discussed above: C 1) Variabi 1 i ty in the turbidity analysis; <2>
variability in the suspended solids analysist (3) sample
variability; and (4) subsample variability. These sources
produce variability in the relationship between turbidity and
suspended solids. Many authors <Black and Hannah 1965; Duckrow
and Everhart 1971; Peterson 1973; McGirr 1974; Carlson 1976;
Pickering 1976; Stern and Stickle 1978; Langer 1980; McCart et
al. 1980; LaPerriere 1983t Wilber 1983; Ge•::.rge and Lehni; 1984;
Hach et al. 1984> recognize that turbidity is not necessarily a
good quantitative indicator of the concentration of suspended
REVIEW DRAFT S/09/85 PAGE qS
solids becaase of the inconsistent correlation ~etween these
parameters. Table 5-1 and Figure 5-1 present numerous
correlations, both linear and logarithmic, between_turbidity and
suspended solids concentrations reported by many authors. This
information clearly demonstrates that there is no single
equation relating these two parameters. Furthermore, most of
the authors listed in Table 5-1 failed to consider percentage
error. Kunkle and Comer (1971: reported a percentage error for
their correlation ranging from -69 to +333 percent. Rllen
(1979) studied a turbidimeter to determine its accuracy in
pr~ed ict i ng suspended sediment concentrations. His res•.1ll;s
showed maximum errors of -194 percent at one gaging station,
+261 percent at another, and average prediction errors of 31 and
25 percent. Allen attributed the poor correlation to changes in
the particle-size distribution of the sediment.
Turbidity, an optical property, must be rscogni:ed as being
entirely different from a weight concentration of suspended
matter. This occurs because the si;e, shape, and refractive
index of suspended particles which influence turbidity measure-
ments are not directly related to the concentration and specific
Qravity of the suspended matter. Particle size and particle
si~e distribution are two key factors required in comparing
suspended solids measurements to the actual turbidity present in
a sample CBooth 1974>. Mc:Carthy et al. <1974) fo•.1nd that the
s~me FTU readin; could be obtained from a given concentration of
kaolinite and twice that concentration of calcium
montmorillonite. They concluded that bec~use twice as much
material is in suspension, the resulting siltation problem would
be significantly greater for a calcium montmorillonite discharge
than for a kaolinite discharge.
The majority of turbidity is due to the scattertng of l1ght
by particles having diameters less than about 10 microns CK1ng
et .:o.l. 1378>. AlthCP.IQh t•.lt~bidity ::.s often •.ms•.Lita~le f,:q··
determin1ng suspended solids concentrations, findi~gs indicate
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE <ii.
....
-
TABLE 5-1
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN TURBIDITY AND
,..., SUSPENDED SOLIDS CONCENTRATIONS
b.Q.9.§~:ciibmi£_~gr:c§!!sii!2n§ __ aa --.B§!f§!!:§!DS§! ___________ ~Qi§!
!"""' <TSS) 0. 84 TBD = 3.20 0.77 Weagle 1'384 1
TBD = 6.00 <TSS>0.631 0.80 R&M 1'385 2 .... TBD = 1. 78 <TSS)0.863 0.87 R&M 1'385 3
TBO = 0.44 <TSS>0.858 0.83 Lloyd 1'385 4
TBO = o. 185<TSS>0.'3'38 0.'32 Lloyd 1'385 5
TBO = 1.103<TSS>0.'368 o. '32 L 1•::-yd 1'385 6
TBD = 13.49 CTSS)0.68 0.8'3 R&M 1'382 7 -I < TBD) 1. 32 TSS = 5.32 0.82 Kunkle and C•:.mer 1'371 8
TSS = 3.92 <T8D) 1. 41 0.89 .Kur'lkle and Con1er 1971 '3 -TSS 2 <-TBD> 1. 25 King et al. 1'378 lOa =
TSS = 4 ·::. """ <TBD> 1. 09 Kircg et al. 1'378 lOb
TSS = 2.34 <TBD> 1. 0 o.88 Kircg et al. 1'378 lOc
TSS = 0.63 <TBD> 1. 19 0.'35 Kircg et a 1. 1978 10d
TSS = 21. 1 <TBD>0.7 King et al. 1'378 lOe
bin§~~t:-~Qt:t:!!l~tifHl~-----
TBD = 15.65 + 0. 861 <TSS> 0.4'3 R&M 1'385 11
TBO = 8.69 + 0.'304CTSS> 0.873'3 Toland 1'383 12
TEiO • o. 18 + 0.41 <TSS) 0.47 Peterson 1973 13
TBO = 8.78 + 0.26 CTSS> 0.42 Peterson 1973 14
TSO: Turbidity, NTU
TSSa Total Suspended Solids, mg/~
~2.!!!!!
1. Correlation applied to placer mining effluent samples.
2. Glaciar Fork, tributary to Eklutna ~ake, Rlaska--30 to 40
r percent of the basin is covered by glaciers.
-
3. East Fork, tributary to Eklutr'la Lake, Alaska--5 to 10
4.
percent of the basin is covered by glaciers.
Data provided by USGS for 22'3 samples of Alaska streams,
many of which are glacial or glac1ally influenced.
CJ7
TABLE 5-1 Continued
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN TURBIDITY ~ND
SUSPENDED SOLIDS CONCENTRATIONS
-5. C1ted Peratrovich, Nottingham & Drage, Inc. data from the
Susitna River, Alaska.
6. Data for 279 samples collected from unmined and pl£cer mined
streams in interior Alaska by the Alaska Department of Fish
and Game and Toland (1983).
7.
a.
Data from settling column tests performed on Alaska placer
mining sluice box discharges.
The correlation represents 2 years of data collected from an
agricultural area. The percentage error ranged from -69 to
+333 percent and the high percentage err~rs generally were
associated with the low turbidities <less than SOO mg/L
sed irnent.
9. The correlation represents the first year of data for the
above equation.
10. Correlations from other authors presented by King et al.
(1978> for drainage from sandy to silty, silt loam, fine
silt loam, and fine silt plus clay soils in agricultural
areas <10a-10e correspond to e~uations in Figure 5-1>.
11. Five combined Eklutna Lake, Alaska sample stations.
1 ·:> ....
13.
Chatanika River, Alaska. The correlation appears to hold up
to about 250 mg/L and NTU. Above this range, the curve
flattens showing higher suspended solids values in relation
to turbidity. Other variables appear to affect this corre-
lation so that uniform application cannot be assured.
Co~ralation for data collected from the Chatanika Rive~,
Alaska in 1970 and 1971 when placer mining had no measure-
able affect on water quality.
14. Correlation for data collected from Goldstream C~eek,
Alaska tn 1970 and 1971.
-
-
-
-
-...J ......
0
E -
Cl)
0
:J
0
1/)
0 w
0 z
...a w
-0 0..
Cl)
:::>
1/)
...J
~
0 t-
l 1
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN TURBIDITY ANS SUSPENDED SOLIDS CONCENTRATIONS
10
TURBIDITY (NTU)
100
-...J ......
0
E -
1/)
0
:J
0
1/)
~50
0 z
~
Cl)
:::>
Cl)
...J
~
0 t-
50
TURBIDITY (NTU)
Note: See Table 5-l for references to the various equations.
100
that a correlation may
sediments CAllen 19791.
be useful in cases involving fine
Turbidimeters respond less to larger
sed i rnei"Lt sizes.
Tt..n-t:l id 1 ty rneasurerl1ents y 1 e ld r·esu 1 t s that are ~·c•t.\gh 1 y
proportional to the amount of suspended material only under
certain circumstances. Turbldity instrumentation relies on
optical properties of particulates such as their shape,
refractive index, particle size distribution, particle
concentration, and the absorption spectra <McCluney 1975),
Hence, turbidity is proportional to mass or volume concentration
only when all other parameters are constant. However, the
sediment in natural waters exhibit considerable variability in
these parameters, which makes the establishment of the desired
relationship difficult. This variability in natural .water
•everely restrict~ the usefulness of using turbidity for routine
measurement of the amount of suspended mater1al CMcCluney 19751.
Although turbidity and suspended sediment concentration are
not synonymous, they are related in some instances, and
turbidity can be used to help define the level of sediment
concentration CRitter and Ott 1974>. Within cert~in size and
concentration ranges, and with certain types of suspended
rnate~·ial, it is possible to estim~te sediment concentrations
based on turbidity <Pickering 1976>. Hence, any predictive
relationships between these parameters must be developed on a
drainage basin basis <Kunkle and Comer 1971; Beschta 1980;
Seschta et al. 1981>. Once a correlation bet~een turbidity and
suspended solids has been established for a given ~ater body,
one parameter can be used to give an estimate of the other,
altl1ough each
CMcG:i.rr 1'374).
of the measurements has independent significance
Truhlar (1976) found a good corr·e,latic•r' be·tweel"t
C::ai ly mear, discharge-~eighted tl.lrbidity
discharge-weighted
c1.:.nsi ders
su:3pended
the
concen~rations ~ith discharge •
sol ids
var•iability
arid
. ~EVIEW DRAFT 9/0'3/95 PAGE /00
daily meat••
This
-
.~
-
-
-
Based o~ the above information, it is clear that there is no
one consistent correlation between turbidity and suspended
solids concentrations. However, these parameters may be
correlated under certain circumstances. Conseq~~ntly, using
turbidity to predict suspended solids concentrations may be
useful but the investigator needs to recognize all the potential
variables, calculate the correlation including periodic updates,
and calculate the percentage error associated with the
correlation. In addition to treating the data collectively,
regression analyses should include calculations of coefficients
of determination and confidence limits for data in the low,
medium, and high ranges.
Since the relationship between turbidity and suspended
solids concentration is dependent on local geological ~nd hydro-
lc•g ical
par.ameters
Thelr~e are
~
characteristics,. any c.orrelat ion between th~_se
needs to consider drainage, season, and discharge.
natural and man-made sources of particulates that
improve the correlation between these parameters, such as
glacial streams and placer mining. Particle sizes and shapes
and particle-size distributions from these sources probably
exhibit less variability than in natural clear water systems.
WATER COLUMN MEASUREMENTS
Particulate levels in water have been measured by numerous
direct and indirect techniques. Direct measurements of the
number or weight of particles include total suspended solids,
microscopic analysis, electronmicroprobe analysis, use of a
Coulter counter, X-ray methods, and radioactive absorption. The
most widely accepted technique, the total suspended solids test
described
vo:•l•.lr•1e Of
above in Section ~. 1, involves filter~ir·,g a 1-t.l"•Own
water through a glass-fiber filter followed by drying
and weighing. Centrifugation has
samples followed by drying and
disadvantages to this technique.
been used to concentrate
One dis~dvantage occurs when
REVIEW DR~FT ~/0~/63 PAGE IOI
fine-grained_ sediment has organic material associated with it.
Some organic material can have a density close to that of water,
making it very difficult to separate (Gibbs 1974). Another
dis~dvantage is that centrifuging is not good for'dilute water
having less than about 10 mg/L suspended solids <Campbell and
~lliott 1975), Radioactive absorption has been used because the
absorption of radiation is proportional to the mass present and
therefore directly measures the concentration of suspended
sedu1er1t <Gibbs 1974>. However, this method is impractical
because of its expense. Microscopic analysis and the Coulter
counter rely on counting the number of particles present, both
of which
\"lurnbe~· of
assessment
are time consuming. Additionally, conversion of the
particles to weight per unit volume requires
of particle size and specific gravity.
Electronmicroprobe analysis and X-ray methods require expensive
equJ.pment ar•d a relatively high level of expertJ.se. Ther·efol:"'e,
•:Jf the direct methods for measuring particulates in the water
column, tha gravimetric method for total suspended solids as
described by APHA (196~) is the most acceptable. This is the
method specified in the Alaska water quality standards <ADEC
1965).
Measurements related to light penetration may, under certain
c1rcumstances, be an indicatiQn of the concentration of
particulates. These measurements include turbidity <described
above in Section 5.1> and transmissivity, Qr its inverse, light
extinction. Microspectrophotometry, Secchi disk depths, and
remote sensing using color infrared photography are also
indirect measurement techniQues.
These optical methods rely on absorption and/or scattering.
Nephelometric turbidity measures the scattering of light by
suspended particles, whereas the beam transmittance meter
measures the attenuation of light by scatter1ng and absorption.
The Secchi disk is a simple kind of irradiance meter which is
:ess precise thar. other i'l"•du·ect method». Ad<::llt:.onally, u·se ·::;,1"
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE)O~
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-
-
-
-
-
I~
II"'"
I
the Secchi disk is inapplicable in shallow, clear to moderately
turbid areas. Measures of light penetration, such as
compensation point, light extinction coefficient, wave length
analysis, and transmissivity have been related to primary
production. Furthermore, extrapolations have been made from
these measures to other effects of particulates on aquatic
biota.
A chief
gr~ol..md truth
cor1siidered in
concern in estimating suspended solids
in water by remote sensing is obtaining adequate
data <Shelley 1976). Two aspects that must be
obtaining ground truth data are timing actual
sample collection with the remote sensor pass, and standardi%ing
sampling equipment and techniques. It appears that remote
sensing is less precise than nephelometric turbidity
rneas;urement s.
Although no single optical measurement technique stands out
as being the most accurate and precise, the nephelometric
turbidity measurement as defined by APHA (1985) is the most
acceptable indirect technique for measuring particulates for a
number of reasons. First, the instrument specifications are
well defined, leading to improved accuracy and precision.
Second, turbidity is more widely accepted than many of the other
indirect methods. Third, tur~idity measurements have been
applied to many different water uses including water supply,
recreation, and th• protection of aquatic biota. Fourth,
turbidity levels may b• highly corr•lated with total suspended
solids concentrations under certain circumstances. Therefore,
nephelometric turbidity measurements are th• most applicable
indirect measurement technique for particulates.
Alaska water quality standards <AOEC 1985)
The existing
specify that
turbidity measurements are to be performed in accordance with
APHI=I ( l '385).
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/95 PAGE 103
5.3 SUBSTRATE MEASUREMENTS
The of settleable solids is typically a
VCtlt.Hnetr-ic test that measur-es the vol1.1me of material that wi 11
settle under-quiescent conditions in one hour. An Imhoff cone
is filled to the 1-liter mark with a thoroughly mixed sample and
allowed to settle for 45 minutes. The sample is gently stirr-ed
along the sides of tho cone with a r-od or by spinning, and
allowed to settle 15 additional minutes CAPHA 1985). The volt.1me
of settle•ble matter in the cone is recorded as milliliters per-
A gravimetric technique for settleable solids can
However, this t echrli q •.1e
liter Cml/L).
be employed.
employs all the equipment required in
is time consuming and
the suspended solids
test.
field.
The volumetric test can be per-formed easily in the
Hence, it is the recommended procedure for settle~ble
solids.
S1.1bstrate conditions in spawning areas ara typically
determined by measuring the ~arcentage of various particle
sizes, the permeability of
concentrat ior• in the gravel.
gravels, or the dissolved o~ygen
The most widely used and accepted
technique is meas1.1ring the percentage of various particle sizes.
This tecnnique is specified by the Alaska water quality
standards CADEC 1985).
The volume of' fines in substrata samples is determined by
first securing a sample using • substrate sam~ler such as a
corer or dredge. Tne sample is then subJected to grain si:e
analysis. L.:i.ke other sam~ling t echn i q 1.1es, different samplers
have advantages and disadvantages when sampling differant si%e
bed material. To minimize loss of fine-grained sediment, the
Alaska water quality standards specify that' a technique for
freeze sampling streambed sediments be followed.
disadvantage of tn1s technique is that 1t requires addition~!
and heavy equipment, making it difficult to use in remote
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0'3/SS PAGE 104
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~~
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are<ls. Fl..trthermore, variability is relatively high with this
technique, as it is with other substrate sampling devices.
Measurements of bedload, •lthough technically valid, are too
complicated as a criterion <Iwamoto et al. 1378>. Iwamoto et
a 1. (1'378) suggest that it may be possible to relate suspended
solids in the water column to the bedload by the use of sediment
t•ati.ng curves. The use of suspended solids as the basis for
may hold promise if difficulties with
est i.mat io;:Jn, prediction, and determination of the relationship
with streambed sediments, and long-and short-term effects on
aquatic biota are clarified to the extent that reproducible
results are obtainable. However, until this is accomplished,
the accepted technique of freeze core sampling to determine the
percentage of various particle sizes in streambed sediments is
rec~)mmer-1ded.
5.4 REFERENCES
ADEC, 1'385. Water quality standards. Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation, Juneau, Alaska.
Allen, P.B., 1'379. Turbidimeter measurement of suspended
sediment. u.s. Department of Agriculture, Science and
Education Administration, Agricultural Research Results,
ARR-S-4, New Orleans, LA. S pp.
APHA, 1985. Standard methods of the examination of water and
wastewater. American Public Health Association, Washington,
D. C. 1C:68 pp.
Beschta, R.L., 1'380. Turbidity and suspended sediment relation-
ships. ln: Proe. Symp. on Watershed Management •so, Boise,
ID. pp. 271-282.
Seschta, R.L., S.J. O'Leary, R.E. Edwards, and K.D. Knoop, 1381.
Sediment and organic matter transport in Oregon coast range
streams. Water Resources Research Institute, Oregon State
University, Corvallis, OR. 67 pp.
Slack, A.P., and S.A. Hannah, 1'365. Measurement of low
turbidities. Journal American Water Works Association, Vol.
57, pp. '301-'316.
REVIEW DRAFT '3/09/85 PAGE lOS
Elo•::.th, R. L., 1'374. Intercomparison of the Jact-r.scon Car1dle
turbidity measurement and several instrumental techniques.
ln: Proceedings of National Oceanographi~ Instrumentation
Center Workshop held at Washington, D.C. on May 6-8, 1'374.
National Oceanographlc Instr1.Lmentation Cer1ter, Wa'Shington,
D. C. pp. 101-106.
Campbell, P., and S. Elliott, 1975. Assessment of centrifuga-
tion and filtration as methods for determining low
concentrations of suspended sediment in natural w~ters.
Fisheries and Marine Service Research and Development
Directorate Technical Report No. 545, Department of the
Environment, Winnipeg, Manitoba. 19 pp.
Carlson, E.J., 1376. Control of turbidity at construction
sites. !n: Proceedings of the Third Inter-Agency
Sedimentation Conference 1976. Prepared by Sedimentation
Committee Water Resources Council, Denver, CO. pp. 2-180--
2-190.
Duckrow, R.M., and W.H. Everhart, 1371. Turbidity measurement.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soe., 100<4> :6S2-690.
EPA, 1383. Methods for chemical analysis of wat~r and wastes.
EPA-600/4-79-020 Revised March 1963, Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.
George, T.S., and D.E. Lehnig, 1984. Turbidity and solids.
Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency by Camp,
Dresser & McKee, Annandale, VA.
Gibbs, R.J., 1974.
in water. !.n:
New Ycor!-1., NY.
Principles of studying suspended materials
Suspended Solids in Water, Plenum Press,
pp. 3-l:S.
Ha~h, C.C., R.D. Vanous, and J.M Heer, 1'384. Understanding
turbidity measurement. Teehnieal .Information Series--Sock-
let No. 11, First Edition, Hach Chemi~al Company, ~oveland,
co. 10 pp.
Iwamoto, R.N., E.O. Salo, M.A. MadeJ, and R.~. McComas, 1978.
Sedim•nt and water qualityJ a review of tne literature
including a suggested approach for water quality ~riteria.
Pr•par•d for Environm•ntal Protection Agency, EPA '310/'3-78-
048 by Fisheries Research Institute, College of Fisheries,
University of Washington, Seattle, WA. 4G pp. + Appendices.
King, L.C3., O.L. Bassett, and J.M. Ebeling, 1'378. Sigr1ificance
of turbidity for quality assessment of agricultural runoff
and irrigation return flow. Agricultural Engineering Dept.,
Wash1ngton State University, Pullman, WA. 36 pp. + Appen.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS PAGE ~6
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_.,
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K1.1nk.le, S.H., _and G.H. Comer, 1'371. Estimating SI..ISpended
sediment concentrations in streams by turbidity measure-
ments. Journal Soil and Water Conservation, 26(1) :18-20.
Lar•fler~, 0. E., 1'380. Effects •";Jf sedimentat i•";Jn •";Jr• salrnQrlid str~eam
life. Paper presented at the Technical Workshop on
Suspended Solids in the Aquatic Environment, June 17-18,
Whitehorse, YT, Environmental Protection Service, Vancouver,
ac. 20 PP·
LaPetrriere, J. 0., 1'383. Statement on the state of Alaska's
water quality standard for turbidity. Unpublished report,
University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska. 5 pp.
Lloyd, D.S., 1'385. Turbidity in freshwater habitats of Alaska:
a review of published and unpublished literature relevant to
the use of turbidity as a water quality standard. Report
No. 85-1, Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, Juneau, Alaska.
101 pp.
McCa~r~t, P. J., P.M. R. Green, D. W. Mayhoc•d, and P. T. P. Tsui,
1'380. Environmental studies No. 13 effects of siltation on
the ecology of Ya-Ya Lake, N.w.T. Prepared for Minist~r of
Indian ~nd Northern Affairs by ~quatic Environments,
Limited, Calgary, Alberta. 286 pp.
McCa.rthy, J. C., T. E. Pyle, and G. M. Griffin, 1'374. Light trans-
missivity, suspended sediments and the legal definition of
turbidity. Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science, 2:2'31-2'3'3.
McCluney, W.R., 1'375. Radiometry of water turbidity measure-
ments. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, 47(2):
252-266.
McGirr, D.J., 1'374. Interlaboratory quality control study
number 10 turbidity and filterable and nonfilterable
residue. Report Series No. 37, Inland Waters Directorate,
Er1vironment Canada, Burlington, Ontario. 10 pp.
Petetrsor., L.A., 1'373. An investigation •";Jf selected physical ,;;md
chemical characteristics of two subarctic streams. M.S.
Thesis, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska. 1S5 pp.
Pick.erir.g, R. J., 1'376. Measurement of "turbidity" and related
characteristics of natural waters. Open-File Report 76-153,
u.s. Geological Survey. 13 pp.
R&·M, 1'382. Placer mining wastewater settling pc•nd dem•:.r•strati•:.n
proJect. Prepared for State of Alaska, Department of
Erwir•:mmer.tal Conservation by R&M C·:•nsultants, Inc.,
Fairbanks, Alaska. 60 pp. + Appendices.
REVIEW DRAFT '3/0'3/SS PAGE JO?
R&M, 1'385. Glacial lake physical lirnnolc•gy studies: Eld•Jtna
Lake, Alaska. Prepat~ed for Alaska Power A•Jthority by R&M
Consultants, Inc., Anchorage, Alaska.
Reed, G. D., 1'377. Eval•Jatb::.n •::.f the star•dar~d sampling techr•iq•.te
for suspended solids. EPA '307/9-77-001, Surveillance and
Analysis Division, Technical Support Branch, Field Investi-
gations Section, Environmental Protection Agency, Region
VI I. 4'3 pp. + Appendix.
Ritter, J.R., and A.N. Ott, 1'374. Measurement of turbidity by
the U.S. Geological Survey. [n: Proceedings of National
Oceanographic Instrumentation Center ~orkshop held at
Washington, D.C. on May S-8, 1'374. National Oceanographic
Instrumentation Center, Washington, D.C. pp. 23-30.
Shelley, P.E., 1'37G. Sediment measurements in estuaries and
coastal areas. NASA CR-276'3, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Wallops Island, VA. 102 pp.
Stern, E.M., and W.B. Stickle, 1'378. Effects of turbidity and
suspended material in aquatic environments. Dredg~d
Material Research Program, Technical Report 0-76-21,
Environmental Laboratory, U.S. Army Enginner Waterways
Experiment St~tion, Vicksburgf MS. 117 pp.
Toland, D.C., 1983. Suspended solids in mainstem drainages
downstream from placer mines, Fairbanks and vicinity,
Alaska, Auguet 3-17, 1983. A Working Paper, Environmental
Quality Monitoring and Laboratory Operations, Alaska Dept.
of Environmental Conservative, Juneau, Alaska. 28 pp.
Truhlar, J.F., 1976. Determining suspended sediment loads from
turbidity records. 1n: Proc. Third Inter-Agency Sedimenta-
tion Conf., 1976. Water Resources Council, Denver, CO.
Weagle, K., 1984. Treatment of placer mining effluents using
settling ponds, volume I: ta~hnical report. Prepared for
Government of Yukon, Oept. of Economic Development and
Tourism by Ken Weagle Environment•! Consultant Ltd.,
Whitehorse, YT. ~3 pp.
Wilber, C.G., 1'383. Turbidity in the aquatic environment, an
environmental factor in fresh and oceanic waters. Charles
C. Thomas, Publisher, Springfield, IL. 133 pp.
REVIEW ORAFT 9/09/65 PAGE J09
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6.0 PROPOSED PARTICULATES CRITERIA
6.1 INTRODUCTION
A criterion is a designated concentration or limit of a
parameter that, when not exceeded, will protect a prescribed
water use with a reasonable degree of safety. In some cases, a
criterion may be a narrative statement instead of a numerical
limit.
The water quality standards for a particular water body
consist of those criteria associated with the uses for which
that water body is protected. Water bodies are classified by
the uses for which th•y ar• protected. In Alaska, all water
bodies except th• low•r Ch•na Riv•r and Nolan Creek <and mos~ Qf
its tributaries> are clas.si1"ied 1"or prot•ction of all uses.
Ideally,
able to be measured relatively simply and be inexpensive, fast,
precise, and accurate. It is desirable to use techniques that
can be performed in the field without compromising the pr•cision
or accuracy of th• m•asurem•nt. Additionally, standards should
include only th• most applicabl• param•t•rs 1"or •ach wat•r use.
For axampl•, turbidity crit•ria ar• suffici•nt to protect
secondary recreational uses, so there is no need to have
suspended or settl•able solids criteria. Standards must be
sta·ced in clear, und•rst&ndabl• terms so that confusion do•s not
arise ov•r th•ir int•rpr•tation. Id•ally, th•y should be
appropriate 1"or all types of aquatic syst•ms and should consider
seasonal, geographicAl, and flow differenc•s in natural
particulate conc•ntrations.
Criteria should be p•riodically reviewed and updated as new
data or techniques for obtaining fast and accurate measurements
become available. The particulates criteria should not be
viewed as permanent fixtures but as essential parts of an
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE fOq
evolving system to safeguard the current and future uses of
Alaska's waters.
6.2 PROPOSED CRITERIA
This section outlines suggested changes to the Alaska water
quality criteria for particulates. The current wording,
proposed wording,
each criteria.
and
The
supporting rationale are presented for
rationale for retaining, changing, or
deleting each criterion is based on the literature reviewed for
this document. That literature has been used to formulate the
discussions in Chapters 1 through ~. Therefore, the rationale
sections are necessarily summaries of the preceding discussions.
The reader is referred to the earlier chapters for more detailed
overviews of literature relating to the effects of partic.ulates
on water supply, recreation, and biota.
Given the status of
defensible sediment and
knowledge, there are probably as many
turbidity criteria for cvrt•in use
categories as there are informed agencies or individuals
interested in proposing them. In reality, there is probably rto
one definitive level or concentration that is detrimental to
each use in all systems under all circumstances. In sor11e
instances, the existing criteria have been refined or modified
to reflect the findings of a variety of researchers. With
regard to aquaculture, definitive maximum suspended solids
concentrations for egg incubation and rearing have been
identified in the literature. In other instances an absolute
maximum turbidity level or suspended solids concentration may
not be appropriate. s~ch is the case for growth and propagation
of freshwater and marine organisms. The proposed standards for
these categories reflect seasonal fluctuations and site-specific
differences in natural turbidity and sediment levets. They
l1mit any ap~reciable incr•ase above natural levels in systems
which normally carry 1 ow particulate loads while all .;:.w i r,g for
some increase in systems which per1odically exhibit moderate to
M1gh natural levels.
REVIEW DRAFT '3/0'3/85 PAGE IIO
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The pro~osed particulates criteria presented below are made
with two caveats from the Alaska Department of Environmental
Conservation. First, the Department does not want to assess
revisions to the existing water use categories as ·part of this
study. Second, since it is the Department's responsibility to
fully protect the various water uses, in setting criteria the
Department prescribes limits be set on the most sensitive usa in
each water use category. For aquatic biota, this means setting
criteria for the most sensitive life stage of the most sensitive
species in the most sensitive season. This approach is
prescribed by the EPA.
Table 6-1 lists water uses and the parameters that are
essential to each. Parameters not appearing in a particular
category are considered unnecessary for the protection of that
1. Water supply1 drinking, culinary and food processing
a. Turbidity
g~1•11ng: Shall not exceed 5 NTU above natural
conditions when the natural turbidity is
50 NTU or less, and not have more than 10~
increase in turbidity when the natural
condition is more than ~0 NTU, not to exceed
a maximum increase of 2~ NTU.
Ec2e2§@Q: There shall be no increase in turbidity when
the natural condition is 5 NTU or less, in-
crease shall not cause turbidity to exceed 10
NTU when the natural condition is between 5
and 10 NTU, shall not cause mora than a 5 NTU
increase when the natural condition is 10 t.;,
25 NTU, and shall not cause turbidity to
exceed 250 NTU when the natural condition is
SO to 250 NTU.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0'3/65 PAGE Ill
TABLE 6-1
W~TER USES ~NO P~R~METERS FOR WHICH CRITERI~ MUST
BE EST~BL.ISHED TO MEET WATER QU~LITY OBJECTIVES
________ E§C~iSYls!g_E~C~W§~~C~------
Settleable ~ Accum.
I!:!!:l2i.Qit~ I§§ __ §'.2liQ.a__ _EirH~a--
E!:!!~tL~~t!!!:
Drinking, culinary,
and food pt"oeessing X X X
Agr"ieulture X X
Aquaculture X X
Industrial X X X
Contact recreation X
Secondary recreation X
Growth of aquatic organisms X X X X
~q•Jacul t t.trs X X
Seafood Processing X X
X X
Contact recreation X
Secondary recreation X
Growth of aquatic organisms X X X
X
TSS • Total Suspended Solids
REVIEW DRAFT 3/09/SS PAGE 11~
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b. Sedim!ent
g~i~ling: No measurable increase above natural
cond it i ems.
ErQQQ§~~= No increase in settleable solids or volatile
suspended solids above natural conditions.
Although light attenuation is not an issue related to the
acceptability of drinking water, most people find water with 5
or more turbidity units obJectionable <Bruvold 1975). Sorensen
et al. <1977) stat• that 0 to 10 turbidity units provide ar1
excellent source of water supply requiring only disinfection.
They also state that 10 to 250 units provide good sources
requiring only usual treatment, and that waters with turbidities
greater than ~50 units are poor sources requiring special o~
auxiliary treatment. Therefore, the existing criteria has been
modified to protect naturally clear so~rces of drinking wat~r.
At the same time, the proposed standard allows for a greater
increase where water contai~s higher natural turbidity levels
which would require usual treatment or would otherwise be
unacceptable as a water supply. With regard to sediment, the
primary concern
d i si rtfect ion.
is that sediment not interfere with
Interference with disinfection is directly
related to the type and amount of organic sediment <volatile
suspended solids> present in the water <Symons and Hoff 1975>.
An increase in inorganic suspended sediment above natural
conditions does not necassarily impeda the clarification
process, and in soma instances may enhanca it <NAS 1973> There-
fore, the suspandad sedimant critarion has bean modified to
limit only volatile suspended solids. The rationale for the
proposed settlaabla solids criterion is: (1) Natural waters
which ara otherwisa suitable as a watar supply normally contain
low levels of settleable solids; and (~) settleable solids may
significantly decrease the effectiva life of sedimentation
basins or filtration systems, thereby increasing treatment
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE JG
2. Water -s1.1pply: agric:ultut~e, including ir~t~igation and stoc:l-<'.
wat et~ i l"llil
a. T1..1rbidity
b.
EHi~!ing: Shall not c:ause detrimental errects on
indicated wate~ use.
2~QQQ~~~: Delete crite~ion for this use category.
Sed irnent
g~i~lins: For sprinkler irrigation, water shall be free
of particles of 0.074 mm or coarser. For
irrigation or wate~ spreading, shall not
exceed 200 mg/1 fo~ an extended period of
time.
fcg~g~~~: Retain the existing criteria and add the
following. Inc~ease in total Sl.ISpe'l"'de(l
solids shall 'I"'Ot interf~~e with the treat-
m•nt of agricultu~al wata~ supply. No
increase in settleabl• solids above natu~al
conditio'l"'s allowed.
The concer'l"' is fo~ particulate matter which may block
pumpi'l"'g and sp~aying •quipment a'l"'d caus• formatio'l"' of c~usts Ol"l
land or coat vegetables which have bee'l"' irrigated. The solids
criteria should b• measured directly. Turbidity should be
deleted b•cause th• conce~n is fo~ th• physical p~esence of
pa~ticles a'l"'d not light scattering and absorption. The term
"axta'l"'dad pe~iod of' tim•" is vagu•, but th•~• was no i'l"'fo~matio'l"'
in the lite~atu~e ~•view•d that would improve this term a'l"'d be
defe'l"'sible. Th• particl• siz• crita~ion app•a~s to be adequate
bacaus• it limits th• pa~tic:l• siz• to silt and smaller
mat e~ia 1.
3. Wate~ supply: aquac:ultu~a
a. Turbidity
gHi~ling: Shall not exceed 25 NTU above natural condi-
t io'l"' level. Fo~ all lake water·, shall r11:>t
REVIEW DRAFT '3/0'3/SS I'AGE 11'4
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exceed S NTU over natural conditions.
e~~e2~@~: Delete criteria for this use category.
l:l. Sed irnent
S~l~~1ng: No imposed loads that will interfere with
established water supply treatment levels.
e~~e2~~g: ~here the natural condition is less than 3
mg/L, suspended solids shall not exceed 3
mg/L.. ~here the natu.ral condition is greater
than 3 mg/L., suspended solids shall not
increase by more than ao~. There shall be no
increase in settleable solids above natural
conditions.
A definitive maximum concentration of 3 mg/L. for incubating
salmonid eggs and 25 mg/L for salmonid rearing is presented in
the literature CSigma Resource Consul~ants 1979>. Thus, the
maximum concentration should be limited in order to facilitate
adequat~ water supply treatment and ensure successful incubation
and rearing. The 3 mg/L level is important because most
hatcheries support egg incubation and use of this level is the
most conservative. Thera is no apparent reason for a turbidity
criterion as such. The proposed suspended solids criteria would
insure that turbidity-causing sediments are kept to a minimum.
It should be noted that ultraviolet disinfection may be
inhibited by turbidity-causing sediments. However, there are no
data in the literature reviewed regarding specific turbidity
levels that inhibit ultraviolet disinfection. A low level
increase in suspended solids C3 mg/L) will limit the volume of
turbidity-causing particles. The rationale for limiting
settleable solids include the well documented adverse impacts of
sediment accumulation on egg incubation and fry development <see
Tables 4-l and 4-2>.
4. Water supply: industrial
a. Tt.lrbidity
g~i~!iog: Shall not cause detrimental effects on
REVIEW DRAFT '3/09/65 PAGE 115
established water supply treatment levels.
E~ggg§~~= Retain criterion for this use category.
b. Sediment
s1!.!§1.!ns: N•::. imposed loads that will ir1terfere with
established water supply treatment levels.
E~~eQ§@~: No increase in total suspended solids and
settleable solids levels above natural con-
ditions that would adversely affect estab-
lished water supply treatment.
Turbidity is retained for those industries which use
turbidity as the established parameter in treatment systems,
such as tha brewin; industry. As pointed out in Section 4.2,
industries vary considerably with regard to the amount cf
particulates which can be tolerated. Soma industries can
tolerate only low parti=ulate laval~. Because the ~ang•:of
acceptable water quality varies widely, a narrative criteria is
probably tha best avai labla. Tne proposed sediment critel~iorl is
designed to protect established treatment techniques.
5. Water recreation: contact recreation
a. Turbidity
s~1§!!ng: Shall not exceed 5 NTU above natural condi-
tions when the natural turbidity is 50 NTU or
lass and not have mora than 10% increase in
turbidity when tha natural condition is more
than 50 NTU, not to eMceed a maKimum increase
of 15 NTU. Shall not eMceed 5 NTU over
natural conditions in all lake waters.
Er2a2~~ga Shall not excaed 5 NTU above natural condi-
tions when tha natural turbidity is SO NTU or
lass and not have mora than 10~ increase in
turbidity wMan the natural condition is more
than 50 NTU.
b. Sediment
s~i§!iog: No increase in concentrations above natural
cond it ions.
REVIEW DRAFT 3/03/SS PAGE II~
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e~2e2§~g: Delete criterion for this use category.
Aesthetics and safety are the primary considerations for
contact recreation such as diving, swimming, and w~ding. Data
show that people prefer to recreate in clear rather than turbid
water. A 5 NTU change in turbidity levels is noticed by most
people. Cloudy water can also obscure dangerous rocks or other
underwater obstructions. The upper limit for achieving these
goals is 50 NTU <McSauhey 1966>. There is no basis for having
d i f·ferent
•:Jf the
standards for lakes and streams. Therefore, this part
standard is deleted. There is no information that
warrants changing the turbidity levels in the existing criteria,
which afford a high level of protection, other than the amount
of maximum increase.
Sed imer•t · is not a direct consideration for conta~t
recreation and this standard is deleted. Suspended sediments
may need to be limited only if the particles are organic or are
associated with pathogenic microorganisms. The presence of
pathogenic organisms are covered in water Quality criteria not
addressed in this document.
6. Water recreation: secondary recreation
a. Turbidity
Shall not exceed 10 NTU over natural condi-
tions when natural turbidity is 50 NTU or
less, and not have mora than ~0~ increase in
turbidity when the natural condition is more
than SO NTU, not to exceed a maximum increase
of SO NTU. For all lake waters, turbidity
shall not exceed S NTU over natural condi
t ions •
.Et:9.e2l!!!6!: Sha 11 not exceed 10 NTU over natura 1 cor1d 1-
tions when natural turbidity lS 50 NTU or
less, and not have more than ~0~ increase 1n
turbidity when the natural condition 1s more
than 50 NTU.
REVIEW CRAFT '3/09/85 PAGE 11'1
b. Sediment
g~i~lin~: Shall not pose hazards to ineioental human
contact or cause interference with the yse.
e~2e2!~~: Delete criterion for this use cat~gory.
Based on MeGauhey (1~6S>, the current turbidity criteria
afford a high level of protection for boating and other
non-contact water recreation. Fishing may require more
stringent standards in order to maintain a suitable sport
fishery. However, in th1s case, the turbidity criteria for the
growth and propagation of fish, shellfish, and other aquatic
organisms would apply. There is no apparent reason for lake and
stream standards to differ. Furthermore, there is no defensible
reason for retaining the sediment criterion for this use based
on the literature reviewed.
7. Growth and propagation of fish, shellfish, and other aquatic
life
a. Turbidity
g~j§ling: Shall not exceed 25 NTU above natural condi-
tion laval. For all lake waters, shall not
exceed 5 NTU over natural conditions.
Ergag~§~: Shall not exceed 5 NTU increase above natural
conditions up to 25 NTU and shall not exceed
20~ increase above natural conditions
<M•asur•d in NTU) wh•n th• natural condition
is 25 NTU or greater.
b. S•diment
g~i~lin~= Th• p•rc•nt accumulation of fine sediment in
th• rang• of o. 1 to 4.0 mm in the gravel bed
of waters utiltz•d by anadromous or resident
fish for spawning may not be increased more
than 5~ by weight over natural conditions Cas
shown from ;rain size accumulation graph).
In no case may th• 0.1 to 4.0 mm fine
sediment range in the gravel bed of waters
REVIEW DRAFT ~/OS/85 PAGE 118
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used by anadromous and resident fish for
spawning exceed a maximum of 30% by weight
<as shown from grain size accumulation
graph). <See note 3 and 4) In all other
surface waters no sediment loads <suspended
or deposited) which can cause adverse effects
on aquatic animal or plant life, their repro-
duction or habitat.
f~292~§g: Suspended and/or settleable solids content of
surface waters shall not adversely affect
aquatic plants and animals, their reproduc-
tion or habitat. In natural conditions less
than as mg/L, suspended solids shall not have
mora than a ~0% increase. In waters where
the natural condition is greater than as
mg/L, suspended solid~ shall not have more
than a 20% increase. No increase in settle-
able solids above natural conditions. The
percent accumulation of fine sediment in the
range of 0.1 to 4.0 mm in the gravel bed of
waters used by anadromous or resident fish
for spawning may not be increased more than
~% by weight over natural conditions, not to
exceed ao% by weight over natural conditions.
Tha existing turbidity criteria afford a moderate to high
level of protection for aquatic organisms as evidenced by data
frorn Herbert at al. <1961>, Alabaster (1972>, Sykora et al.
<1972>, Sorensen et al. (1977>, Langer <1980), Sigler <1981),
BiS!iOn and Bilby ( 1982), NCASI ( 19S4b), Sigler at al. ( 1984),
and Simmons <1984). Although, the current state of knowledge in
Alaska is inadequate to describe the energy base of more than a
few str•eams and lakes, it should be assumed that many systems
depend on primary productivity to at least some extent.
Quantitative information presented by Bell <1973>, Nuttall and
Bili:Jy (1973l, McCart et al. (1980>, Van Nieuwenhuyse <1983>, and
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE oq
LaPe~~ie~e et al. <1983) indicate that turbidity c~iteria are
necessa~y fo~ the protection of aquatic systems ~hich depend on
prima~y prod•.Lct i vity. Fu~therrnc•re, there is
substantial evidence that tu~bidity has a negative impact on
salmonid feeding <Alabaste~ 1972; Sykora et al. 1972; Langer
1960; Simmons 1964), salmonid growth <NCASI 19S4b; Sigler et al.
1984), salmonid distribution <Sigle~ 1981; Bisson and Bilby
1982; Si,ler et al. 1984) t and benthic rnacroinvertebrate
popul~tions <Herbe~t et al. 1961; Sorensen 1977; ~aPer~iere et
al. 1963). The suggested changes in the turbidity standa~d
address the fact that increases in very clear water are likely
to have a greater effect on a~uatic organisms and primary
productivity than the same magnitude of increase in naturally
turbid water.
The reason for limiting fines in spawning g~avels is:to
avoid smothering
This
eg~s and alevins by filling interstices in the
is a volumetric, not a gravimetric concern.
Depending on the type of fine material, weight may vary widely
for particles of the same dimensions, · bl.\t both WOI.tld occupy the
same vol•.1me of space and reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity i r1
water flowing through the gravel to the same degree. However,
beca,.tse the accepted technique is to weigh the f i rres, the
pro:;~ posed criteria al"'e expl"'essed in terms of weight. Al thOI.Liijh,
the percentage accumulation of fine sediment in a gravel bed is
difficult to evaluate, the Department has found it to be a
useful Cl"'iterion. With regard to substrate chal"'acteristics of
spawning beds, the size range stated in the eMistin; criteria
are adequate
and Annell
and based on information in the literature <McNeil
1964,
Hausle and Coble
Cederholm et al.
~o•ki 19664 Burns 1972' Phillips et al.
1976J Tagart 1976; Iwamoto et al.
1975;
1S7S;
19SO; Crous• at al. 1961' Tappel and BJornn
1983). The criterion allowing a ma~imum of 30 percent fine
sediment is not supported by the literature; this maximum should
be lowered to 20 percent as a ma~imum <McNeil and Ahnell 1954;
K•::.ski 1965; Shelton and Poll•ck 1966; BJornn 1969; Burns 1972;
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE flO
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BJ o~~nn et a 1.
Cede~rholm et
1 '38=::; NCAS I
1'374; Hausle and Coble 1'376; Iwamoto et al.
al. 1960; Crouse et al. 1961; Tappel and
1'384a; NCASI 1984b>. The settleable
1'378;
8Jornl"l
sol ids
mea5H.Irement is re lat i vel y simple and reliable and can· be 1.1sed i 1"1
place of the percentage accumulation of fine sediment at the
Department's discretion. EIFAC (1965) concluded that spawning
gravels should be kept as free as possible from finely dividied
solids. Van Nieuwenhuyse C1963) and Simmons <1964) suggest a
settleable solids criterion of less than 0.1 ml/L for a high
level of protection. Thus, the proposed criteria afford a high
level of protection for salmonid spawning gravels.
Suspended solids are also detrimental to aquatic organisms
and, since suspended solids can not be correlated with turbidity
on a state-wide basis, it is necessary to have a st~ndard for
total suspended solids •. The propose~ criterion is rest~ictiy~
for naturally ·clear water but less restrictive for waters
containing naturally high suspended solids concentrations. It
is in agreement with the ~S mg/L criteria suggested by several
authors CEIFAC 1965; Gammon 1970>; Alabaster 197~; Bell 1973;
NAS 1973; Sorensen et al. 1977; Alabaster and Lloyd 1982; Wilber
1'383; and George and Lehnig 1984> to maintain optimal fisheries
and prevent harmful effects on fish. This criterion offers a
higr1 level of protection for sediment-free spawning and rearing
waters while allowing some increase in streams and lakes which
rece•ive natural sediment loads. It also accounts for the high
degree of seasonal suspended sediment variability in Alaska's
many streams and lakes.
1. Water supply: aquaculture
a. Turbidity
g~i~lins: Shall not e~ceed as NTU.
Er2a2~~~= Delete standard for this use category.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0'3/85 PAGE 121
b. Sediment
s~i~1in.e= No imposed loads that will interfere with
established water supply treatment level~
e!:.2e2!.!.9.: Where the natural condition is less than 3
mg/L, suspended solids shall not exceed 3
mg/L. Where the natural condition is greater
than 3 mg/L, suspended solids shall not
increase by mo~• than 20~. There shall be no
increase in settleable solids above natural
conditions.
The rationale is the same as cited above for aquaculture in
fresh water.
·:=. ..... Water su~ply: seafood processing
a. Turbidity
s~i-11n;• Shall not interiere with disinfection.
E~2a2•~g1 Delete criterion for this use category.
b. Sediment
s.?!i~].i.n.e;
E~2a22~g•
Below normally detectable amounts.
Shall not increase levels of suspended and
settleable solids above natural condition or
shall not interfere with disinfection or
established water treatment processes.
The turbidity standard was deleted because the concern with
seafood processing is the arnount of' suspended and settleable
solids in the water rather than light scattering. The sediment
criterion, 11 below normally detectable amounts," is somewhat
ambiguous and was redefined in terms of an increase in suspended
and settleable solids above natural conditions, thereby making
the cr1terion easier to enforce.
REVIEW DRAFT '3/0'3/85 PAGE f11
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3. Water s•.1pply: industrial
a. Turbidity
E~i§1ing: Shall not cause detrimental effects on estab-
lishad levels of water supply tre~tment.
2~222~~~= Delete criterion for this use category.
b. Sediment
g~1~~1na• No imposed loads that will interfere with
established water supply treatment levels.
2~2Q2~~g: No increase in total suspended and settle-
able solids levels above natural conditions
that would adversely affect established water
supply treatme~t.
Turbidity wa• deleted because light scattering is not a
concern for industrial use of marine water; SI..Lspended and
settleable solids levels are the-concern. Industries vary~in
their water qu~lity requireme~ts. Some require water virtually
free of particulates. This standard encompasses all potential
uses so that opportunities for future economic development in
Alaska are not precluded.
4. Water recreatio~• contact recreation
a. Turbidity
g~1~~1ng: Shall not exceed 25 NTU.
Er2e2~•g• Shall not exceed S NTU above natural condi-
tions wh•n th• natural turbidity is SO NTU or
less and not have more than 10~ increase in
turbidity when the natural condition is more
tha~ SO NTU.
b. Sedirnent
E~1~l1ngz No measureable increase in concentrations
~ above natural conditions.
e~2e2a~g: D•lete criterion for this use category.
Aesthetics a~d safety are the primary considerations for
contact recreation such as diving, swimming, and wading. Data
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/SS PAGE l~l
-
show that people prefer to swim in clear rather than turbid
waters. Cloudy water can als•::. obscure dangero•Js underwater
obstructions. The upper limit for achieving these goals is 50
NTU. Therefore, the turbidity standard is limited to that
level. The turbidity criteria afford a high level of
protectio\"1, but are lower than natural conditions in some areas
of Alaska marine waters.
Sediment is not a consideration for contact recreation and
this criterion should be delated.
5. Water recreation: secondary recreation
b.
a. Turbidity
g~i~1in;: Shall not aKceed 25 NTU.
E!:2.9Q~!f9t Sl'uall not eKc:ee.d 10 NTU over natural condi-
tions-when natural turbi~ity is 50 NTU or
less and not haave more than ao~ increase il"l
turbidity when the natural condition is more
than 50 NTU.
Sediment
g~i~iing: Shaall not pose hazards to incidental human
contact or cause interference with the use.
e~QQQ~~~: Delete criterion for this use category.
The current standards afford a high l•vel of protection for
boating and other non-c:ontact water recreation. Fishing may
r .. eQuire mora stringant st&ndards in order to maintain a suitable
sport fishery. However, the standards for the growth and
propagation of fish, shellfish, and other aquatic organisms
would cover the conc:arns.
G. Growth and propagation of fish, shallfish, and other aquatic
life
a. Turbidity
g~i~iing~ Shall not reduce the depth of the compe~sa
tion point for photosynthetic activity by
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/65 PAGE 111
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I
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b. Sediment
rnore than lOY.. In addition, shall not reduce
the maximum Secchi disk depth by more than
1 0".
Within the photic zone, shall not ~xceed 5
NTU increase above natural condition up to
25 NTU and shall not exceed a aor. increase
above natural condition <measured in NTU)
when the natural condition is 25 NTU or
greater. Shall not reduce the depth of the
compensation point (depth at which lY. of the
incident light is available) for photosynthe-
tic activity by more than lOY..
g~i~iina: No maasureabla increase in concentrations
above natural conditions.
ecQQQ§~~: Total susp~nded solids.shall not have more
than a 20Y. increase above natural CC•ndit ions.
There shall be n6 increase in settleable
solids levels above natural conditions.
The existing criteria using compensation point and Secchi
disk depth may be ade~uata. However, there are few data in the
literature reporting compensation point and Secchi disk depth ir1
Alaska marine waters. Most of the data are reported as
turbidity and suspended solids. Hence, turbidity levels should
be used as the primary criterion limiting the amount of
particulates ~here light penetration is of paramount interest
with compensation point as a secondary criterion. The suggested
changes in the turbidity standard address the fact that
increases in turbidity in clear waters are likely to have a
greater affect on primary productivity and depth of the euphotic
:one than the same magnitude of increase in turbid waters.
The existing sediment criterion (no measurable increase in
concentration above natural conditions> certainly affords a high
level of protection. This criterion is restated in terms of
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0S/85 PAGE 1~~
suspended and settleable solids, allowing for some increase in
total suspended sol ids above natr.tral conditi-ons. Th& susper1ded
solids criterion reflects marine organisms' generally greater
tolerance of sediment than that of freshwater ~-organisrns as
evidenced by higher concentrations <100 to 6000 mg/L) at which
adverse affects have been r•ported <see Tables 4-5 and 4-6>.
Furthermor•, incr•a••• in susp•nded marine sediments are likely
to b• localized and periodic <Ozturgut et al. 19S1> in this high
dilution environment. Although no specific settleable solids
criteria ara presented in the literature, the proposed criterion
is conservative and restricts any increase for the following
r·easor,s: (1) The natural variability in settleable solids
levels with verticle depth in the water column; <2> the
potential difficulty in establishing natural levels of inorganic
sediment which will eventually settle under quiescent
cc•nditions; (3) tha pote"'"'tial diff'ic•.1lty il"J monitor-ing --~r,d
er,forcing a definitive criterion in the marine enviror.ment; (4)
the variability in distribution of infaunal and epifaunal
organisms which may be sensitive to additional sediment
accumulations; and, C5> the lack of scientific data regarding
the demonstrated effects of settleable solids on marine benthos.
7. Harvesting for consumption of raw mollusks or other raw
aquatic 1 i fe
a. Turbidity
~~i§lins: Shall not reduce the depth of the compensa-
tion point for photosynthetic activity by
mor• than 10~. In addition, shall not reduce
the maximum Secchi disk depth by more than
10"·
.E!:!2.9Q!!~s;!: Delete criteria for this use categc•ry.
b. Sediment
s~iaSing: No existing standard.
E!:2.92a~gs No increase in ••ttleable solids acove
natural conditions.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE llb
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There is no evidence to support the necessity of having
turbidity or suspended solids criteria for this use category.
relating to toxic materials arrd/or microbial
corrtarnination of raw shellfish are covered il"' o-ther water
starrdards outside the scope of the particulate
stantdards. The proposed settleable solids criterion protects
the consumer from undesirable deposits of particulate matter on
edible organisms.
5,3 REFERENCES
~labaster, J.S., 1972. Suspended solids and fisheries.
of the Royal Society London Bulletin, 190:395-406.
Proc.
Alat,aster, J. S., arrd R. Lloyd, 1'382.
freshwater fish, Second Edition,
Boston, MA. 361 pp.
Water quality criteria for
Butterworth Scientific,
Bell, M.C.,1973. Silt and turbidity. ln: Fisheries Handbook
of Engineering Requirements and Biological Criteria, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, North Pacific Division, Portland,
OR.
Bisson, P.A., and R.E. Bilby, 1982. Avoidance of suspended
sediment by JUVenile coho salmon, No. Amer. Jour. of Fish.
Manage., 2<4) :371-374.
BJornl"', T.C., 1969. Salmon and steelhead investigations, JOb
l"'O. 5--embryo survival and emergence studies, Report F-4'3-
R-7, Idaho Fish and Game Department.
BJ •:•r··rtrt, T. C. , M. A.
Wallace, 1974.
aquatic life.
Idaho, Moscow,
Brusven, M. Molnau, F.J. Watts, and R.L.
Sediment in streams and its effect on
Water Resources Research Institute, Univ.
IO. 47 pp.
of
Bruvold, W.H., 1975. Human perception and evaluation of water
quality. CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control,
5 (2): 153-231.
Burns, J.w., 1972. Some effects ot' logging and associated road
construction on northern California streams. Trans. Amer.
F i sh So:jC. , 1 0 1 ( 1 ) : 1-1 7.
Cede!rholrn, c. J., L. M. ·Reid, and E. 0. Salo, 1990. Cl.lrn•.llative
effects of logging road sediment on salrnonid populations.
1D= Proceedil"'gs from the Conferel"'ce on Salmon-spawnil"'g
gravel: A Renewable Resource in the Pacific Northwest,
University of Washington, Seattle, WA.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/95 PAGE ~7
Crouse, M.R.~ C.A. Callahan, K.W. Malueg, and S.E. Dominguez,
1981. Effects of fine sediment on growth of JUvenile coho
salmon in laboratory streams. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 110
(2) :281-286.
EIFAC, 1965. Water quality criteria for Eu~~pean freshwater
fish, report on finely divided solids and inland fisheries.
European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission Technical
Paper No. 1, Inta~national Journal of Air and Water
Pollution, 9(3) :151-168.
Gammon, J.R., 1970. The effect of inorganic sediment on stream
biota. Prepared for the water Quality Office of the
Environmental Protection Agency, Grant No. 180SODWC, u.s.
Gov. Printing Office, WasMi'l"gton, D. C. 141 pp.
Ger.:•rge, T. S., and D. E. Lehnig, 1984. Turbidity and solids.
Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency by Camp,
Dresser & McKee, Annandale, VA.
Hausle, D.A., and O.W. Coble, 1976. Influence of sa'l"d in redds
on survival and emergence of brook trout C§~l~~l1ri~~
fQDt~n~li§>. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., No. 1, pp. 57-63.
Het~bert, D.W.M., J.S. Alabaster, M.C. Dart, ar•d R. Llc•yd, 1961.
Tne effects 6~ china-clay wastes on trout streams. Intl.
Journal of Air and water ~ollution, SCl) :56-74.
Iwamoto, R.N., E.O. Salo, M.A. Mad•J• and R.L. McComas, 1978.
Sediment and wat•r quality: a r&view of the literature
including a suggested approach for water quality criteria.
EPA 910/9-78-048, Prepared for the Environmental Protection
Agency by Fisheries Research Institute, College of
Fisheries, Univ. of Wasnington, Seattle, wA. 46 pp. +
Appel"'d ices.
Koski, K.v., 1966. The survival of coho salmol"' <Qnsgrb~ns~~
~i~~tso> from egg deposition to em•rgence in three Oregon
coastal streams. M.S. Thesis, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, OR.
Langer, O.E., 1980. Effects of sedimentation on salmonid stream
lif•· Pa1=1•r presented at tne Techncial Workshop on
Suspended Solids in th• A~uatic Environm•nt, June 17-18,
Whitehorse, YT, Environmental Prot•ction Servioe, Vancouver,
ac. ao PP•
LaPerriere, J.D., D.M. 8Jerklie, R.C. Simmons, E.V. Van
Niauwenhuyse, S.M. Wagener, and J.B. Reynolds, 1983.
Effects of gold placer mining on interior Alaskal"' stream
ecosystems. in= Proceedings of First Annual Meeting of
Alaska Chapter American Water Resources Association, Nov.
1983, Fairbanks, Alaska. 34 pp.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/0S/85 PAGE 1~8
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-
-
-
-
-
-
.r-
McCart, P.J., P.M.R. Green, D.W. Maywood, and P.T.P. Tsui,
1g80. Environmental studies no. 13 effects of siltation on
the ecology of Ya-Ya Lake, N.W.T. Prepared for Minister of
Indian and Northern Affairs by Aquatic Environments,
Limited, Calgary, Alberta. 286 pp.
McGauhey, P.H., 1968. Engineering management of water quality.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY. 295 pp.
McNeil, W.J., and W.H. Ahnell, 1964. Success of pink salmon
spawning relative to size of spawning bed materials.
Special Scientific Report--Fisheries No. 469, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service.
NASq 1973. Water quality criteria, 1972. National Academy of
Sciences--National Academy of Engineering, EPA-R3-73-033,
Washington, D.C. 594 pp.
NCASI, 1984a. A laboratory study of the effects of sediments of
two different si~e characteristics on survival of rainbow
trout C§~1ID2 ~~icgn~~i> embryos to fry emergence. National
Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improve-·
rnent, Technical Bulletin No. 4i29, April, 1984. 49 pp~ +-
Appendices~
NCASI, 1984b. The effects of fine sediment on salmonid spawning
gravel and JUvenile rearing habitat--a literature review.
National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream
Improvement, Technical Bulletin No. 428, New York, NY.
66 pp.
Nut1~al, P.M., ar1d G.H. Bilby, 1973.
wastes on stream invertebrates.
<S> :77-86.
The effect of china-clay
Environmental Pollution,
Ozturgut, E., J.W. Lavelle, and R.E. Burns, 1981. Impacts of
manganese nodule mining on the environment: results from
pilot-scale mining tests in the North Equatorial Pacific:.
In: R.A. Geyer <ed.), Marine Environmental Pollution,
2: Dumping and Mining, Elsevier Scientific: Publishing Co.,
New York, NV. S74 pp.
Phillips, R.W., R.C. Lantz, E.W. Claire, and J.R. Moring, 1975.
Some effects of gravel mixtures on emergence of coho salmon
and steelhead fry. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 104(3);461-466.
Shelton, J.M, and R.D. Pollack, 1966.
survival in incubation channels.
95 (2): 183-189.
Siltation and egg
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc:.,
Sigler, J.w., 1981. Effects of chronic turbidity on feeding,
growth and social behavior of steelhead trout and coho
salmon. PhD. Dissertation, University of Idaho, Moscow,
ID. 1SS pp.
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE J~ Cf
Sigler, J.W.,-T.C. BJorl"ln, a.-.d F.H. Evetrset, 1964. Effects of
Chrol"!ic turbidity Ol"l de.-.sity a.-.d growth of steelheads and
coho salmon. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc, 113(2) J142-150.
Sigma Resource Consultants, 1979. Summary of water ~uality
criteria for salmol"lid hatcheries. Dept. of Fisheries and
Oceans.
Simmons, R.C., 1984. Effects of placer mining sedimentation on
Arctic grayling il"l interior Alaska. M.S. Thesis, Ul"liversity
of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska. 75 pp.
Sorensen, D.L., M.M.McCarthy, E.J. Middlebrooks, and O.B.
Porcella, 1977. Suspended and dissolved solids effects o.-.
freshwater biota: a review. Corvallis E.-.vironmental
Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development,
Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, OR. 65 pp.
Sykora, S.L., E.J. Smith, and M. Synak, 1972. Effect of lime
neutrali%ed iron hydroxide suspensions on Juvenile brook
trout. Water Research, (6):93:5-950.
Symons, J.M., and J.Ci Hoff, 1975. Ratio~ale for turbidity·
maximum contaminant level. Presented at T~ird Water
Quality Tech.-.ology.Confere.-.ce, American Water Works Associa-
tion, Atlar.ta, Gtt6rgia, December a-10, 1975, Water Supply
Research Division, Environmental Protection Agency,
Cil"lcirmati, OH. 19 pp.
Tagart, J.V., 1976. The survival from egg deposition to
emergence of coho salmo.-. in the Clearwater River, Jefferson
Cou.-.ty, Washi.-.gto.-.. M.S. Thesis, University of Washingto.-.,
Seattle, WA. 6:5 pp. + Appe.-.dices.
Tappel, P.O., a.-.d T.C. BJor.-..-., 1963. A .-.ew method of relating
size of spawning ;ravel to salmon embryo size. North
America.-. Jour.-.al Fisheries Ma.-.ageme.-.t, <3> :123-133.
Van Nie•.twenhuyse, E. E., 1983. The effects o'f placer minil"lg •:.r•
the primary productivity of i.-.terior Alaska streams. M.S.
Thesis, University Qf Alaska, Fairba.-.ks, Alaska. 120 pp.
Wilber, C.G., 19S3. Turbidity in the aquatic environme.-.t, an
envirQI"Ime.-.tal factor in fresh a.-.d oceanic waters. Charles
c. Thomas, Publisher, Springfield, IL. 133 PP•
REVIEW DRAFT 9/09/85 PAGE 130
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APPENDIX A
ANNOTATED SIBLIOGRAPHIES~-FRESH W~TER
·~
1'1"'"'
'
<1/q
REVIEW DRAFT 8/1,:/SS PAGE ~-1
REFERENCE• ADEC, 198~. Wat•r quality standards. Alaska D•pt.
of Environm•ntal Cons•rvation, Jun•au, Alaska.
27 PP•
REFERENCE
~OCATION1 L.~. P•t•rson & Associat•s, Inc.
IMPORTANT
P~GIES1 3-13
KEY WORDS1
Th• wat•r quality standards, 18 AAC 70, ar• describ•d by various
••ctions which includ• a g•n•ral s•ction and discussion of
short-t•rm varianc•, prot•ct•d wat•r us•s and crit•ria,
proc•dur• for applying wat•r quality crit•ria, mixing zon•s,
zon•s of d•posit, th•rmal dischar;•s, clas•ification of stat•
wat•rs, proc•dur• for r•cla•sification, classification crit•ria,
•nforc•m•nt discr•tion, and d•finitions.
qjq
REVIEW DRAFT 8/1~/8~ P~GE A-e
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I
REf='ERENCEa ~labaster, .J. S., and R. L.loyd, 1982. WAter quality
criteria for freshwater fish. Second Edition,
Butterworth Scientific, Boston. 361 pp.
REF~ERENCE
L.OC:ATIONI University of Alaska L.ibrary, Fairbanks
IM~,ORTANT
PA~;Esa 1-3, 1:5-17
KEY WORDS• Sediment, Turbidity, Suspend«! Solids, Fish, WAter
Quality
et:~tlQI9!IQ!'!f
Exc:essive concentrations of finely divided solids may be harmful
to a fishery by1 acting directly on fish swimming in water
cor\taining suspend«! solids, and either killing them or reducing
tn11ir growth rate and resistance to disea••t by preventing the
suc:cessful development of fish eggs and larva•t by modifying
nat: ural movements and migrat i01"1s of fish I by reducing the
ab1.11ndance of food available to the fish 1 or by •ffect i ng the
eff'iciency of methods for catching fish.· The spawning grounds of
trc1ut and salmon are particularly· susceptable to finely divided
solids, and a sMall amount of turbidity or deposited solids may
ca1.1Lse fish to ·avoid them or prevet"'t successful development of
th•tir eggs. There is no evidence that suspended sol ids
cor1centrations below ~ mg/L. have any effect on fish.
Cor11centrat ions above 2:5 mg/L. nave, in some instances, reduced
fil1h yieldt 3:5 mg/L. nave reduced ,_ding intensity' :50 mg/L. nave
redluced the growth rate of trout 1 82 mg/L. charcoal nave killed
Da~1hnia. The lowest concentration known to have reduced fish
1 i 1'• expect at ion is 90 mg/L., and the lowest eoncentrat ion known
to have increased susceptibility to disea .. is 100 mg/L.. In some
waters fish are few in number, or absent in the 100-400 mg/L.
rar•a•• Similar concet"'trations increase susceptibility to
d il>ease, mortality rates, reduce growth rates, ki 11 Daphnia, and
drtLst ically r•duce inv•rtebrate fauna in stream beds. There is
no reliable evidet"'ce to indicate that fish faunas eMist in waters
nor•mally containing greater than /tOO mg/L. suspet"'ded sol ids. Fish
ma~· survive concentrations of several thousand mg/L. for short
per•iods but may damage their gills. This may subsequently affect
th•1ir survival.
Ter1tative criteria for suspend•d solids in fr•shwater are as
follows• <2:5 mg/L. have no harmful effects on fish••• 2:5-80 mg/L.
will provide for good or moderate fisheri••t 80-400 mg/L. are
unlikely to support good fisheri••l at best, only poor fisheries
ar•1 likely to b• contain•d in waters normally containing )400
mg/L..
gfq
REVIEW DRAFT 8/197'8:5 p,:uaE A-3
REFERENCEI Arruda, J. A., G. R. Marzolf, and R. T. Faulk. 1983.
REFERENCE
The role o'f suspended.sediments in the nutrition of
zooplankton in turbid ~eservoirs. Ecolo;y, 64<~>•
122~-123~.
~OCATION1 Alaska Resources ~ibrary, Anchorage <microfilm>
IMPORTANT
PAGES1 122~-123~
8t:it!Q!B!!Qti•
QA»bDi• were tasted to discover: <1> The physical •¥~acts o~
suspended sediments on ingestion and incorporation rates o~
ala••• <2> Ingestion rates of two sizes of clay mineral sedimer~t
particle•• and C3) Growth and survival when 'fed yeast and
sediments with and without organic material adsorbed onto
particles. Incr••••• c'f suspended sediment 'from o.o to 24~1 _mg/L
deer•••~ in;estion rates o'f algae by 915 percent and decr•ased
incorporat ic1"l rates by . · 99 percent. Nutrients can tui ·ad-Sorbed
or~to sedimer~t particles and provide food. fer Q.attn1A but no~ as
well •• directly ing .. ting nutrients. The threshold of suspended
solids for efficient f .. aing appeared to be 100 mg/~.
qjq
REVIEW DRAFT 8/1'Jol615 PAGE A-~
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REFERENCE• Bell, M.C., 1973. Silt and turbidity. !n•
REFERENCE
LOCATION I
IMPORTANT
Fisheries Handbook of Engineering Requirements and
Biological Criteria. U. S. Army Corps of Engineering
Division, Corps of Engineers, North Pacific Division,
Portland, Oregon.
PABES1 1-7
KEY WORDS: Sediment, Silt, Bed-load, Turbidity, Trout, Salmon,
Eggs, Alevins, Production, Mortality, Smothering,
Infttetion
Relatively large quantities <~00-1000 ppm> of suspended water-
borne material can be carried for short periods of time in
streams without detriment to fish. The catch of fish is affected
above lev•ls of 30 3TU, as visual r•ferences are lost. Primary
food production is lowered.above levels of 2~ 3TU. The presence
of bed lo·ad material c:an ki 11 buried eggs or a lev ins. by
restricting water interc:han;• and can smother food organisms.
Stu,tU•• conducted in the Chilcotin River in British Columbia
indicat• that salmonid fish will not move in streams where the
silt c:ontent is above 4,000 ppm. Streams with average silt loads
between SO and 400 ppm are not desirable for supporting fresh-
water fisheries. Streams with less than 2S ppm may be eHpected
to support good freshwater fisheries. When an eMcess amount of
silt is deposit•d throughout salmon and trout redds after
spawning is complet•d, there is a resultant interference with the
proper percolation of water upward through the redd, a loss of
dissolved oMygen, and a lac:k of proper removal of catabolic
pro,ducts. This 11 smothering 11 of eggs also promotes the growth of
fungi which may spread throughout the entire redd. The eMtent to
which siltation is harmful to salmon and trout spawning and egg
incubation depends upon the amount and type of material
deposit•d, as well as the time of occurrenc•• When sediment
contains clay particl••• it may form a hard, compact crust over
the stream bed and render the spawning area unusable. eenerally,
salmonid eggs will suffer a mortality of SS percent wh•n 1S to 20
percent of the ;ravel voids are filled with sediment. Prolonged
eKposure to some types of sediment results in thickening of cells
of th• respiratory •pithelium and the eventual fusion of adJacent
gill lamellae. Evidence of gill irritation in trout and salmon
fingerlings held in turbid water has been noted frequently by
fish culturists, and considered a common avenue of infection for
fungi and pathogenic bacteria. It is apparent that salmonids
suffer more physical distress in turbid water than do other
speci••·
q/9
REVIEW DRAFT 8119/8:5 PAGE A-~
REFERENCEa Beschta, R. L. 1980. Turbidity and susp•nd•d
s•dim•nt r•lationships. !n• Proe. Symp. on
Watershed Management '80, Boise, Idaho. pp. 271-282.
REFERENCE
LOCATION• Alaska D•partm•nt of Fish and Gam•, Anchorag•
· IMPORTRNT
PAGESr
KEY WOROSa
The Oak Creek and Flynn Creek watersheds in western Oregon were
analyz•d for turbidity and susp•nd•d s•dim•nt. Susp•r'lded
s•dim•nt concentration and turbidity corr•lat•d significantly at
the 90 percent confidence limit for 24 of 26 storm ev•nts. The
relationships differ•d significantly betw••n drainag•s, however,
so prediction •quations must b• work•d out for •ach watershed.
_ Turbidity may be us•ful in •valuating sediment transport in small
mountain drainag.. wh•r• susp•nd•d sediment concentrations and
wat•r discharg•• can chan;• quickly.-Turbidity m•asur•m-.nts,
though, ar• ambiguous partly because th•re a..,..e so many ways of
measuring it and •ach instrument u-d influ•nc•s th• r .. ult&nt
turbidity valu••· On this proJect, the Hach 2100A turbidim•t•r
calibrated in NTU was used. Formula• and curv .. showing the
relationships between suspended s•dim•nt and turbidity ar•
pres•nted.
9/'1
REVIEW DRAFT ~/SS PAGE A-6
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'
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REFERENCE• Bisson, P. ~. and R. E. Bilby. 1982. Avoidanc• of
susp•nd•d s•dim•nt by JUv•nil• coho salmon. No.
Am•r. Jour. of Fish. Manag•., 2<4>r371-374.
REFE~RENCE
LOCI~TIONr Alaska R•sourc•s Library, Anchor•;•
IMPCJRT~NT
PAGI!S r
KEY WOROSr Turbidity, Coho Salmon
Juv11ni 1• salmon w•r• t•st•d und•r laboratory conditions to
d•t•rmin• thr•shold l•v•ls •liciting avoidance and modification
of b•havioral r•spons• by acclimation to chronic low lev•ls of
fin•• s•diment. Sediment was introduc•d into a divid•d chamb•r
and fish were obs•rv•d to ••• which half th•y pref•rr•d.
Sust::~•nd•d s•dim•nt lev•ls avoided by coho Juveni l•s w•r• b•low
l•thal l•v•ls. Fe•ding effectiv•n•ss may b• impair•d in the 70
to 100 NTU rang•. Fish may hav• avoid•d wat•rs in that rang• so
th•lf could s•e pr•Y• F·ish did not s•l•ct sl i;ht ly turbid ·< 10 to
20 NTU> wat•r but wat•r of slightly high • .,.. turbidity app•ar•d to
b• used for cov•r• Th• authors conclud• that fish should not b•
stoc:ked into highly turbid wat•r. Also, mod•rat• inc:r•as•s ov•r
low background l•v•ls ar• appar•ntly not avoid•d by th• fish.
ql=t
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/8~ P~GE ~-7
REFERENCEa BJornn, T. C., M. A. Brusven, M. P. Molnau, and J. H.
REFERENCE
L.OCATION1
IMPORTANT
Milligan, 1977. Transport of graniti~ sediment in
streams and its effects on inse~t• and fish.
University of Idaho, Forest Wildlife and Range
EMperiment Station Bulletin No. 17, Mos~ow, Idaho.
'+7 pp.
Coopel"'ative Fish Unit, University of Alaska,
Fairbanks
PAGES1 40, 41
KEY WORDS: Salmonids, Aquatic Inse~ts, Abundance, Drift,
Sediment, Embaddednass
8Mt!QIB!1Qt!
The effects of' <6.35 mm diameter sediment on Juvenile salmonids
and aquatic insects was assessed ln two Idaho streams. In a
natural stream rif'fle, benthic insects ware 1.~ ·times more
abundant in a plot cleaned of sediment, with mayflies And
stoneflies '+ to 8 times more abundant, respectively. In small
natural pools, additions of' sediment resulted in a proportional
deer•••• in fish numbers. The amounts of sediment in the two
streams studied did not have an obvious adverse effect on the
abundance of fish or the insect drift on which they feed. In
artificial stream channels, benthic insect density in fully
sadimented riffles <>213 cobble embeddedness> was 1/2 that in
unsedimented riffles. However insect drift was essentially the
same in both. Fish in sedimented channels eMhibited hierarchical
behavior, while those in unsedimented channels were territorial
in behavior.
Conclusions derived from experimental data are that sediments can
affe~t aquati~ inse~t populations when deposited in riffles,
reduce the summer rearing capacity of streams when deposited in
pools, and reduce the winter fish capacity of streams when
deposited in the larger interstitial spaces of stream substrate.
If the percentage of fine sediment exceeds 20 to 30 percent in
spawning riffles, survival and emergence of salmonid embryos
begins to decline. When riffles are fully embedded with fine
sediment, insect species composition and abundance changes. The
abundance of Juvenile salmon in pools of small rearing streams
declines in almost direct proportion to the amount of pool area
or volume lost to fine sediment deposited in the pool. The
number of salmonid fish a stream can support in winter is much
reduced when the interstices in the stream substrate are filled
with fine sediment. The percentage of fine sediment in riffles
not only provides a measure of the suitability of the riffles for
embryo survival, but is also an index of the amount of fine
sediment being deposited in pools or substrate interstices.
·~ /c,
I • REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/83 PAGE A-8
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REFERENCE• ~larkson, C.C., D. E. L•hnig, S.V. Plant•, R. 9.
REFIERENCE
Taylor, and W. M. Williams, 1983. Hydrologic basis
for susp•nd•d solids crit•ria. Pr•par•d for
Environm•ntal Prot•ction Ag•ncy by Camp, Dr••••r &
McKee, Annandal•, Virginia.
LOCi~TION: Alaska Departm•nt of Environm•ntal Cons•rvat ion
I MPIIJRTANT
PAGIES 1 v-v i i, 2-34--2-37, 4-1--4-23
KEY WORDS: Sedimentation, Suspended Solids, Turbidity, Primary
Production, Zooplankton, Macroinv•rt•brat•s,
Salmonid, Fish, Hydrology
The report discuss•s several factors that ar• important to the
d•v•lopm•nt of a wat•r quality crit•rion for suspend•d
solids/turbidity for th• prot•ction of aquatic biota. Th•s•
fac·t;ors includ• r•;ional, physiographic, and s•asonal
con·sid•rat ions, and relat•d hydrologic ph•nom•l'\a.
The natural solids loading to a wat•rbody will vary from sit• to
sit'•• d•p•nding upon physiographic: factors (including slop•, soil
typ1•• typ• of ;round cov•r> and upon rainfall and runoff. H•nc•,
s•a·sonal and r•gional crit•ria n••d to b• d•v•lop•d that tak•
int·~ ac:c:ount th• si;nificanc:• of natural and oth•r nonpoint
sou1rc• loadings. Wat•r ~:~ual ity c:rit•ria should ba d•v•lop•d for
sus,p•nd•d solids in th• wat•r column as w•ll as for s•ttl•d
s•diment and th••• crit•ria n•ad to addr••• th• compl•x situation
of toxics sorb•d to susp•nd•d and s•ttl•d solids. Additionally,
the •ffec:ts of sustained •xposur• to susp•nd•d solids v•rsus
sholrt-t•rm storm r•lat•d pulsas n••d to b• quanti fi•d. Although
the r•port do•• not r•comm•nd crit•ria to prot•ct aquatic lif•,
it do•• ••tablish a fram•work for consid•ration of r•gional,
•••!•on•l, and biological factors.
qjq
REVIEW DRAFT ~/83 PAGE A-9
REFERENCE; Crouse, M. R., C. A. CAllanan, K. W. Malueg, and
REFERENCE
s. E. Dominguez, 1981. E~~ects of ~ina sediment on
growth o~ JUvenile coho sAlmon in laboratory streams.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 110(2)a2&1-2&6.
LOCATIONr ~laska Resources Library, Anchorage <microfilm>
IMPORTANT
P~GES1
Juvenile coho salmon production expressed •• tissue elaboration
was measured in laboratory streams under siM levels of fine
sedimentation. ~evels o~ sediment embaddedness were 20, ~o, 60,
eo, and 100 percent as cumulative weight. Production of coho
salmon was inv•rsaly related to the quantity o~ fine sediment.
Significant deer••••• in fish production occurred in th• 80 to
100 percent embaddedness streams when ~ina <2.0 mm or less>
sedim•nts w•r• 26 and 31 percent by volum•• Benthic organisms
were cov•r•d by the sedimant. Aut~ors conclude that rearing
habitat for Juvenil• salmon as well as spawning habitat should b•
prot•et•d from s•dimentation.
9/q
REVIEW DR~FT --81!:9/S~ PAGE A-10
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REF'ERENCE 1
REF'ERENCE
LOC:ATIONI
IMI=i'ORTFlNT
DFO, 1983. A rationala for standards r•lating to th•
dis~harg• of ••dim•nts into Yukon str••m• from pla~•r
min••· O•partm•nt of Fish•ri•• and O~••ns, Fiald
S•rvi~•• Bran~h, Environm•nt Canada, Environm•ntal
Prot•~t ion S•rvi~•• N•w W•stminister, B.·C. 24 pp.
Alaska D•partm•nt of Fish and Game, Habitat Division,
Fairbanks
PFlt:IES1 ii, 1-3, 13-18
KEY WORDS1 S•dim•nt Dis~harg•, Plants, Inv•rt•brat•s, Fish,
Produ~tion, Mortality, Str•am Classifi~ations,
Standards
E!ti~lQIBIIQ~
Guid•lin•• ar• propos•d for an administrativ•lr•gulatory
fr•,m•work to manag• pla~•r mining ••dim•nt dis~harg•• This
apj:troach is bas•d on an •xt•nsiv• r•vi•w and dis~ussion of
lit•ratur• r•garding tn• s•nsitivity of biologi~ally important
aql.ll&t i~ r•sour~••· Fiv• ~lassi fi~at ions CA, B, c, o, and X) hav•
b••'n propos•d bas•d on th• biologi~al .. nsit ivity of' r•sour~••
and! past mining •~t ivity in ••~h wat•rbody. 11 A11 ~lassi fi~at ions
ar•' asso~iat•d only with high importan~• -S~h•dul• I (salmon,
trctut, or char) spawning habitat. "B" ~lassif'i~at ions would
••r·v• •• r•aring •r••• for S~h•dul• I fish. "C'1 ~lassifi~at ions
ar•t good habitat ar••• for S~h•dul• I I fish su~h as grayling,
whit•f'ish, or burbot. "0" ~lassifi~ations would •xhibit low or
no us• by any of th• abov• fish or be us•d only •• migration
~orridors, and "Xu ~lassifi~ations ar• for pr•viously d•signat•d
pliL~•r mining ar•••• S•dim•nt discharg• standards to th• wat•r•
of th• abov• ~lassifi~ations ar• proposed to b• 0 mg/~ for all
11 A11 wat•rbodi•s, 100 mg/~ for all 11 8 11 and 11 C 11 str•ams, 100 or
10010 mg/~ for all "0'' str•ams and 100 or 1000 mg/~ for 11 X"
str"•ams. Th••• standards ar• upper 1 imits of ·~~•ptabl• l•v•l•
and ar• d•fin•d for •fflu•nts from th• op•ration •• oppos•d to
r•c:•iving wat•r standards.
The! impa~t of a sediment release on stream production will depend
on th• organisms pr•••nt, str•amb•d ~omposition, th• ••••on,
str•••m flow, str••m v•locity, background s•diment l•v•ls, th•
volum• of r•l••••• th• duration of tn• r•l•••• and tn•
~omtposition of th• ••dim•nt. Th• obvious •ff•cts of ••dim•nt on
fi•,h produ~tion will b• most noti~••bl• on ~•rtain stag•• of fish
lif~• ~y~l•• whi~h vari•• among sp•~i•s· S•dim•nt ~•u.••• th•
;r•'•t•st r•du~t ion in fish produ~t ion by ~•using mortality in th•
•;;1 and al•vin stag•• of d•v•lopm•nt and in th• d•gradat ion of
th•' habitat. Sin~• primary produ~•rs, inv•rt•brat••• and fish
ar•1 link•d to;•th•r in aquat i~ food ~hains, any d•l•t•rious
•ff'a~t on alga• wi 11 affa~t aquat i~ inv•rt•brat•• and fish that
d•j:il•nd on •n•r;y produ~•d in th• str•am.
qJ9
REVIEW DRAFT S/19/8~ PAGE A-11
REFERENCE• European I~land Fisheries Advisory Commission, 196S.
REFERENCE
L.OCATION1
IMPORTANT
Wat•r quality crit•ria for European·freshwater fish,
report on finely divided solids and inland fisheries.
EIFAC Technical Paper No. 1. International Journal
of Air and Wat•r Pollution, 9(3) llSl-168•
University of Alaska, Fairbanks
PAGES1 16S-167
KEY WORDS: Suspended Solids, Turbidity, Fish, Water Quality
Criteria
A literature survey addresses the direct effects of suspended
solids on fish-growth, death, resistance to disease,
reproduction, bel"lavior, and food supply. Evidence indicates that
fish species are not equally susceptible to suspended solids and
tl"lat solids are not •qually l"larmful. Minimal turbidity may cause
fisl"l to avoid spawning grounds or prevent successful •gg
d•velopm•nt. There is no •videnc• tl"lat suspend•d solids
conc•ntrations below 2S ppm l"larms fish or fisl"leries.
Concentrations above 2S ppm l"lav• reduc•d fisl"l, SO ppm l"lav•
r•duced growtl"l rate of trout, and 82 ppm of cl"larcoal l"lav• killed
gAgbni•· Tl"l• low .. t reported concentration for a str•tcl"l of
str•am containing few or no fish i• as ppm. Tl"ler• are several
otl"ler streams witl"l sligl"ltly lower concentrations wh•re tl"le
fishery is not noticeably l"larmed. In laboratory t••t• the lowest
concentration known to reduce fisl"l life •xp•ctations is 90 ppm
and tl"le lowest concentration known to have inc:r•ased
susc•ptability to dis•a•• is 100 ppm. Waters containing 100 to
400 ppm suspend•d solids increas• susceptibility to disease,
increase mortality rates and reduce growtl"l rates. QAenniA have
b•en killed by a variety of solids in this concentration range.
Tl"lere is no evidence that waters normally carrying solids greater
tl"lan 400 ppm support varied or plentiful fish faunas. Many kinds
of solids can be present in concentrations of several thousand
ppm for short periods witl"lout killing fish, but may damage their
gills.
Tentative suspended solids criteria are proposed as follow•• <2S
ppm will not have any l"larmful effects on fisheriest 2S to 80 ppm
will maintain good or mod•rate fish•ri••t 80 to 400 ppm ar•
unlikely to support good freshwater fisheri••t at best only poor
fisheri•• are likely to be found in waters containing )400 ppm
suspended solids.
I q;q
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19-/SS PAGE A-12
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!"""
I
REFE~RENCE1 Gammon, J. R., 1970. Tn• •ff•ct of inorganic sedim•nt
on str•am biota. Pr•pared for tne Water Quality
Offic• of tn• Environm•ntal Prot•ction Ag•ncy, Grant
No. 1S030DWC, U.S. Gov. Printing Offic•, Washington,
D. C. 141 pp.
REFE~RENCE
LOCF~TIONa
IMPCIRTANT
Coop•rativ• Fish Unit, Univ•rsity of Alaska,
Fairbanks
PAGE~S 1 i , i i, 1-3, 7, 8
KEY WORDS: Fisn, Macroinvertebrates, Suspended Sediment,
Population D•nsity, Div•rsity
Fish and macroinvertebrate populations fluctuated in response to
var)'ing quantiti•s of s•dim•nt produc•d by a crush•d lim•ston•
quar•ry. Susp•nd•d sol ids loads <40 mg/L ,..sult•d in a 23 p•rc•nt
r•d~lction in macroinv•rt•brat• d•nsity b•low tn• quarry. Inputs
of ao to 120 mg/1 caus•d a 40 p•rc•nt r•duction and inputs of
mortt tnan 120 '"g/L r•sult•d in a 60 p•rc•nt r•duct ion . in
macr•oinv•rt•brat• population d•nsity. S•dim•nt whicn s•ttl•d out
in riffles caus•d a 40 p•rc•nt d•cr•as• in population d•nsity
r•g•~rdl•ss of th• susp•nd•d sol ids conc•ntrat ion. Macroinv•rt•-
brat:• population div•rsity r•main•d uncnang•d becau•• most taHa
r•spond•d to the sam• d•gr••· Introductions of s•dim•nt up to
160 mg/L caus•s imm•diat• incr•as•s in tn• rat• of inv•rt•brat•
dri 1't proport ion~l to tn• conc•ntt"'at ion of additional susp•nd•d
solids. Tn• standing crop of fisn d•cr•as•d drastically wn•n
n•avy susp•nd•d s•dim•nt C1:50 mg/L) occurr•d in spring. Fish
r•m•~in•d in pools during tn• summ•r wn•n s•dim•nt input was v•ry
n•avy but vacat•d as s•dim•nt accumulat•d. Aft•r wint•r floods
r•mc)V•d s•dim•nt d•posits, fisn r•turn•d to tn• pools during
spr~.n; and acni•v•d 30 p•rc•nt normal standing crop l•v•ls by
•arly Jun•. It is conclud•d tnat significant r•ductions in fisn
and macroinv•rt•rbat• population d•nsiti•s will d•finit•lY occur
at tuJsp•nded sol ids conc•ntrat ions as low as 30 to eo m;/L.
q,ic;
REVIEW DRAFT ~/8:5 PAGE A-13
REFERENCE• aeorg•, T.S., and O. E. ~•hnig, 1984. Turbidity and
solids. Prepared for U. s. Environmental ProtactiQn
Ag•ncy by Camp, Dr•ss•r & McK•a, Annandal•, Virginia.
REFERENCE
~OCATION1
IMPORTANT
PAGES• 2-2 -'+-11
KEY WORDS: Turbidity, Sediment, Aquatic Biota, Impacts,
Standards, Crit•ria, Water Quality ObJectives
Summarizes recent literature pertaining to the impacts of
turbidity and sedim•nt on primary production, and on th•
survival, growth and propagation of zooplankton,
macroinv•rt•brat••• and fish. In addition, it •xamin•s Canadian
water quality obJ•ctives for turbidity, and th• supporting
rational•· Numerical data from ••v•ral k•y inv•sti;ations ar•
presented including results from bioassay studies, state water
quality standards, plac•r mining studi•s in Alaska, gutd•lines
for s•tting turbidity and sediment standards, and recomm•nd•d
l•v•l• for th• prot•ction of a vari•ty of wat•r uses.
qjq
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/8~ PAGE A-14
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REFERENCE• H&usle, D. ~., and D. w. Coble, 1976. Influence of
sand in redds on survival and emerg•nce of brook
trout C§~!~~!!n~! !~nt1n~l!!)• Transactions ~merican
Fisheries Society, No. 1, pp. S7-63.
REFERENCE
LOC~TION1 University of ~laska Library, Fairbanks
IMPORT~NT
P~GES I S9-62
KEY WORDS: Brook Trout, Spawning Gravel, Sand Concentration,
Emergence, Survival, Mortality
Alevins of brook trout were buried in laboratory troughs in
spawning grav•l containing 0 to 2S p•rcent sand. Sand alowed
emergence and reduced the number of fry emerging. ~lthough the
percentages of fry emerging in laboratory studies were high ()82
percent), they decreased significantly with increasing s•nd
composition. Emergence of brook trout from tnia study, and
steelnead, chinook salmon, and coho salmon in other
investigations declined when spawning ;ravel concentratio~ of
sand eMceeded about 20 percent. The brook trout survival rate
from hatching to emergence was -estimated at 70 percent in
Lawrenc• Creek, Wisconsin where natural sp•wnin; redds contained
31 percent sand. Total emergence was S9 pereent from •g;
depc1sit ion to emergence. Mortality of 41 percent cr more of
depcsit•d ov• in Lawrence Cr•ek may nave been caused by low
concentrations of dissolved oMygen and/or tne effects of sand.
'i;0t
REVIEW DR~FT 8/19/SS P~GE ~-1S
REFERENCE• Herb•rt, D. W. M., and J. C. Merkans, 1961. The
•ffact of sus~endad mineral solids on the survival of
trout. International Journal of Air and Water
~ollution, Vol. 4, No. 1, ~P· 46-35.
REFERENCE
LOCATION• University of Alaska, Fairbanks
IMPORTANT
PAGES 1 51-54
KEY WORDS: Sus~et"''ded Solids, Trout, Lethal Ef'fects, Gill Damage,
Fin Rot
Suspet"''sions o'f kaolin and diatomaceous earth were used to test
the affects of susp•ndad solids on trout. From the data
available there appears to b• no great difference in the lethal
affect of kaolin and diatomaceous earth. Suspensions of 30 ppm
caused n•gligibl• damage to fish over a 6 month period. A few
deaths occurred in suspensions of 90 ppm indicating that this
-
laval may have an adverse affect. Mor• than half the trout d±ad -
in suspansions_of 270 and 810 ppm, frequently from the affects of
disease. Fish aKposed to suspat"''dad solids concentrations of 30
to 90 ppm eKhibitad normal gills b""t fish aKposed to
concentrations of 270 to 810 ~pm displayed a thickening and/or
fusing of gill lamellae. After 57 days of eKposure to 270 ppm
diatomaceous earth trout showed signs of caudal fin damage.
9/9
REVIEW DRAFT ~~9/85 PRGE A-16
~!
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REFE~RENCE 1 Herbert, D. w. M. , and J. M. R icnards, 1963. ·rna
growth and survival of fish in some susp•nsions of
solids of' industrial origin. Int•rnational Journal
of Air and Water Pollution, Vol. 7, pp. 297-302
REFE~RENCE
LOC~~TION1 University of' Alaska, Fairbanks
IMPCJRTANT
PAGE£St 302
KEY WORDS: Suspended Solids, Trout, Survival, Disease, Growth
A 1fishery is likely to be seriously harmed if the average
conc::entration of' susp•nded solids in th• wat•r is gr•at•r than
about 600 ppm. At conc•ntrations of' 90 and 300 ppm the •f'f'•ct is
mortt doubtful. ·rhis study has shown that trout can b• k•pt in
good n•alth f'or 9 months in 200 ppm coal-wash•ry wast• solids.
Th• •~t•nt to which conc•ntrations in this rang• will b• harmf'ul
d•pttnds on th• natur• of' th• sol ids and otn•r •nvironmitntal
f'ac1;ors. Th•r• is no indication that 30 ppm kaol it'l and
dia1:omac•ous ••rth mak• trout mor• sutic•ptibl• to dis•••• or
r•duc• their chanc•• f'or survival. In on• •~p•rim•nt ~0 ppm wood
f'ibttr and coal-wash•ry solids reduc•d the growth of' rainbow trout
in th• laboratory. In practic•, it is unlik•ly that ~0 to 60 ppm
sollLds wi 11 hav• a ••rious •f'f'•ct on growth.
9/'1
REVIEW DRAFT 9/1~/8~ PAGE A-17
REFERENCE• Hynes, H. a. N. 1973. The effects of sedim•nt on the
biota in running wate~. !DI Fluvial p~ocesses and
sedimentation. Proc. of Hydrology Symp., Univ. of
Alberta, Edmonton, Albe~ta.
REFERENCE
LOCATION• Alaska D•partm•nt of Fish and Game, Anchor•;•
IMPORTANT
PAGESt
KEY WORDS• S•dimentation, Standards
8~~QI8I!Q~
The status of knowledge of the effects of turbidity and siltation
by inert solids on plants, b•nthos, fish, and fish eggs is
revi•w•d. It is concluded that the upper limit for suspend•d
sediments is 80 m;/~ of inert silt, sand, or clay. This l•vel
will not s•riously damage a fishery but may reduc• growth rates
and abundance. Th• allowable amount should not, how•ver, result
in siltation. If so, the lev•l should be adJust•d. Streams must
always be allow•d to remov• th• silt.
_... I '-~A
REVIEW DRAFT 8/1918~ P~GE A-18
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REFE~RENCE 1 I_wamot o, R. N. , E. O. Sal o, M. A. MadeJ, and R. L.
REFE~RENCE
LOCF~TION1
IMPClRTANT
PAGE~SI
McComas, 1978. Sediment and wat•r quality• a r•vi•w
of tn• lit•ratur• including a su;g••t•d approach for
wat•r quality crit•ria. Fish•ri•s R••••rch
Inst itut•, Coll•g• of Fisn•ri••• Univ•rsi~ty of'
Washington, Seattl•, Washington. Pr•par•d for th•
u. s. Environm•ntal Prot•ction A;•ncy, S•attl•, EPA
910/9-78-048. 46 PP• + App•ndic••·
KEY WORDS: Sediment Criteria, Suspended Sediment, Turbidity,
B•dload, Str•amb•d, M•asur•m•nt T•chniqu•s,Al;a•,
Phytoplankton, Inv•rt•brat••• Ins•cts, Fish,
Salmon ids
Conc:lusions and r•comm•ndations regarding ••dim•nt crit•ria are
base~ on an ·analysis of ~h• lit•ratur• and th• proc••dings ·of a
on•··day ••dimlint workshop. Among th• conclusions drawn by th•
t•chnical pan•l at tn• ••diment workshop, tn• following points
•r• most p•rtin•nt• (1) S•dim•ntation of spawning grav•l•
produc•• significant d•trim•ntal •ff•cts on salmonid•l <2) Fine
b•d mat•rial •PP••r• to hav• • significant impact on primary and
••ccmdary productivity 1 <3> Turbidity m•••ur•m•nts •r• us•ful
indl•C&tors of g•n•ral suspend•d ••dim•nt l•v•ls but ar• difficult
to r•l•t• to any biological significanc•l (4) Tn• ••t•blishm•nt
of sedim•nt crit•ria on th• basis of m•••ur•m•nt• oth•r than
turbidity may b• difficult but not impracticalt (~) Alt•rnativ•
ap~·oach•• to turbidity •• • crit•rion includ• composition of b•d
matetrial, l::l•havioral ••p•cts of aquatic fauna, and clinical
m••••ur•m•nts of physiological functions •• • m•asur• of str••••
<6> A ••t of ••dim•nt crit•ria is n••d•d rath•r than on•
num1trical standard, (7) If • crit•rion is chos•n, it should b•
str~ramb•d mat•rial and it should b• associated with th• amount of
f i ntts in the spawn in; bed 1 < 8) B•d 1 oad m•a•urem•nt • •r• too
com~,l icat•d to use •• • crit•rion, <9> Str•ambed compos it ion
r•fl••cts th• ov•rall condition of a str••m in r•lation to
••di.m•nt•l (10) Th• b••t alt•rnativ• appears to b• ••tablishm•nt
of crit•ria limiting th• p•rc•ntag• of fin•• in str•amb•d•l and,
<11> A n••d •Kist• to dev•lop • m•asurabl• r•lationship b•tw••n
susp•nd•d ••dim•nts and str•amb•d composition.
qjq
REVIEW DRAFT -8/19/85 PAGE A-19
REFERENCE a
REFERENCE
LOCATION a
IMPORTANT
PAGESr
King, L. a.,
Significance
agricultural
Agricultural
Univarsity,
Appendices.
D. L. Bassett, and J. M. Ebeling, 1978.
of turbidity for quality assessment of
runoff and irrigation rat~rn flow.
Engineering Department, Washington State
Pullman, Washington. -._ 36 pp. +
Nichols Environmental Consulting
1, 7-11, 26-33
KEY WORDS: Sediment, Turbidity, Runo~~, Irrigation, Erosion
Turbidity and suspended sediment concentration were measured for
both agricultural runoff and irrigation raturn flow. Extensiva
statistical analysis show~ only minimal correlation. Mia
scattering theory was explored to datermine the significanca of
such factors as particle size, inda>e of refraction, concentration
and angle o~ scatter for both tha nephelometer and the
· transmissiometer. It was found that only particles of less than
10 microns in di4!tmeter contribute significantly to the
measurement of turbidity. The researchers racommend direct
measurement of suspended sediment for agricultural r-unoff and
irrigation return flow.
-I 'i/9 I REVIEW DRAFT -&1-1-9/Sei PAGE A-20
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REFE~RENCE1 L&ng•r, o. E., 1980. Eff•cts of ••dim•ntat ion on
salmonoid stream lif•. Pap•r pr•s•nt•d at th•
T•chnical Workshop on Susp•nd•d Solids in th• Aquatic
Environm•nt, Jun• 17-18, Whit•hors•, Yukon T•rritory,
Canada. Environm•ntal Protection Servic•~ Vancouv•r,
B. C.. 20 pp.
REFE~RENCE
LOC~~TION1 Alaska D•partm•nt of Fish and Gam•, Habitat Division,
Fairbanks
IMPCIRTANT
PAGE~S 1 1-20
KEY WORDS: Sediment, Salmonid, Turbidity, Periphyton, Primary
Production, ~l;a•, Macrophyt•s, Inv•rt•brat••
Available data from several investigators indicate that sediment
can aff•ct all forms of str•am lif•. The gr•at•r th• incr•as• in
s•d~.m•nt in a salmonid str•am, th• gr•at•r will ba-th• adv•r••
•ffttcts on plant and animal 1 i f• pr•••nt in th• str•am. The
add~.t ion of s•dim•nt to a str•am incr•as•• turbidity, caus•s
scoi.ILrin;, smoth•rs p•riphyton, and produc•s unstabl• substrat•s.
Th••~• conditions hav• an adv•r•• impact on primary product ion,
phot:osynth•t ic activity of alga• and macrophyt•s, and
invttrt•brat• populations. Sine• low•r trophic l•v•ls produc•
most: of th• food r•quired for salmonid product ion, any d•cr•a••
in th•ir quantity or quality will aff•ct fish growth and
sur~'ival. S•dim•nts may directly aff•ct fish through abrasion
and/or clogging of gills, r•ducing f••ding •ffici•ncy, and
d•struction of •ggs in spawning grounds.
Th• British Columbia Pollution Control Branch acc•pts 30 m;/L as
.an acc•ptabl• ••dim•nt r•l•as• l•v•l, whil• F•d•ral Fish•ri•s
accttpts r•l•a••• of 2S mg/L or background l•v•ls, which•v•r is
gr•tLt•r. Th• stat• of Or•gon insists that r•l•a••• b• no high•r
thar~ background l•v•ls up to 30 JTU. Wh•n background l•v•ls
•)Cctt•d 30 JTU, th• r•l•as• may •l•vat• background l•v•ls by 10
p•rc:•nt. Unfortunat•ly, turbidity do•• not n•c•ssari ly corr•lat•
with th• amount of susp•nd•d ••dim•nt pr•s•nt.
Cf/i
REVIEW DR~FT &/19/S~ P~GE A-21
REFERENCEI Lanat, D.R., D. L. P•nrose, and K. W. Eagleson, 1981.
REFERENCE
Variable affaets of sediment addition on stream
benthos. Hydrobiologia, 79a187-197.
LOCATIONI Biomedieal Library, Univ•rsity of Alaska, Fairbanks
IMPORTANT
PAGES a
KEY WORDS•
187, 188, 192, 193
The effaets of sediment inputs from road eonstruetion on two
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streams were studi•d. Data suggest that the benthie stream -
community responded to sedimant additions in the following ways.
As sediment was added to a stream, the ar•a of available roek
habitat decraased with a eorresponding d•ereas• in benthie
density. During low flow eonditions a stable sand community
davelops whien is qualitatively different from the roeky
substrate eommunity. During periods of high flow, sand
substrates are an unsuitable habitat for benthic organisms. As
availabl• habitat decreases, the benthie eommunity has a markedly
lower density. Both streams eKhibited downstream inereases in
mean suspended ·solids eoncentrations · in the range of 17 to 105
m;IL, and in the percentage of substrate sand and gravel.
ctf:l
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/85 PAGE A-22 -
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REFERENCE• ~loyd, D. s., 158S. Turbidity in freshwater habitats
of Alaska• a revi•w of publish•d and unpublish•d
lit•ratur• rel•vant to th• us• of turbidity •• •
wat•r quality standard. R•port No. SS-1, Alaska
D•pt. of Fish and Gam•, Habitat Division, J'un•au,
Alaska. 101 pp.
REFERENCE
LOCATION I
IMPORTANT
PAGiES 1 39-46, :51-70
KEY WORDS1 Turbidity, Susp•nd•d S•dim•nt, Wat•r Quality
Standard•, Aquatic Habitat
e~~QI9IlQ~
This report is a review and int•rpr•tation of in~ormation
provid•d by num•rous inv•sti;ators on turbidity as it r•lat•s to
fr•shwat•r aquatic habitats in Alaska. A summary of information
from Alaska and •lsewh•r• addr•ssin; th• eff•cts of turbidity on
fr•shwat•r aquatic habitats is pr•••nt•d• A sp•cific discus~ion
is pr•••nt•d ~onc•rning turbidity •• -it aff•cts light
p•n•tration, primary production, secondary production, and human
u•• of freshwat•r habitats. This information provid•• a basis
for ••tablishing turbidity wat•r quality standards.
R•lationships b•tw••n turbidity and susp•nd•d ••dim•nt •r• also
discussed. Summary tabl•• pr•••nt docum•nt•d eff•cts or
r•lationships of turbidity and susp•nd•d sedim•nt rang•• on •
vari•ty of syst•m• and organisms. It is conclud•d that turbidity
is • r•••onabl• wat•r quality standard for us• in Alaska. B•••d
on curr•nt information, th• pr•••nt standards provid• a moderat•
l•v•l of prot•ction for th• propagation of fish and wildlif• in
cl••r wat•r aquatic habitats. This pap•r also pr•••nts a mod•l
pr•dicting th• •ff•cts of turbidity on primary productivity.
ct/q
REVIEW DRAFT ~/SS PAGE A-23
REFERENCEa McCabe, G. D., and W. J. O'Brien, 1983. The effects
of suspended silt on feeding and reproduction of
Q~Q!J.D!.~ RYl~!i· American Midland Naturalist, Vol.
110, No. 2, PP• 324-337.
REFERENCE
LOCATION• University of Alaska Library, Fairbanks
IMPORTANT
PAGESa 329-335
KEY WORDS: asabnis BY!~~' Zooplankton, Suspended Silt, Filter-
ing Efficiency, Assimilation Rate, Growth, Size,
Reproduction
The effects of suspended silt and clay on the filtering and
assimilation rates of QAQ!:ln!A QY!•~ were determined using a
Carbon 14 radiotracer method. The filtering rate for all
observations at turbidity less than 10 NTU is 2.03 ml/animal/hr.
At a turbidity of 10 NTU the filtering rate significantly
dec:l in••· The dec:rea .. in filtering rates above turbidtt·ies-of
10 NTU is probably due to increased gut-loading of ingested
silt. In add it ion, with an increase in suspended silt
concentration from 0 to 10 NTU, the assimilation rate of algae by
~· ~Y!•~ decreased to below S~ percent in all cas... It was
shown that the greatest effect of turbidity on assimilation
efficiency occurs at low turbidity values. Results from a life
table experiment •now that even low suspended silt levels
impaired healthy ~AQ!J.D!A population growth. Fecundity levels
were also greatly influenced by increased levels of suspended
silt. The filtering rates for turbidities used in the life table
experiment were 2.S ml/animal/hr at 2 NTU, but declined to 0.4
ml/animal/hr at 33 NTU. When assimilation efficiencies are
factored in, animals feeding at 2 NTU would obtain 16 times more
energy than animals feeding at 33 NTU. The mean body length for
control animals was significantly smaller than the mean body
length of Q QY!•!i raised in both low and high silt
environments. The most likely reason for this discrepancy is
that animals growing in the suspended silt environment channel
more energy into increasing body size than into reproduction.
Although the animals raised in suspended silt were larger, they
were not as healthy as tho•• rai••d in the ab•ence of silt.
Specifically, the individuals raised in silty water lacked
carapace strength and re•iliency. It was concluded that both
filtering efficiency and assimilation rates are severly depressed
at even low concentrations of suspended silt and clay.
Furthermore, the population growth rate of zooplankton was
significantly diminished by suspended silts and clays.
gjq
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/85 PAGE A-24
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REFI::RENCE 1 !V!c:C:art, P. 3. , P. M. R. Green, D. W. Mayhood, and
P. T. P. Tsui, 1980. Environmental studies No. 13
effects of siltation on the ecology of Ya-Ya ~ake,
REFI::RENCE
N. w. T. Prepared for Minister of Indian and Northern
Affairs by Aquatic: Environments, ~imited~ Calgary,
Alberta. 286 pp. -
~OCATION1 Nichols Environmental Consulting
IMPIJRTANT
PAGI::S: 8~-141, 144-162, 231-23~, 2:50-274
KEY WORDS: Suspended Sediment, Turbidity, Secchi Disk,
Chlorophyll-a
The report provides a detailed discussion of a variety of water
qua.lity parameters and the ecology of Ya-Ya ~ake, Northwest
Tarll"'itories. Water quality param•ters discussed include
sus1pended sediment, Sec:c:hi disk transparency, turbidity,
temj!)arature, dissolved oKyg•n, pH, alkalinity, and nutrients.
Bio:logic:al func:t ional groups discussed include phytoplankton,
ZOOi!)lankton, zoob•nthos, and fish. The report also addrasses the
prololem of quantitative standards -for suspended solids, including
the relationship between turbidity and suspend•d solids.
I
9:'<1
REVIEW DRAFT -8/19/8~ PAGE A-2:5
REFERENCE• McCluney, W. R., 1973. Radiom•try of water turbidity
measurements. Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation, 47<2>•2~2-266.
REFERENCE
L.OCATION1
IMPORTANT
L.. A. Peterson & Associates, Inc.
PAGES1 2~2, 233, 236-264
KEY WORDS: Turbidity, Transmittance, Scatter, Nephelometri~
8~~QI8I.!Qr:t
A number of opti~al measurement techniques for particulates have
been developed that are easy and quick and can be performed !n
§1t~· However, these methods are applicable only if a proper
relationship between the optical property being measured and the
amount of suspended sediment can be found. Some of these
techniques yield results that are roughly proportional to the
amount of suspended material under certain circumstances.
However, the optical properties of these techniques rely on th•
shap•, refractiv• inde>e, particle size distribution, particl•
conc•ntrat ion, and the absorption spectra. -H•nc•, opt-ical
prop•rties ar• proportional to mass or volume conc•ntration only
when all other parameters ar• constant. Howev•r, natural waters
exhibit considerabl• variability in these parameters, which makes
the establishment of the d•sired relationship difficult. This
variability in natural water severly r•stricts th• us•fulness of
using optical techniqu•s for routine m•asur•m•nt of the amount of
susp•nd•d mat•rial.
Of the various techniques for measuring optical properties,
turbidity and transpar•ncy ar• th• most wid•spr•ad.
A variety of definitions of turbidity exist. These include the
intensity of light transmitt•d <unscatt•r•d> through the sampl•,
a ratio of th• intensity of light scatt•r•d by a sample to th•
intensity of th• light sourc•, the amount of light scattered and
absorbed rather than transmitt•d in straight lines through th•
sampl•, and a r•duction in transparency of a sampl• due to th•
pr•s•nc• of particular matter. Turbidity has also be•n defined
as th• amount of susp•nded matter, in ppm, as ascertained by
optical observation, and in terms of diff•r•nt m•asurement
t•chniqu•s <•.g., Jackson Candle and Nephelometric turbidity>.
Cj(i
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/83 PAGE A-26
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REFERENCE: McLeay, A. J., A. J. KnoK, J. G. Malick, I.K.
REF~ERENCE
LOC:ATION1
I MC:IORTANT
PAGIES1
Birtwell, G. Hartman, and G. L. Ennis, 1983. Effects
on Arctic grayling <!b.:tm~llYa !t::St!sya> of snort-term
exposure to Yukon placer mining sediments: labora-
tory and field studies. Canadian Techni-cal Report of
Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 1171. · 40 pp. +
Appendices.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Habitat Division,
Fairbanks
K iii t K i v, 34, 3~
KEY WORDS: Grayling, Suspended Sediment, Mortality, Sub-lethal
Effects, Blood Glucose Levels, Gill Histologies
In a laboratory study, laboratory-reared grayling which were
acc~limated to 1~ degrees C survived a 4-day eKposure to sediment
s1.mpensions of <2~0, 000 mg/L, and a 16-day eKposure· to· :50,000
mg/L. Fish which were acclimated to :5 degrees C and held in pay
dirt suspensions of (101 000 mg/L survived for 4 days, whereas 10
to 20 percent mortality occurred at the nigher concentrations.
Inc)rganic sediment levels of > 10,000 mg/L caused fish to surface,
a direct response to elevated sediment levels. The gill
nit1tolo;ies of fish surviving these 4-day eKposures was normal.
Sut~pensions of sediment caused acute stress responses (elevated
and/or more varied blood glucose levels, depressed leucocrit
levels) in grayling acclimated to either temperature. Hematocrit
vallues for these fish were not affected by sediments.
Dur•ing summer field bioassay studies, all grayling held in <20
m;/L and <100 m;/L streams survived with no overt signs of
dil1tress or physical damage. Subsequently, fish captured in low
s•.uapended sol ids water were eKposed to levels of <1210 mg/L and
<34 mg/L for :5 days in two separate streams. Although all of
tn11se fish survived, gill tissues from specimens at each site
snc)wed moderate-to-marked hypertrophy and hyperplasia of lamellar
epithelium, along with a proliferative number of gill
ec::t:oparasites. It was concluded that snort-term e>eposure of
Arc:t ic grayling to sublethal concentrations of suspended sediment
CAr\ cause a number of effects including acute stress responses.
qjq
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/8:5 PAGE A-27
REFERENCE1 NCASI, 1984&. A labo~atory atudy of tn• •ffecta of
s•dim•nt• of two diff•~•nt aiz• cnaract•~iatics on
survival of rainbow trQut <§Almg a•!~~n-~1> embryoa
to fry emergence. National Council of the Paper
Industry for Air and Stream Improvement, -Technical
Bulletin No. 429, April, 1984. 49 pp. + Appendices.
REFERENCE
LOCATION;
IMPORTANT
PAGES I
University of Alaska Library, Fairbanks
43, 46
KEY WORDS: Fine Sediment, Rainbow Trout, Embryos, Fry Emergence,
Entrapment, Mortality, Survival
This technical bulletin describes the findings of a continuing
laboratory study of the effects of selected fine sediments on the
survival of rainbow trout embryos to fry emergence. The presence
of fine sediment was observed to be beneficial -as well as
detrimental depending on the size of the sediment. Physical
entrapment was indicated to be the-principle cause of mortal-ity
while there was no discernable difference in fish sizes or times
of fry emergence under the eonditions studied. Conclusions from
this study are as follows. MaJor differences w•r• observed :l.n
the survival of rainbow eggs to the time of emergence, between
<O.SS mm and <6.4 rnm diameter ••diment. Fines <O.S mm were found
to reduce survival by 1.1 perc•nt for each percent increase in
fines over the range of 10 to 40 percent. This compares to a 1.8
percent mean reduction in survival for each percent increase in
fines, determined from a large number of literature references.
The presence of coarse fines <6.4 mm diameter reduced survival by
approHimately o.a percent for each pereent increase in fine
sediment over the range of 0 to 40 percent fin••·
q/<1
REVIEW DRAFT ~1-9-1'83 PAGE A-S:S
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REFE~RENCEa NC~SI, 1984b. Tn• eff•cta of fin• ••dim•nt on
aalmonid spawning gravel and Juv•nile rearing habitat
-a lit•rature review. National Council of the
Industry for Air and Stream Improvement, Technical
Bulletin No. 428, New York. 66 pp.
REFE~RENCE
LOC~~TION: University of Alaska, Fairbanks
IMPCJRTANT
P~GE~S I 12-21 ' 30-61
KEY WORDS: Fine Sediment, Salmonids, Survival, Mortality,
Emergence, Production, Turbidity, ~voidance, Feeding,
Measur•m•nt Techniques
A literature review is presented on the effects fine sediments
may hav• on salmonid habitats, primarily with reference to
spawning gravel and JUVenile rearing habitat. Life history and
habitat characteristics of eight species are summarized. Fine
sedl~m•nts in spawning gravel hav• b••n.d•fined as particl•s being
anyllther• from o.e mm to 9.~1 mm diam•t•r,-dep•nding on -th•
author. It has been shown that an increase in fine sediment
decr•eases gravel permeability, intragravel water flow, and oKygen
conc:entrat ions in the gravel, deer••••• embryonic survival,
impaairs normal embryo development, and affects timing, size, and
succ:ess of fry emergence. Documented effects on salmonids are
pretJented for the eight species.
Doc,.&mented effects of fine sediment in the water column and
strltambed on Juvenile salmonids pertain to growth, survival,
movttment, density, size, biomass, and production. Catchability
of fish was reduced when turbidity exceeded 30 JTU due to reduced
visibility. Algal-based food production is reduced when
turbidities exceed 2~ JTU. Fish movement was impaired in streams
whe'r"e silt exceeded 4,000 ppm. Juvenile coho salmon which were
preacclimated to turbidity eKhibited an avoidance reaction at
thrttshold levels of 100 NTU.
FinE~ sediment measurement techniques include the McNeil bottom
samJiler, a d•vice for measuring gravel size constituents by
volumetric dev•lopment, a liquid carbon dioxide freeze core
samJ,l• device, and a tritub• fr••z• core sampler.
9/q
REVIEW DRAFT 6119/8~ P~GE A-29
REFERENCE• ~oggla, c.c., 1978. Bahavio~al, physiological and
lethal affects of suspended sediment on JUVenile
salmonids. M.S. Thesis, Collage of Fisha~i••• Univ.
of Washington, Seattle, WA. 87 pp.
REFERENCE
LOCATION a
IMPORTANT
PAGES:
Univa~sity of Alaska, Fai~banks Cinta~lib~a~y loan)
2-7, 59-7~
KEY WORDS: Suspended Sediment, Salmonids, Bioassay, Turbid
Studies were conducted to assess the effects of suspended
sediment on JUVenile salmonids in the st~eam envi~onment. Static
bioassay tanks w•~• used to dete~mine 96 hou~ LC50's, changes in
gill histology, and changes in blood physiology. Two
ex~arimantal stream designs ware used to relata sediment concen-
t~ations to avoidance behavior.
Results, involving acute C4 days o~ less) rathe~ than chronic
exposure to suspended sediments, indicate seasonal changes in-the
tolerance of salmonids to suspended sediment. Bioassays
conduetad in summa~ · p~oduced LC50's lass than 1500 mg/L, while
autumn bioassays showed LC~O's in axe••• of 30,000 mg/L. The
tolerance of wild coho salmon to suspended solids was high•~ than
hatche~y p~oducad coho's, apparently because of p~io~ exposure to
suspended sediments. Histological examination of gills ~evealad
structu~al damage by suspended sediment. Blood chemist~y showed
elevated blood glucose levels at sublethal suspended sediment
concant~ations. Expa~iments conducted with a tu~bid a~tificial
st~eam and claa~ t~ibuta~y indicated a ~eluctance by the fish to
leave thai~ established t•~~itories. Studies conducted with a
Y-shaped st~eam showed a p~efa~ence fo~ tu~bid wate~ at low to
medium concent~ations and slight avoidance at high
concent~ations.
ct;q
REVIEW DRAFT ~/S~ PAGE A-30
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REFERENCE I
REFERENCE
LOCATION I
IMP'ORTANT
PAGES1
KEY WORDS:
8~~QI8I!Q~
Nuttall, P.M., and a. H. Bilby, 1973. The effect of
china-clay wast•• on stream invertebrates. Environ-
m•ntal Pollution, <~> 177-66.
Univ•rsity of Alaska Library, Fairbanks
77, 79, 81, 83
Clay Wastes, Suspended Solids, Deposited Solids,
Aquatic Plants, Macroinvert•brates, Population,
D•nsity, Abundance
Rivers polluted with clay wastes supported a sparse population of
f•w species. Root•d aquatic veg•tation was absent at stations
where the suspended solids concentration was high < >2000 ppm>,
whereas unpolluted reaches supported a rich community of aquatic
plants. Control streams supported 36 times the density of
anh1als found at clay-polli.Jted stations. Sp•cies coMposition was
greater in I.Jnpolli.Jted rivers and at stations downstream of sewage
outfalls compared with clay-polluted reaches. Clay pollution
either eliminated or radi.Jced the abundance of several macro-
inv•rtebrate sp•cies frequent in control streams. The absence of
plants and macroinvartebrates in rivers receiving clay waste was
ass,ociated with the deposit ion of fine inert sol ids rather than
turbidity or abrasion by particles in suspension.
qfc.
REVIEW DRAFT -&1-19-/S~ PAGE A-31
REFERENCE I
•
REFERENCE
LOCATION a
IMPORTANT
PAGES I
KEY WORDS:
~hillips, R. w. 1971. Effects of sediments on the
gravel environment and fish production. !01 Proc •
of Symp. Forest Land Uses and Stream Erosion, Oregon
St. Univ.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Anchorage
Rainbow Trout, Gold Mining, Logging, Turbidity
Sediment influences fish in many ways: <1> Blocks transmission
of light, reducing alga• productiont <2> Damages gill membranes
and can cause death where concentrations are high and ewposures
are long' (J) Harms spawning by filling interstices and reducing
oxygen exchange; (4) Interferes with r•moval of metabolites, <~>
Makes barriers preventing fry from emerging' and, <6> Reduces
cover on stream bottom. Sediment is defined as particles less
than 4 mm in size. Fishing success is reduced whara turbidity-is
greater than 2S ppm. Concentrations of kaolin and diatomaceous
earth of 270 to 810 ppm for 10 days killed rainbow trout.
Mortality of ~7 percent in rainbow fingerlings one and a half
mile downstream of a gold dredge producing 1000 to 2~00 ppm
solids occurred in 20 days versus 9.~ percent mortality in a
control stream. Other fish species such as sunfish and bass
appear to be more tolerance of turbidity. Turbidity is produced
from erosion as a result of logging, road building, mining, and
other activities.
qJi
REVIEW DRAFT S/19/S~ PAGE A-32
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REFERENCE? Phillips, R. W., R. C. Lantz, E. W. Claire, and J. R.
REFE~RENCE
Moring, 1975. Some effects of gravel mi)(tures on
emergence of coho salmon and steelnead trout fry.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 104(3)1461-466.
LOCFniONa Alaska Resources Library, Anchorage <microfilm)
IMPC~RTANT
PAGE~S1
KEY WORDSa Coho Salmon, Steelhead Trout, Sedimentation
Eight mi)(tures of sand and gravel were tested in incubation
tro~,q;ns using c:ono salmon and steelhead eggs. Survival for coho
e!iKIIl was 96 percent in control mi)(ture, 82 percent in 10 percent
sancl, 64 percent in 20 percent sand, 38 percent in 30 percent
sand, 20 percent in 40 percent sand, 22 percent in 50 percent
sar~cl, ar~d 8 to 10 percent in 60 to 70 percent sand. Sand was 1
to 3 mm in diameter. For steelnead, the relationship was
sim:i.lar, ranging from 99 percent in the control mi)(ture to -18
perc:ent in 70 percent sand. Emergence of-fry appeared to be
earlier than normal. This study appears to support previous
stucties. which nave shown the inverse relationship between the
amount of fines and egg survival.
REVIEW DRAFT
qf~
8/19/85 PAGE A-33
REFERENCE• P_ickaring, R. J., 1S76. Measurement of "turbidity"
and relatad ~haractaristies of natural watars. Open-
Fila Raport 76-153, u.s. Gaological Survey. 13 pp.
REFERENCE
L.OCATION1
IMPORTANT
PAGES a 1, 2
KEY WORDS: Turbidity, Jackson Candle, Formazin, Nephelometric
Attempts to quanti~y turbidity have led to a proliferation o~
dafinitions, mathods of measuremant, instrumants, standards, and
units of maasura. Turbidity data for natural waters ara appliad
to savaral usas, including• (1) Datarmination of tha dapth to
whieh photosynthasis can oecur1 (2) Aasthatic avaluation of watar
usad for racraationt and, (3) Estimation of eoncantration of
suspandad sadimant. · L.ack of standardization of the maasuramal"'t
oftan has resultad unwittingly in corralations batwaan unral~tad
numbars. Thara is a -strong faaling within tha hydrologic
profassion that mora pracisa and dafinitiva sats of mathods •nd
tarminology ara requirad. Turbidity ganarally is measured as an
optical phanomanon and should ba raportad in optical units.
The U. S. Geological Survey has adopted the following
principlasa (1) Standard instruments and methods should ba
adopted to maasura and raport the light transmitting
charactaristi~s of natural waters in optical units, thus avoiding
tha usa of nturbidity 11 as a quantitativa maasure1 (2) Raporting
of 11 turbidity" in Jackson Turbidity Units, Halliga Units,
savarity, or Naphalomatric Turbidity Units should ba phasad out;
<3> Tha basis for astimations of sadimant concantrations using
light maasuraments should ba documantad adaquataly; al"'d, (4) Tha
usa of transparency maasuramants by Sacchi disk is considerad to
ba acceptabla, although light transmittanca may prova to ba a
mora precise maans of obtaining the same information.
q/9
REVIEW DRAFT ~/85 PAGE A-34
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REFE~RENCEt Snelton, J. M., and R. D. Pollock, 1966. Siltation
REFE~RENCE
LOCFniONa
IMPClRTANT
PAGE~Sa
and egg su~vival in incubation c:nannels. T~ana.
Am•~· Fisn. Soc:., 9~<2>r1S3-189.
Alaska Rasou~c:•s Lib~a~y, Anc:no~a;• <mic:~ofilm>
KEY WORDSt Cninook Salmon, Cnum Salmon, Siltation
Cninook and cnum salmon eggs in incubation channels we~e
subJI•c:tad to siltation. In the fi~st season, 180,000 c:ninook
eggtl we~• planted and no ai ltat ion c:ont~ol measu~•• we~•
impl.amentad. Su~vival of eggs was ~0 pe~c:ant. In tn• auc:c:aeding
two seasons, cnum salmon eggs w•~• planted and silt cont~ol
maat•u~•• w•~• implemented. Su~vival was 92 and 9~ pe~cent,
~•spac:tively. Silt was c:leanad f~om the cnannel aft•~ tn• fi~st
•••••on. Deposit ion was p~ima~i ly silts and c:laya and accounted
fo~. 0.5-10.4 pe~c:ant of total aubst~ata sample waignt. In tne
fi~t•t season, siltation was so neavy that an estimated 35.3
pa~c~ant of inte~g~avel voids w•~• filled. Tne upp•~ po~t ion of
tna cnannal was uaad as a settling baain in aaaaona 2 and 3 and
most~ of tne mate~ial settled out. Mo~tality of agga in tna fi~at
••••~on ~angad f~om 8~ pa~c:ant in tne naaviaat silt to 32 pe~cent
in tna lignteat silt.
ctA
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/8~ PAGE A-3~
REFERENCE I
REFERENCE
I..OCATION1
IMPORTANT
PAGES I
KEY WORDS
S1glar, J. w., T. c. BJornn,
Effects of chronic turbidity
stealhaads and coho salmon.
113 (2) 1142-1:50.
and F. H. Everest, 1984.
on density and growth of
Trans. Amar. Fish. Soc.,
Alaska Resources l..ibrary, Anchoraga
Coho Salmon, Staalhaad, Turbidity
Yearlong and older salmon can survive high concentrations of
suspended sediment for considerable lengths of time. Mortality
occurs above ao,ooo m;ll... This paper considers the affects of
suspended sediments on newly emerged young. Tests dona in
laboratory streams used clay, fireclay and bentonite.
Significant difference• ware sean between the growth rata of fish
in clear versus turbid streams. Fish tended to move out of
turbid channels. In natural systems, newly emerged fish
encountering turbidity wo'uld likely move out of the area. 13ill
tis•u• damage wa• observed after 3 to :5 days in turbid water. As
little as 2~ NTU cau•ed reduction in fish growth, probably from
reduced ability to feed. It is not known if this is due to
inability to sea pray or interceptions of appropriate light
wavelengths by particles. At turbidities of 100 to 300 NTU, fish
left the channels or diad. The tests ware conducted primarily
with turbiditias of 2~-:50 NTU.
~A
REVIEW DRAFT S/19/8:5 P~GE A-36
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REF!ERENCE: Sigma Resource Consultants, 1979. Summary of' water
QUality criteria f'or salmonid hatcheries. Dept. of
Fisheries and Oceans.
REF!ERENCE
LOCATION• Alaska Oapartmant of Fish and Game, Anchorage
IMPIORTANT
PAGES I
KEY WOROS1 Salmon, Suspended Solids
Criteria are established to allow evaluation of new water sources
and identify watar treatment needs when astablishing a hatchery.
Primary f'ish culture parameters such as dissolved oMygan, pH,
ammonia, dissolved carbon dioKida, hydrogen sulf'ida, nitrite, and
suspended solids are considered. Suspandad solids are either
organic or inorganic. Inorganic solids can transport adsorbed
pollutants such as pesticides. Coating of' f'ish eggs with silt
can inhibit gas transfer of' carbon dioKida, oKygan, and ammonia.
It can also af'f'act JUvenile fish by reducing growth· rata,
reducing dissolved oKygan, disrupt f'aading, transportation of
adsorbed pollutants, and damage to gills. It is suggastad that
an acceptable limit of suspended solids for incubating eggs is 3
mg/L and f'or raaring and holding the limit would ba 2~ mg/L in
the absence of' othar pollutants.
9Ji
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/Se PAGE A-37
REFERENCE: Simmons, R. c., 19&4. Effects of plac•r mining
sedim•ntation on Arctic grayling of int•rior Alaska.
M.S. Thesis, Univ•rsity of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska.
73 PP•
REFERENCE
LOCATION•
IMPORTANT
PAGES1 3, 32-6~
KEY WORDS: Turbidity, Settleable Solids, Total Residue
The effects of placer mining sedimentation on Arctic grayling
wer• assess•d by comparing data coll•ctlld in mined and unmined
streams. Although many young-of-the-year and adult grayling used
unmined str•ams for summer habitat, no grayling were found in the
mined streams eKcept during periods of migration. Grayling
apparently selected clear water streams for summ•r r•sidence.
Caged f'ish studies demonstrated that if' grayling could not escape
f'rom streams carrying mining sediments, they would suf'fer dir•ct,
chronic effects, including gill damage, dietary deficiencies, and
slowed maturation. The indirect effects of sedimentation on
grayling populations, through loss of summer habitat for feeding
and reproduction, ar• more severe than the direct ones.
Based on this study, the following water quality guidelines and
corresponding levels of protection •Kpected in rec•iving wat•rs
were su;;•steda
Level of
e~:2t•£t!2n
Hign
Moderate
Low
Total Residue, ___ mRLb ______ _
( 1:50
1S0-300
) 300
o.fq
Settleable
§2!.!RaL_!!!l.Lb
( o. 1
0.1-0.2
) 0.2
REVIEW DRAFT -&.4--9/S~ PAGE A-38
Turbidity,
___ riiY __ _
( 2:5
23-100
) 300
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REFERENCE1 So~ansen, O. L., M. M. McCa~thy, E. J. Middleb~ooks,
and o. e. Po~cella, 1977. Suspended and dissolved
solids effects on freshwater biotaa a review.
EPA-600/3-77-042, Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, Office of Research and Oavelopmant,u.s.
Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, Oregon.
65 pp.
REFIERENCE
LOC!=ITION: L. A. Petel"'son & Associates, Inc.
IMPIORTANT
PAGIC:S: 1, 2, 21,22, 32-42
KEY WORDS: Suspendedanisms wel"'e difficult to demonstrata;
Suspended solids have significant affects on community dynamics
due to tul"'bidity; Suspended solids may have significant effects
on community succession, community stability, and fish avoidance
raa,ctions; Sediments may sal"'va as a l"'asal"'vOil"' of toMic chemicals;
and., Relat ivaly high suspended sol ids wal"'e needed to cause
bah.aviol"'al l"'&act ions <20, 000 mg/L) or death <200, 000 mg/L) in
f'isln over the short term.
ani·sms were difficult to demonstrate; Suspended sol ids have
significant ·effects on community dynamics due to turbidity;
Suspended solids may have significant e1'fects on community
suc1:assion, community stability, -and· fish avoidance react ions;
Sediments may serve as a reservoir of toMic chemicals' and,
Ral•tively high suspended solids ware needed to causa behavioral
racu:t ions <20, 000 mg/L) or death <200, 000 mg/L) in fish over the
sho1rt term.
REFERENCE: Symons, J. M., and J.C. Hoff, 1975. Rationale for
turbidity maximum contaminant level. Presented at
Third Water Quality Technology Conference, American
Water Works Association, Atlanta, Georgia, December
S-10, 1975. Water Supply Research Divis4on,
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
18 pp.
REFERENCE
LOCATION; Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
IMPORTANT
PAGES; 1-4, 15, 17
KEV WORDS1 Turbidity
B~~Q!8IIQ~
For drinking water, 5 units of turbidity became obJectionable to
a considerable number of people, and many people turn to
alternate supplies which may be less aafe. The relationship
between particulates in the water and the presence of disease
causing organisms was documented from literature. Turbidity .ven
at low levels, above 1 turbidity unit, interferes with
disinfection and prevents maintenance of an effective
disinfectant agent <e.g., chlorine) throughout the distribution
system. Indications are that bacteria and viruaea can be
protected by certain kinds of particles from inactivation by
chlorine. Inorganic ~rticles can cause turbidity and probably
have no bearing on the potential protection of pathogens. Small
organic particles, on the other hand, may protect pathogens.
Therefore, in evaluating turbidity, the nature of the particles
in the water must be taken into account.
9/q
REVIEW DRAFT 6119/8~ PAGE A-40
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REFIERENCE1 Tappal, P. D., and T. C. BJornn, 19S3. A new method
of relating size of spawning gravel to salmonid
embryo size. North American Journal Fisheries
Management, 3;123-135.
REFI::RENCE
LOCI~T I ON II
I MPI:JRTANT
PAGIES:
University of Alaska Library, Fairbanks
129-131
KEY WORDS: Salmonid, Survival, Size, Emergence, Spawning Gravel,
Fine Sediment
A ·new method for describing the size composition of salmonid
spa1~ning graval was developed. Salmonid ambryo survival was
ral.atad to two part icla si za groups, 9. 50 mm and 0. S5 mm, in
lab,oratory tests. In these tests, > 90 percent of the variability
in ambryo survival was correlated with changes in subtrata_size
com1~osition. Gravel mixtures containing high percentages of the
fi n1a sad imant produced· slightly smaller staalhaad ·f'f"y· than
gravels containing low percentages of fine sediment. Thare·was
no relationship between changes in gravel size composition and
the siza of chinook salmon emargants. In gravels containing
large amounts of fine sediment, many of tha staalhaad and chinook
sal1rnon fry emerged before yolk sac absorption was complete.
9/9
REVIEW DRAFT S/19/85 PAGE A-41
REFERENCE1 Thurston, R. V., R. C. Russo, C. M. F•tt•rolf, Jr.,
T. ~. Edsall, V. M. Barb•r, Jr., <•ds.), 1979. A
r•vi•w of tn• EPA R•d Book• quality crit•ria for
wat•r. Wat•r Quality Section, Am•rican Fisn•ri•s
Society, Betn•sda, MO. 313 pp.
REFERENCE
LOC~TION; L.A. P•t•rson & Associat•s, Inc.
IMPORTANT
PAGES; 1, 2, 266-270
KEY WORDS: Suspended Solids, Settleable Solids, Turbidity,
R•sidu•, Crit•ria, A•sth•tics, Fr•snwat•r Aquatic
Lif•, Prot•ction
Tnis is a review and discussion or EPA criteria ror suspended
solids, ••ttl•abl• solids, and turbidity with r•gard to a•sth•tic
wat•r quality, fr•shwat•r fish and oth•r aquatic lif•. Tn•
a•sthetics crit•ria ar• g•n•rally satisfactory as stat•d in th•
R•d Book. .R•comm•ndat ions for improv•m•nt of a•sth•t ics crit•ria
includ• d•finition of nuisanc• organisms, and r•cognition·and
discussion of th• a•stn•tic valu• of biological compon•nts of
aquatic syst•ms. Th• crit•rion for freshwat•r and oth•r aquatic
lif• is difficult to apply und•r most conditions and impossibl•
to apply in oth•rs. Turbidity and solids ar• not synonymous as
su;gest•d in th• R•d Book, and no m•thod is propos•d for
m•asuring th• comp•nsation point. Tn•re is no corr•lation mad•
b•tween s•dim•ntation •ff•cts and th• crit•rion or with
comp•nsation d•pth. Th• r•comm•nd•d maximum conc•ntrations of
susp•nd•d solids for various l•v•ls of prot•ction ar•
oversimplifi•d in th• R•d Book to tn• •xt•nt that they ar• no
longar sci•ntifically sound. Th• application of reduc•d photo-
synth•tic activity as a crit•rion for fr•shwat•r fish app•ars to
b• an indir•ct m•asur•m•nt of th• aff•cts of ••dim•nt and
turbidity, at b•st. Residu•s <turbidity and solids) should b•
consid•r•d s•parat•ly with •ach param•t•r m•asur•d in standard
units. Th• crit•rion for solids should b• d•fin•d in mg/~ of
residu•s <solids), turbidity in NTU, and terminology should ba
consist•nt with Standard M•thods. Futur• EPA crit•ria should
tak• into account th• crit•ria d•v•lop•d by a numb•r of authors.
Many of th•s• data would support a limit of 100 mg/~
non-filt•rabl• r•sidu• for fr•sh and •stuarin• wat•r• to pr•v•nt
mortality. How•v•r, on• ravi•w•r of tha R•d Book thought that
100 mg/L is too rastrictiv• and that conc•ntrations could b• much
high•r without causing adv•rs• •ff•cts. Tn•r• is no univ•rsal
agream•nt as to l•v•ls of turbidity to b• allow•d nor is th•re
agre•mant upon units to b• us•d·
qjq
REVIEW OR~FT ~/8~ PAGE A-42
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REFE~RENCE1 Truhlar, J. F., 1976. D•t•rmining susp•nd•d ••diment
loads from turbidity records. 1n• Proc. Third
Inter-Agency Sedimentation Conf., 1976. Water
R•sourcas Council, Denver, CO.
REFE:i:RENCE
LOCI~TIONa
IMPIJRTANT
PAGI::Sa
KEY WOROS1 Turbidity, Susp•nd•d Solids
Methods of evaluating sediment-control measures are considered.
Field data shows a good correlation between m•an daily
dis•:harg•-weight•d turbidity and ma•n daily dischar;e-w•ight•d
sust::~ended solids conc•ntration. Digital and graphic r•corders
wer~ employ•d to m•asur• turbidity. Although thar• appears to ba
no univ•rsal r•lationship betw••n turbidity and susp•nd•d
sed:iments, th•r• appears to b• a good corr•lation for individual
strttams. Turbidity could_ b• tak•n and susp•nd•d solids ·comt:~ut•d
ush·•g wat•r d_ischarge r•cords. Actual m•asu,...em•nt must b• Mad•
to ttstablish th• corr•lat ion and then p•riodically to v•ri fy it.
gf:1
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/SS PAGE A-43
REFERENCEa Turnpanny, A. W. H., and R. Williams, 1960. Eff•cts
of sedimantation on tha gravels of an industrial
REFERENCE
LOCATIONr
IMPORTANT
rivar systam. Journal Fish Biology, 171661-693.
Univarsity of Alaska Biomedical Library, Fairbanks
PAGES: 6641 666-691 ""'i
KEY WORDS: Trout, Mortality Rate, Eggs, Alevins, Suspended
Solids, Dissolvad OKygan, Parmaability
Rainbow trout eggs were planted in river gravels to assess the
affacts of siltation on salmonid spawning succass. In raaches
whara siltation dua to tha coal industry has occurrad, 96 to 100
parcant of aggs diad during incubation in tha gravals. This high
mortality rata corrasponds to suspandad solids concantrations of
2 to 2481 mg/L, graval parmaabilitias in tha rang• of ~ to 74
cm/h 1 and dissolvad oKygan concantrations of 2.4 to 7.6 mg/L. In
anothar ri var agg mor·tal i ty rangad from 24 to 96 p•rcllnt
corrasponding to suspandad solids lavals of 3 to 1610 mg/L,
graval parmaabilitias ranging from 7 to 2930 cmlh, and dissolvad
oKygan of 3.6 to 6.6 mg/L. Tha lowar mortality rata in tha latar
riv•r is probably a raflaction of tha lowar suspandad solids
lavals. Alevin survival thrashold valuas for dissolvad oKygan
and parmaability ara around 4.9 mg/L and 40 cmlh, raspectivaly.
It was calculatad that a 30 parcant alavin mortality rata
corrasponds to a dissolvad oKygan concantration of 6.5 mg/L.
Alavin siza also showad a strong positiva corralation with tha
dissolv•d oKygan supply rata.
qjq
REVIEW DRAFT 6119/63 PAGE A-44
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REFERENCE: Van Nieuwenhuyse, E. E., 1983. Tne affects of placer
mining on the primary productivity of interior Alaska
REFERENCE
LOCATION:
IMPORTANT
streams. M.S. Thesis, University of Alaska,
Fairbanks, Alaska. 120 pp.
L. A. Peterson & Associates, Inc.
PAGES: ~S-66
KEY WORDS: Turbidity, Settleable Solids, PAR, Gross
Productivity, Algal Productivity, Recreational
Activities, Criteria
A strong positive correlation was observed between incident PAR
and gross productivity, attesting to the importance of light in
regulating primary production. This relationship provides the
partial basis for a model which could be used to predict algal
productivity at different turbidity levels,
Recreational activities such as canoeing and fishing would
probably be popular on Birch Creek if the channel were
rehabilitated t6 allow fish· passage, and if turbidity could be
maintained below 200 to 300 NTU. The results of this study
support the contention that a settleable solids standard of <0.1
ml/L for receiving waters could be reasonable. With regard to
turbidity, the following tentative criteria are suggested: 6 to
2~ NTU high level of protection, 25 to 100 NTU moderate, 100 to
300 NTU low, 300 to ~00 NTU very low.
qf:4
REVIEW DRAFT -&1-19/S~ PAGE A-4~
REFEREBCE1 Vanous, R. 0., P. E. Larson, and C. C. Hach, 19S2.
REFERENCE
LOCATION;
IMPORTANT
PAGES:
The theory and measurement of turbidity and residue.
in: Water Analysis Volume 1 inorganic species, Part
I, Academic Press, New York, N.Y. pp. 164-234
L. A. Peterson & Associates, Inc.
167-221
KEY WORDS: Turbidity, Nephelometric, Residue, Suspended and
Dissolved Solids
The theory of light scattering is presented by a review of
terminology, Raylei;h acatterin; and theory, and Mie scattering.
The discussion of the measurement of turbidity includes the
effects of sample and instrument parameters on turbidity
measurement, a history of turbidimetric methods, modern
nephelometric instrumentation, commercial instrument responses,
process instruments, , . specifications for nephelometric
instrumentation, methods of instrumental turbidity measurem•nt,
and the potential of future nephelometric developments.
~A
REVIEW DRAFT ~/19/SS PAGE A-46
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REFE~RENCE
REFE~RENCE
LOC~~TION1
IMPORTANT
PAGE~S1
Wilber, c. G., 1983. Turbidity in the aquatic
environment, an environmental factor in fresh and
oceanic waters. Charles c. Thomas, Publisher,
Springfield, Illinois. 133 pp.
Nichols Environmental Consulting
2~-36, 41-108, 112-116
KEY WORDS: Turbidity, Suspended
Water, Effects
Solids, Freshwater, Marine
A r•eview of key literature quantifies the effects of turbidity
and suspended solids on fresh and marine water us.es. Included
are effects on chemical and physical water quality, water supply,
fretshwater and marine organisms and aesthetics. Biological
effects on a wide variety of organisms include physiological,
feeding efficiency, feeding selection, feeding rates,
filter-feeder feeding, reproductive behavior, population numbers
and densities, growth and development, resistance to disease, and
habitat utilization •. Specific groups of organisms discussed are
warm water fishes, salmonid fishes, freshwater macroinvarte-
brat;es, and a number of marine organisms including coral, filter
feeding organisms, and marine mammals.
St rttams may
conc:ent rat ions.
to S5 ppm is
eKtr·emely bad.
be classified according to suspended solids
A concentration of 2~ to 30 ppm is optimal, 30
good, S3 to 400 ppm is poor, and >400 ppm is
0./9
REVIEW DRAFT -6119-/S~ PAGE A-47
REFERENCE1 Witzel, ~. D., and H. R. MacCrimmon, 1981. Role o~
gravel substrate on ova survival and alavin emergence
of rainbow trout, §~lm2 Q~1CQn@C1• Canadian Journal
of Zoology, Vol. ~9. pp. 629-636.
REFERENCE
~OCATION1
IMPORTANT
Cooperative
Fair-banks
PAGES1 629, 632-63~
Fish Unit, Univer-sity of Alaska,
KEY WORDS: Gravel Size, Trout, Ova, Alevins, Survival, Emergence
A verticle flow incubation apparatus was used to determine the
role of various gravel sizes on ova survival and emergence of
rainbow trout alevins. Sur-vival to emergence, time of emergence,
and alevin condition at emergence were significantly influenced
by gravel size. Mean percent survival to emergence increased
from 1 percent in 2-mm gravel to 76 percent in 26.-~-mm gravel.
Survival of ova to swim-up stage in a gravel free incubator was
aa percent. Differences in -!)ercent survival were inost
significant within the 2 to a mm gravel range. Poor survival of
trout alevins in tne 2 to 4 mm gravel was the result of
entrapment. Tne time to emergence also increased with gravel
size. ~arger alevins, which emer-ged later from coar-ser gr-avels
had the least yolk reserve. Premature emergence of free embryos
and shortening of the alevin emergence period in 2.0-mm gravel
was identified as a stress response.
q /·-1'-1
REVIEW DRAFT ~9/85 PAGE A-48 -
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APPENDIX B
GENERAL LITERATURE--FRESH WATER
The ra~erencas listed herein ware reviewed by proJect team
mem:t:ters and JUdged to bel < 1) Too general 1 (2) lnappl icable to
the scope of this proJect <e.g., related topics such as
biological life history)' <3) The information contained in a
specific reference was eMplained in more detail in one or more
of the references appearing above in AppendiM A' or, (4) Only a
por't ion of the reference was applicable and this information is
cit1•d in the teMt of the report.
qfq
REVIEW DRAFT 8119/Se PAGE B-1
ADEC, 1979. .. Placer mining and water qual :l.ty, Alaska water
quality management plan. Non-point source study series Sac.
208 P.L. 92-SOO, 9S217, Alaska D•partm•nt o~ Environmental
Conservation, Juneau, Alaska. 100 pp.
ADEC, 1981. E~amination of drainages for effects of placer
mining and other water quality considerations Fairbanks and
interior Alaska, August 10-24, 1981. A Working Paper,
Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of
Environmental Quality Operations, Monitoring and Laboratory
Section, Juneau, Alaska. 70 PP•
ADEC, 1982. Drinking water standards. Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation, Juneau, Alaska.
ADF&G, 1983. ' Fishery productivity and instream mining• implica-
tions for the Bristol Say Region. Prepared by Alaska Dept.
of Fish and Same for the Sr.istol Bay Study Group. 46 pp.
AFS, 1984. 1984 bibliography on fish and wildlife relationships
to mining. Fish and Wildlife Relationships to Mining
Committee, Water Quality Section, American Fisheries
Society.
Aitken, w.w., 1936. The relation of soil erosion to stream
improvement and fish life. Journal of Forestry, Washington,
34, 1oe9-1o61.
Alabaster, J.S., 1972. Suspended solids and ~isheries. Proc.
of the Royal Society London Bulletin, 180139e-406.
Alaska Water Study Committee, 197S. Alaska water assessment
problem identifi~ation, t~hnical memorandum to the Water
Resources Council, ASWC, Juneau, Alaska. 203 pp.
AleMander, G.R., and E.D. Hansen, 1983. E~fects of sand bedload
sediment on a brooktrout population. Fisheri•s Research
Report No. 1906, Michigan Dept. of Natural Resources,
Flsheries Department.
Allen, P.B., 1979. Turbidimeter measurement of suspended
sediment. u.s. Department of Agriculture, Science and
Education Administration, Agricultural Research Results,
ARR-S-4, New Orleans, LA. S pp.
Angino, E.E., and W.J. O'Brien, 1968. Effects of suspended
material on water quality. International Association
Scientific Hydrology, 781120-128.
APHA, 1980. Standard methods for the examination of water and
wastewater. 1Sth Edition, American Public Health
Association, Washington, D.C. 1134 pp.
9/C.
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/SS PAGE B-e
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APH~-. 198~. Standard m•thods for th• •Kamination of wat•r and
wast•wat•r• 16th Edition, Am•rican Public H•alth
Association, Washington, D.C. 1258 pp.
API, 1980. Guid• to wAter quAlity standards of th• ~nited
Stat••· Environment Affairs D•pt., API Publication No.
4321, First Edition, April 1980, Am•rican Petrol•um
Institut•, Washington, D.C.
Apman, R.P., And M.S. Ott, 1965. Sedimentation and stream
improv•m•nt. N•w York Fish & Gam• Journal, 12<2>&117-126.
Aqucltic Life Advisory Committee of Ohio VAlley SAnitAtion -
Commission, 19~6. Aquatic lif• wat•r crit•ria. Second
Progr••• R•port, S•wag• Indust. Wast••• 28(~)1678-690.
Arm!!l;trong, R. H., 1982. A review of Arctic grayling studies in
Alaska. Contribution No. 6, Alaska Coop•rativ• Fish•ry
R•s•arch Unit, Univ•rsity of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska.
60 pp.
ASCE~, 1977. Sedim•nt m•Asurement techniques. !!!= V. A. Vanon.i
<ed.), SedimentAtion Engineering. ASCE Task Committee for -
tn• Pr•paration of th• Manual on S•dim•ntation of th•
S•dim•ntation Committ•• of th• Hydraulics Division. pp.
317-436.
Bachmann, R.W., 19~8. Th• ecology of f'our north Ideho trout
str•ams with r•f•r•nc• to th• influ•nc• of forest road
construction. M.S. Th•sis, Univ•rsity of' Idaho. 97 pp.
Bart:sch, A. F., 1960. SettleAble solids, turbidity, And light
pen~ration as factors aff•cting wat•r quality. !D• C.M.
TArzwell <ed.) Trans. Second S•minAr on Biological Problems
in Water Pollution, Rob•rt A. Taft Sanitary En;in••ring
C•nt•r, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Bart:on, L. H., 1983. A•rial salmon surv•ys And mining. M•mo to
S. Grundy, R•gional Sup•rvisor, Habitat Division, Alaska
D•pt. of Fish and Sam•, Dated July 27, 1983. 3 pp.
BeAI<t, T.W., 196~. A biotic inc::I•K of polluted streAms and the
r•lationship of pollution to fish•ri•s. Advanc•s in Wat•r
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~PPENOIX C
~NNOT~TEO BISLIOGR~PHIES--M~RINE
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REVIEW OR~FT --8-1-l-9/ S:S P~GE C-1
REFERENCE• Auld, A. H., and J. R. Schubel, 1978. Effects of
suspended sediment on fish eggs and larvaa1 a
laboratory assessment. Estuarine and Coastal Marine
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REFERENCE
~OCATION1 University of Alaska ~ibrary, Fairbanks
IMPORTANT
PASESa 1~3
KEY WORDS1 Suspended Sediments, ~aboratory, Fish Eggs, Fish
Larvae, Hatching, Survival
Eggs and larvae of six species of anadromous and estuarine fish
were exposed to concentrations of suspended sediment up to 100
mg/L to determine the effects of different concentrations on
hatching success and short term survival. Egg experiments
indicate that concentrations of up to 1000 mg/L did. not
significantly affect the hatching success of yell~w perch,
blueback herring, alewife or American .shad eggs. The •~m•
concentrations did however significantly reduce the hatching
success of white perch and striped bass, whereas lower
c:oncentr-ation• did not. EMper-iments with larvae indicated that
concentrations above ~00 mg/L significantly r-educ:ed the survival
of striped bass and yellow per-ch. Concentrat ior'ls above 100 mg/1
significantly r-educed the survival of American shad lar-vae
continously eMposed for-96 hours. The significance of these
r-esults are discussed ir'l r-elation to changes in sediment loading
in estuaries.
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REVIEW DRAFT ~/8~ PAGE C-2
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REFI5:RENCE
REFI5:RENCE
LOCI~TIONa
IMPIJRTANT
PAGIES1
B~•hm•~, M. L., 196~. Tu~bidity and siltation as
forms of pollution. Journal of Soil and Wat•r
Cons•~vation, July-August, 196~. pp. 132-133.
1.32-133
KEY WORDS1 Susp•nded Solids, S•diment Deposition, Effects,
Estuarin• Syst•ms, A•sth•tic Quality, R•cr•ational
Us•s, Phytoplankton, Zooplankton, Infauna, B•nthos
E!tftf!;;li!3I!Qtf I
The role of suspended solids and sediment depositions in
•st11.1arin• syst•ms is discuss•d in this pap•~· Th• d•st~uct ion of
rttc:11"'•at ional b•ach•s and aquatic habitats is w•ll docum•nt•d·
GrOII.lnds mad• suitabl• fo~ oyste~ cultu~• suff•r h•avi ly from
sil·l:ation. D~tlda• spoil disposal studi•s indicat• that infaunal
for1ns •~• d•st~oy•d by smoth•ring. Siltation can also smoth•r
•pif'aunal fo~ms, and th• unstabl• characte~istics of s-ilt
d•p•:Jsits could p~•v•nt r•-•stabl ishm•nt of populations.
Sus1~•nd•d sol ids in wat•~ hav•. a d•finit• •ff•ct on th• wat•r' s
a•s11:h•t ic quality and its valu• fo~ ~•c~•at ional pu~pos•s. Th•
con•:•nt~at ion at which wat•~ b•com•s obJ•ct ionabl• to th• us•r is
a matt•r of individual conditioning. Th• biological •ff•cts of
ino1r"ganic susp•ndltd solids to •stua~in• communit i•s a~• compl•M
and •xtrem•ly difficult to quantify. Th• eff•cts of inorganic
s•dim•nts on zooplankton and high•~ aquatic lif• ar• •v•n mor•
dif·Hcult to •valuat• than th• •ff•cts on phytoplankton.
Man·-macl• l•v•ls of tu~bidity undoubt•dly •M•rt inJU~ious •ff•cts
on th• .. tua~in• community. Sh•llfish and finfish ar• •sp•cially
vul1n•~abl• to damaa• by ino~ganic susp•nd•d solids. The f•ttding
activity of c•~tain filt•r-f .. cling sh•llfish is inhibited by high
sUSI!'•nd•d sol ids l•v•ls.
qfi
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/SS PAGE C-3
REFERENCE& Davis, H. C., and H. Hidu, 1969. Eff•cts of
REFERENCE
turbidity-producing substances in sea water on •ggs
and larva• of thr•• a•n•ra of bivalv• mollusks.
Th• V•lig•r, Vol. II, No. 4. PP• 316-323
LOCATION• Univ•rsity of Alaska, Fairbanks
IMPORTI=INT
PAGES• 320
KEY WORDS: ClAms, Oysters, Silt, KAolin, Fuller's Earth,
Conc•ntration, Particl• Siz•, Growth, D•v•lopm•nt,
Survival
A sari•• of •xp•rim•nts w•r• run to compar• the •ffects of
diff•r•nt-stz•d particl•• on •mbryos and larva• o~ hard clams and
American oyst•rs. A. littl• as 0.188 g/L silt, 3 g/L kaolin, and
4 g/L Full•r'• •arth caused a significant d•cr•••• in th•
perc•ntag• of oyster •ggs d•v•loping normally. American oyst•r
•ggs w•r• not aff•ct•d .. bY 4 g/L si 1 icon d iox id•, r•gard 1•••-of
particl• siz•·-Th• small••t particl•• C <S microns) of silicon
dioxid• had th• gr•at•st •ffect on survival and growth of clam
and oyst•r larvae. Particl .. in the rang• of S to 2S microns and
2S to SO microns had lit-1• •ffect on survival of •ith•r sp•ci••
or on growth of clam larvae. Growth of American oyst•r larva•
d•cr•a••d progr•ssiv•ly as the size of silicon dioxid• particl•s
decr•ased. Btvalv• larva• grew fast•r in low conc•ntrations of
susp•nd•d particl•s than in cl•ar sea wat•r.
9/<1
REVIEW DRAFT Slt9/8S PAGE C-4
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REFERENCE• 3onnson, 3. K., 1971. Effect of turbidity on the
rat• of filtration and growth of th• slipp•r limpet,
~~.a!g~!~ !2~n!~~t~ Lamarck, 1799. Tn• V•lig•r, Vol.
1~, No. 3. pp. 31~-320.
REFERENCE
LOCATION a
IMPORTANT
PAGES a
University of Alaska, Fairbanks
318-320
KEY WORDS: Turbidity, Silt, Kaolin, Fuller's Earth, Effects,
Filt•r Fe•ding, Snell Growth, Gastropod
Tn• purpos• of this inv•stigation was to d•t•rmin• now the snell
growth of tn• filter f••ding gastropod ~CtQ!QY!A !2~n!~ata is
affected by prolonged exposure to various levels of turbidity
<0.002 to o.es g/L) in natur•, and to •xamin• th• •~p•rim•ntal
•ff•cts of incr•asing concentrations <O.OS to 1.156 g/L) of" silt,
kaolin, and Fuller'• earth on th• filtration rat•• of ~~
f2CDiS~t~· R•sults · showed that the shell growth rat• decreased
as th• .l•v•l of natural turbidity incr•••ed. Lik•wise, sn•ll
lilro·wtn was found to b• lilr•at•st in a transplantation •nvironm•nt
of low turbidity as compar•d to a high turbidity •nvironm•nt.
Tn• filtration rat•• of ~!.. !2~n!.s~t1 d•cr•a••d as tn• l•v•l of
turbidity increased. Low concentrations of silt equivalent to
natural l•v•l• of turbidity in natur• produc•d significant
r•ductions in filtration rat••· Silt, Fuller'• •arth, and kaolin
•acn caus•d a significant r•duction in tn• filtration rat• as tn•
conc•ntration incr•a••d up to 6 g/L. R•duc•d •n•ll growth rat•
may b• tn• r•sult of inad•quat• food intak• du• to clogging of
tn• filt•ring mechanism by turbidity. Sustain•d nigh turbidity
may n•ve a limiting •ff.ct on tn• distribution of 'L 19~DiSA~A·
f '=t/~
REVIEW DRAFT 8/19/SS PAGE C-S
REFERENCEa Johnston, D. O., and O. J. Wildish, 1982. Effect of
suspandad sadimant on faading by larval narring
<~lYa•A DA~WD~Y· b•r•D~YA b~>· Bullatin
Environmantal Contamination ToHicology, (29)1251-267.
REFERENCE
LOCATION1 Univarsity of Alaska Library, Fairbanks
IMPORTANT
PAGES 1 261, 26-4-26 7
KEY WORDS: Suspandad S~imants, Light Intensity, Herring,
Larvaa, F-ding Rata, Zooplanktars, Visibility
St:!~QIB!!Q~
The purpose of this study was to detarmina if increased levels of
suspandad sadimant occurring aftar dradging, and rasultant
dacraasas in light intansity, raduca pray visibility for larval
Marring to tha aKtant that tha f~ing rata is affactad. The
affact of suspandad sediment on larva• of diffarant agas was also
invastigatad. Larva• fad in watar containing 4 and 8 m;/L did
not consuma significantly fawar zooplanktars than did control
larvaa. Howavar, larva• fad at 20 mg/L did consuma significantly
fawer zooplanktars than did tha controls. Similarly, larva• fad
at 6S and 10s· phototopic luH consumad significantly fawar
zooplanktars than tho•• fed at 300 luH in the control tanks.
Thara war• significantly fewer larva• in tha bottom section of
tha tanks containing suspandad sadimant than in tha controls. As
tha concantration of suspanded sadimant was incraasad, light
intansity and visibility of pray dacraas... As a rasult, tha
larvaa move into tha battar illuminated surfaca layars to faad.
Tha deer•••• in light intensity at lower sediment concantrations
<4 and 8 mg/L) is not sufficient to result in a daprassion of
faading rat... At graatar concentrations of suspended sediment
<20 mg/L), the visibility of pray and light intensity are
significantly decreased and tha feeding rate is dapressad. Tha
laval of suspandad sadimant resulting in a depression of f•adin;
rata by herring larvae is also a function of larval a;a and size.
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REVIEW DRAFT 8119/SS PAGE C-6
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REFE~RENCE1 Kiorboa, T., E. Frantsan, C. Jensen, and 13. Sorensen,
1981. Eff•cts of suspended sediment on development
and hatching of herring <C!Ya•• DAr•D~Y•> eggs.
Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Scienc•, <13> 1107-111.
REFE~RENCE
LOC~~TION1
IMPC)RTANT
PAGE~Sa
University of Alaska Library, Fairbanks
107
KEY WORDS& Eggs, Herring, Suspended Sediments, Hatching,
Development
Herr'ing (~!Ya8A bArBDSYA> eggs artifically fertilized in the
la~,ratory were constantly eKpo .. d at S to 300 mg/L suspended
silt: and to short term concentrations of SOO mg/L at different
tim~ts during embryonic development. Results indicate that
embr•yonic development was unaffected by suspended silt.
Mort:ality rates varied signi'ficantly b•twaan aquaria, but the
·vartat ion was not related to si 1 t concantrat ions. It was
conc:luded that no harmful e'f.'fects are likely to occur to herring
spa~•ning grounds as a result of susp•nd•d particle inputs from
dreclging and similar operations.
~ fq '11 •
REVIEW DRAFT 6119/SS PAGE C-7
REFERENCE• Kio~bo•, T., F. Mohl•nb•~g, and 0. Noh~, 1980. F•ed-
ing, pa~ticl• s•l•ction and ca~bon abso~ption in
M~1ilYA -~YliA in diff•~•nt mixtu~•s of alga• and
~•suspend•d bottom mat•~ial. Ophelia, 19<2>•193-20~.
REFERENCE
LOCATION& Unive~sity of Alaska Lib~a~y, Fai~banks
IMPORTANT
PAGES1 193
KEY WORDS• Silt Conc•nt~ation, Alga• Susp•nsions, ~~!ilY•
•9Yl!•, Filt~ation, Food Uptak•, Ca~bon Budg•t
Th• •ff•cts of silt concent~ation on filtration behavio~, food
uptak•, and carbon budg•t of th• muss•l ~ti!Ya -~Yl!a w•~•
studied. Inc~•asing amounts of mat•~ial w•~• ~•tain•d by th•
gills with inc~•asing silt conc•nt~ations, but an inc~asing
p~portio" of this was reJect•d as ps•udofaec•s. Ps•udofa•c•s
was p~oduced at silt conc•ntrations abov• 1 mg/L. Th• amount
inc~••s•d linwarally with the amount of. mat•rtal ~•tatnwd. a~y
matt•r ing•stion increas•d with inc~asing conc•nt~ation of silt.
At a silt concwnt~ation of 2 mg/L, alga• w•~• conc•nt~at•d by a
facto~ of 3 1 and at SS mg/L by a facto~ of about 30. Th• ca~bon
ing•stion ~at• inc~•as•d consid•rably at a low conc•nt~ation of
silt compa~•d to a susp•nsion of pu~• alga•, and d•c~••••d at
high conc•nt~ations (~~ m;/L). Ca~bon abso~ption •ffici•nci•s
w•~• high C~9 to 6S p•~c•nt> up to a silt conc•nt~ation of ~
mg/L, and d•c~•as•d slightly at high•~ conc•nt~ations <~2 to ~S
mg/L). It was conclud•d that ~~1i1Y• is w•ll adapt•d to silt
eoncent~ations up to 33 m;IL, and ev•n b•nefits f~om concent~a
tions up to 2~ m;IL.
9/Cj
REVIEW DRAFT 5119V8~ PAGE C-S
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REFERENCE• Loosanoff, v. L., 1961. Eff•ets of turbidity on scm•
larval and adult bivalv•s. Proc••dings Gulf and
Caribb•an Fish Institut•, Fourt••ntn Annual S•ssion,
Nov•mb•r. pp. S0-9~.
REFERENCE
LOCATION a
IMPORTANT
PAGES a
Univ•rsity of ~laska, Fairbanks <Int•rlibrary Loan)
eo, e3-91
KEY WORDS: Bivalves, Oysters, Turbidity, Silt. Kaolin, Pumping
Rate, Snell Movam•nt
An analysis of th• •ff•cts of turbidity upon larval and adult
bivalv•s is pr•s•ntad. Studi.. of tn• ~m•rican oyst•r,
~r••~2•~r•§ ~ir~inisA, and of ~-D~~ m•rs•n•riA ar• •mphasiz•d
although s•v•ral otn•r sp•ci•s ar• also pr•s•nt•d. Diff•r•nt
sp•ci•s of mollusks, th•ir •ggs and th•ir larva• w•r• aff•ct•d to
diff•rant d•gre•s by th• sam• concentrations of turbidity-causing
sediments. Vary small· quantiti•s of silt and kaolin ~cm•tim•s
stimulated normal .activit i•s of adult · and larval mollusks.
How•v•r, conc•ntrations as small as 0.1 g/L significantly r•duc•d
tn• wat•r pumping rat• by an av•rag• of S7 p•rc•nt and strongly
aff•ct•d th• charact•r of sh•ll mov•m•nts of th• adult oyst•rs.
~t conc•ntrations of 3.0 to ~t-.0 giL, th• av•rag• r•duction in
pumping rat• was ov•r 90 p•rc•nt. Th• sh•ll mov•m•nts of oyst•rs
k•pt in turbid wat•rs w.r• associat•d with fr•qu•nt •Jections of
larg• quantiti•s of silt and mucus accumulating on th• gills and
palps. In anoth•r •Kp•rim•nt, oyst•rs w•r• •Kpos•d to silt
conc•ntraticns of 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0 g/L for 48 hours. Wh•n
the oyst•r• w•r• again subJect•d to normal s•a wat•r, th•y fail•d
to show th• usual r•covery-typ• of •h•ll mov•m•nt ncr did th•y
rasum• a rapid rat• of pumping, as is normally cbs•rv•d aft•r
•Kposur• to s•dim•nt for r•lativ•ly short p•riods. ~ppar•ntly
long•r •Kposur•s aff•ct them adv•rs•ly by inJuring th• ciliary
m•chanisms of th•ir gills and palps. Data indicat•d that
lam•llibranchs <oyst•rs and clams) f••d most •ff•ctiv•ly in
relativ•ly clear wat•r.
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REVIEW DR~FT -&1--1-9/SS PAGE C-9
REFERENCEa McFarland, V. A., and R. K. P•ddicord, 1980.
REFERENCE
L•thality of a susp•nd•d clay to a div•rs• s•l•ction
of marin• and •stuarin• macrofauna. Archiv•s
Environm•ntal Contamination Toxicology, (9)a733-741.
LOCATION• Univ•rsity of Alaska, Fairbanks
IMPORTANT
PAGES: 637-640
KEY WORDS: Marine Macrofauna, Susp•nded Kaolin, Sensitivity,
Tol•ranc•, Mortality
An evaluation was made of th• lethality of a suspended clay
min•ral on a phylog•n•tically div•rs• s•l•ction of marin• and
•stuarin• macrofauna. A v•ry wid• ran;• of sensitiviti .. to
susp•nd•d kaolin was obs•rv•d among th• 16 sp•ci•s studi•d•
Eight had (10 p•rc•nt mortality aft•r •Mposur• to 100 giL
susp•nd•d kaolin for ~ to 12 days. A vari•ty of oth•r sp•ci•s
w•r• found to b• mor• s•nsi·tiv•• Th• 200-hr LC~O for th• muss•l
~L ~Ali!2cn!An~a was 96 giL. An •xp•rtm•nt using th• tunicat•
B~~!9!s ~Br§ia9•• was terminated at 136 hr because of the high
mortality reach•d at that time.-Two oth•r tunicat .. w•r• much
mor• tol•rant to susp•nd•d kaolin with a 12 day LC~O of 100 giL.
Th• 200-hr LCSO for th• spot-tailed sand shrim~ was ~0 giL, and
th• 400-hr LC~O was ~0 giL for th• sam• sp•ci•s, indicating a
high tol•ranc• to susp•nd•d clay. Th• •uryhalin• grass shrimp
was •v•n l•ss s•nsitiv• to susp•nd•d kaolin. Th• Dung•n•ss crab
~a.Ds•r mA.aui!tr was t•sted for 10 days and found to b• mor•
s•nsitiv• than any of th• shrimp speci••• with a 200-hr LCSO of
32 ;IL. Th• 100-hr LC~O for th• amphipod 8n!a9AAmmACYa
£2nftc~1£21Ya was 78 giL, indicating an int•rm•diat• s•nsitivity
to suspended kaolin. The concentration causing ~0 perc•nt
mortality of th• polycha•t• ~••ntnaa a~£~1naA in 200 hr was
•stimat•d to b• 48 giL. The English sol• eA~QQQC~a ~-t~l~a
•xhibited no mortaliti•• in 10 days at a concentration of 70 giL
or less, but 80 perc•nt mortality occurr•d after 10 days at 117
giL. Th• shiner p•rch ~. ARRCtaAtA was the most s•nsitiv•
species tested with only one fish alive after 26 hr in 14 g/L
suspend•d kaolin. Th• r•lativ• s•nsitivity of th• speci•s t••t•d
may b• a function of th• fr•qu•ncy to which th•Y ar• subJ•ct•d to
high susp•nd•d ••dim•nt in th•ir •nvironment.
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REVIEW DRAFT -&f-l-9/8~ PAGE C-10
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REFE~RENCE1 Moor•, P. G., 1977. Inorganic part iculat•
susp•nsions in th• ••a and th•ir •f'f'•cts on marin•
animals. Oc•anography and Marin• Biology Annual
R•vi•w, < 1~) 122~-363.
REFE~RENCE
LOC~~TION1 Univ•rsity of' Alaska, Fairbanks
IMPClRTANT
PAGE~S 1 2~-337
KEY WOROS1 Turbidity, Susp•nd•d Solids, Marin• Animals, Oir•ct
Ef'f'•cts, Indir•ct Ef'f'•cts, M•asur•m•nt T•chniqu•••
Economic Ef'f'•cts
An overall synthesis of available literature pertaining to saline
aqu.atic habitats is pr•••nt•d and discu•••d along with m•asur•-
m•n1: t•chniqu.•• f'or total part iculat• matt•r· Th••• t•chniqu••
incl~ud• gravim•tric, c•ntrif'ugat ion, and !n l.!i.!ll m•asur•m•nts of'
the absorption of' radioactiv• •n•rgy or the absorption of'
sca1:t•r•d 1 ight. Optical ~m~thods ar• by far th• molit· popular
t•chniqu•• for studying su•p•nd•d mat•rial, and involv• th .. ·u••
of' d•vic•• ranging from th• simpl• S•cchi disk to a vari•ty of'
transmittanc• scatt•ring and d•polarizatiol"t m•t•rs. S•v•ral
invttst igators hav• •stabl ish•d _a r•lat ionsh i p b•tw••n S•cch i
d•pt:h and •••ton cont•nt, S•cchi d•pth and att•nuat ion
co•1'f'ici•nts, and th• att•nuat ion co•f'f'ici•nt and part iculat•
conc:entrat ions in ••a wat•r. Mor• r•c•nt ly, turbid conditions
hav11 b••n r•cord•d by !D •!!.Y photography, r•mot• ••nsing, and
shipborne acoustic systems. Four methods available f'or particle
siztt analysis of' susp•nd~ ••dtm•nt• includ• microscopic
anallysis, optical ••d imentat ion al"'alysis, dir•ct optical
anaJ:ysis, and th• •l•ctronic <Coult•r Count•r) m•thod.
L.•gnl turbidity standards should ultimat•ly b• d•fin•d in t•rms
of' th• light r•quir•m•nts of' silt tol•ranc• of' th• organisms
r•quiring prot•ction. It may b• mor• r•alistic to r•-d•f'in•
allc)wabl• turbidity incr•a••• in t•rms of' th• p•rc•ntag• abov•
bacJtground rath•r thal"' any arbitrary num•rical valu•.
Num1trous laboratory and f'i•ld •xp•riments hav• b••n accompl ish•d
to d•termin• th• •f'f'•cts of' inorganic susp•nsions on marin•
anin1als. G•n•ral •f'f'•cts ar• pr•••nt•d for a vari•ty of' mal"'in•
anh,al groups including• protozoa, porif'•ra, co•l•nt•rata,
ct•r~ophora, polych•ata, crustae••• mollusca, •chinod•rmata,
bryozoa, phoronid•a, brachiopoda, ascidiac•a, h•michordata, and
c•pl"lalochordata. In addition, a bri•f' discussion is pr•••nt•d
reg•lrding f'ish, birds, marin• mammals, and man.
I
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REVIEW DRAFT ~~9/85 PAGE C-11
REFERENCE• Ozturgut, E., J. W. L.av•ll•, and R. E. Surna, 1981.
REFERENCE
Impacts o~ man;an••• nodul• mining on th•
•nvironm•nt• r•aulta ~l'"om pilot-seal• mining t•ata
in th• North Equatorial Paei~ie. !n• R.A. G•y•r,
Ced.), Marine Environmental Pollution, 2:-Dumping and
Mining. Ela•vi•r Sei•nti~ie Publishing Co., Naw
York. !i74 PP•
LOCATION• Univ•raity o~ Alaska Library, Fairbanks
IMPORTANT
PAGEB1 4S1-474
KEY WORDS: Mining Plume, Turbidity, Particulate Concentration,
Photoaynth•tieally Aetiv• Radiation <PAR), Light
Att•nuation, Primayoy Productivity, Maerozooplankton,
Abundane•, Mortality
Pilot-scale m1n1ng tests were conducted to evaluate environmental
conc•rns and d•v•lop ·•nvironrn•ntal guid•lin•• prior to ~ull
seal• mining in th• North Equatorial Paci~ic. PaY"ticul-at•
conc•ntrationa wttr• r•cord•d as light acatt•ring intanaiti-with
a n•ph•lom•tar. Particl• siz•• war• rn•aaurad with a Coult•r
count•r. PAR rn•asur•m•nta con~irm•d th• pr•••nc• o~ a
particulat• plum• with an av•rag• conc:antration o~ 440 ug/L in
th• upp•r 2~ m. Mining particulat•• incr•••• light att•nuation
and th•r•by directly a~~•ct primary production in th• mining
ar•a• A comparison was mad• b•twa•n ambi•nt production rat••
m•aaur•d .iD .!!i.Y and th• ••timat•d production rat• at a point
along the axis of the plume. The total reduction in productivity
ov•r th• •ntir• •uphotic zone at this point amount•d to 40
p•rc•nt. Th• dir•ct -~~•eta o~ mining-r•lat•d particulat• matt•r
on macrozooplankton includ• mortality, chana•• in in;•ation rat••
and th• production o~ ~•cal p•ll•ta, chang•• in th• •l•m•ntal
composition o~ wnol• organisms, and ahort-t•rm ·~~•eta on spatial
diatl'"ibution, abundanc•, and apeci•• composition. Th• r•aulta o~
two ••t• o~ tows indicat• that th•,..• was no maJor d•c,..•••• in th•
abundanc• o~ n•uatonic macrozooplankton, or su~~ici•nt amounts o~
mining paY"ticulat•• in;••t•d to cau•• alt•ration in th•i,..
ch•mical composition, at plum• conc•ntl'"ations 1••• than 1 mg/L.
It is concluded that the e~~•ct o~ m1n1ng discharge on
phytoplankton is lirnit•d to that cau-d by tuY"bidity. Inc,..••••d
light att•nuation du• to inc,..•a••d turbidity ,..•duc•d tha pl'"imary
production l'"&ta in th• plum•• S•eaus• particulat• conc•ntY"ationa
r•tul'"n to ambi•nt l•v•l• within a ~•w days, it is b•li•v•d that
sp•ci•• composition chan;•• will not tak• plac•. Baa•d on both
mining teats and laboY"atory •xp•rim•nta, it is concluded that th•
abundanc• and moyotality o~ macyoozooplankton will also b•
una~~ected by th• mining plum•.
qjq
REVIEW DRAFT &~/8!i PAGE C-12
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REFERENCEa Paddicord, R. K., 1980. Diract affacts of suspandad
sadiments on aquatic organisms. !D• R.~. Bakar
(ed.>, Contaminants and Sediments, Vol. 1, Ann Arbor
Scianca Publishars, Inc., ~nn ~rbor, MI. pp. ~01-
~36.
REFERENCE
LOC~TION1 Univarsity of ~laska Library, Fairbanks
IMP!ORT~NT
P~SES1 ~01, ~02, ~11-S1~, ~26-~33
KEY WORDS; Suspended Sediment, Kaolin, Bentonite, Aquatic
Organisms, Mortality
Marine and estuarine invertebrates were able to tolerate
continuous aMposura to suspansions of kaolin and bantonita clays
in tha ran;• of ;rams/litar for savaral days to savaral waaks
without substantial mortality. Fish tolaratad similar
concantrations for similar pariods undar similar conditions. ~.
tamparatura incraasad or dissolvad oMygan dacraasad, tolaranc•
dacraasad. Evan at highar t.mparaturas and 2 ppm dissolvad
oMygan, most invartabratas tolaratad continuous aMposura to 60
g/L suspandad · bantonita for savaral days bafor• mortality
occurrad. Juvanila Dungan••• crabs war• affac:tad to a ;raatar
da;r.. by kaolin suspansions than othar spac:ias. Juvanila
Amarican lobstars suffarad no mortalitias in 20 g/L contaminatad
sadimant for 2S days and only on• molting abnormality occurrad.
Uncontaminatad fluid muds hava th• potantial for producing high
suspandad sadimant concantrations and low dissolved oMygan for
pariods sufficiant to c:ausa mortality of a variaty of organisms.
Contaminated sadimant suspansions ara potantially mora harmful
than suspansions of uncontaminatad sadimant.
f q;q
REVIEW DR~FT S/19-/8~ PASE C-13
REFERENCE• Snerk, J.~., J.M. O'Connor, and D. A. Neumann,
REFERENCE
197~. Effects of suspended and deposited sediments
on estuarine environment•. !n• L. E. Cronin, Ced.>,
Estuarine Research, Volume II, Geology and
Engineering. Academic Press Inc., New York.
pp. ~41-~~s.
LOC~TION1 University of Alaska, Fairbanks
IMPORT~NT
P~GESr ~41-~~6
KEY WORDSr Bioassays, Fuller's Earth, Mortality, Estuarine
Organisms, Sublethal Effects
Btf~QIBI!QM
Static bioassays conducted with Fuller's earth showed significant
mortality among five of the seven species tested in suspended
concentrations typically found in estuarine systems during
flooding, dredging, and spoil disposal. Lethal concentrations
ranged from a low of o~~s g/L for silversides to 24.~ g/~ for
mummichogs C2~ hr LC10). Fishes were classified as either
tolerant <>10 giL>, sensitive (1.0 to 10 giL>, or hignly
sensitive <<1.0 g/L), based on a 24 hr LC10 using Fuller's
eartn. Generally, filter feeders and warly-life stages were mora
sensitive than bottom dwellers and adults. Exposure to sublethal
concentrations significantly increased tne hematocrit value,
hemoglobin concentration, and erythrocyte numbers in tne blood of
a variety of fish. In addition, Fuller's earth, fine sand, and
river silt <>2~0 mg/L) caused significant reductions in tne
ingestion rate by copepods.
·qfq
REVIEW DR~FT S/19/8~ P~GE C-14
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I
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REFE~RENCE 1 Shar-k, ,J. A., .Jr., .J. M. 0' Connor, and D. A. Naumann,
1976. EffaQts of suspended solids on seleQted
estuar-ine plankton. MisQallaneous Report No. 76-1,
U. s. Ar-my Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering
Resear-ch Center, Fort Belvoir, VA. 50 pp.-
REFE~RENCE
LOCF~TION1 University of AlaskA, Fairbanks <Interlibrary Loan>
IMPCtRTANT
PAGE~S1 10, 11, 15, 23, 26, 32, 351 36
KEY WORDS: Suspended Sediments, Fuller's Earth, Silicon DioMide,
Rivero Silt, EffaQts, Carbon Assimilation,
Phytoplankton, Ingestion Rata, Copepods
Thisi repor-t provides baseline data on the effeQts of different
suspended sediments on selected typical estuarine plankton.
Carbon assimilation by four. spaQias of phytoplAnkton was
sigr.ifiQantly reduQad by the light attenuating properties of fine
silicon dioxide suspensions. A conQantration of 1000 mg/L ~ausad
a ~'0 to 90 par-Qant r-aduQtion in Qarbon upt·aka among the f-our
spac:ias of phytoplankton tasted. A QOnQantration of 2500 mg/L
Qau•~•d an 80 parQant raduQt ion in one of the species. The
ingltstion rata by two spaQias o'f Qalanoid Qopapods was
si;r•ifiQantly raduQad during exposure to a 250 mg/L mixture of
FulJ.ar's earth, fine siliQon dioMida, and natural river silt. At
a concentration of 500 mg/L river silt, the ingestion rata was
rad1.acad by 77.5 percent •
cllq
REVIEW DRAFT --&1-!.9/85 PAGE C-15
REFERENCE a
REFERENCE
LOC~TION1
KEY WORDS:
IMPORTANT
PAGESr
Stern, E.M., and w.a. Stickle, 1978. Effects of
turbidity and suspended material in aquatic environ-
ments. Dredged Material Research Program, Technical
Report D-78-21, Environmental ~aboratory, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
MS. 117 PP•
Doug Clarke, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways EMpariment
Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Aquatic Environment, Dredged Material Disposal,
Environmental Effects, Suspended Load, Sus~ended
Solids, Turbidity
e-10
This literature review includes discussions of definitions, units
of measure, methods of measurement, and effects of turbidity and
suspended material in the aquatic environment. There is common
agreement that optical instruments provide an inferred rather
than a direct measurement of suspended solids and that it is
almost iMpossiblit to relate sediment concentrations and optical
characteristics from one turbidimeter, standard suspension, or
unit of measure to another. Relatively few studies relate animal
responses to the actual weight per volume concentration of
particles in suspension. Ratner, they correlate response with -
turbidity. It is unlikely that the light absorbing and
scattering ~roperties of suspended particles directly affect
animals. Because. turbidity involves optical properties that
cannot be correlated with the weight/volume concentration of
suspended material, which directly affects aquatic biota, several
investigators suggest that turbidity only be used as a
nontechnical descriptor. Gravimetric techniques probably """'
represent a more accurate measure of the effects of suspended
solids on aquatic biota while optical measurements may be
preferable for photosynthetic or aesthetic purposes. Laboratory
eKperiments often do not duplicate natural conditions or reflect
natural levels of organism tolerance to turbidity and suspended
material.
The review also discusses the effects of suspended material and
turbidity on corals, bivalves Cclams, oysters, mussels) copepods,
and fishes. The discussion includes information about eff•cts on
eggs, JUVenil•s, and adult organisms.
yfct
REVIEW DRAFT --8/19/8~ PAGE C-16
,.,...,
APPENDIX D
GENERAL LITERATURE--MARINE
The re~erances listed herein were reviewed by proJect team
M8mbers and JUdged to bet (1) Too gerteral, (2) Inapplicable to
the scope of this proJect (e.g., related topics such as
biolLogical life history) 1 (3) The information contairted irt a
sp~:ific re~erence was eKplained in more detail in one or more
of the references appearirtg above in AppendiK c, or, Cit) Only a
smalll of the reference Nas applicable and t~is information is
cit1~ in the teKt of the report. Additionally, references
peri~atning to measuremwnts . of particulates applying to both
fretlh and lliarin. water are not reprinted here as they app•ar -in
Appelnd i K B.
I q;q
REVIEW DRAFT ~i9/8e PAGE D-1
Adams, C.E., and G.~. Weatherly, 1981. Susp.ndad sediment
transport and benthic boundary layer dynamics. lDI C.A.
Nittrouar (ad.>, Sedimentary Dynamics o¥ Continental
Shelves. Elsaviar, Amstardam.
~ustin, R.W., 1974a. Instrumentation used in turbidity measure-
ment. lD• Procaadings of National Ocaanographic
Instrumentation Canter Workshop held at Washington, D.C. on
May 6-8, 1974. National Oceanographic Instrumantation
Cant ar, Wash :L ngt on, D. c. pp. 4~-7 4.
Austin, R.W., 1974b. Probl.ms in measuring turbidity as a water
quality parameter. In• Proceedings of Seminar on Methodo-
logy for Monitoring the Marina Environment. EPA-600/4-74-
004, Environmental Protection Agancy, Washington, D.C. pp.
23-~4.
Sacescu, M., 1966. An instance of the affects oh hydrotachnical
works on the littoral marina life. Watar Pollution
Abstracts, 39<S)a178.
Saker, E.T., G.A. Cannon, and H.C. Curl, Jr., 1983. Partic~e
transport process•• in a small marina bay. Journal of
Geophysical R ... arch, 8SCC14)a9661-9669.
Bakar, E.T., and H.B. Milburn, 1983. An instrument system for
the investigation of particle fluxes. Continental Shalf
Research, 1(4)a42S-43S.
Banse, K., C.P. Falla, and L.A. Hobson, 1963. A gravimetric
method for deterMining suspandad matter in sea water using
Millipora filters. Daap-S.a Rasaarch, 10t639-642.
Barnas, P.W., and P.W. Minklar, 1982. Sadimantation in tha
vicinity of a causeway groin, Beaufort Sea, Alaska. Opan-
Fila Raport 82-61S, u.s. Gaological Survay. 12 pp.
Bartz, R., J.R.V. Zanavald, and H. Pak, 1978. A transmissometer
for profiling and moorad observations in watar. SPIE Ocaan
Optics v, 160a102-108.
Bargar, J., 1974. Oceanographic applications of turbidity. lD
Procaadings of National Oceanographic Instrumentation Center
Workshop held at Washigton D.C. on May 6-8, 1974. National
Ocaanographic Instrumantation Cantar, Washigton, D.C. PP•
39-44.
Burbank, D.C., 1974. Suspandad sediment transport and deposi-
tion in Alaskan coastal watars with spacial amphasis on
ramota sansing by the ERT&-1 satallita. M.S. Thasis, Univ.
of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska. 222 pp.
<iA
REVIEW DRAFT ""8-1-1-9/SS PAGE D-2
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...,.,
~·
."f"'
I
!
r
Burr·ell, D. C., 1972. Susp•nded sediment distribution patterns
within an activ• turbid-outwash fJord. lD• s.s. Wetteland
and P. Bruun <ads.>, Proc•edings of the International Conf.
of Port and Oc•an Engine•ring. Univ.rsity of Norway,
Trondh•im. PP• 227-24S.
Burr••ll, 0. c., 1984. S•asonal turbidity patt•rns in Boca d•
Quadra and Sm•aton Bay. Int•rim R•port Pr•par•d for u.s.
BoraH and Ch•mtcal Corp. and Pacific Coast Molybd•num Co.
S4 pp.
Cart;jter, K. L., P.R. B•tzer, and D. W. Eggimann, 1974. Physical,
chemical, and optical measur•s of suspended-particl• conc•n-
trations• th•ir int•rcomparison and application to th• W•st
African Sh•lf. ln• R.J. Bibbs C•d.>1 Susp•nd•d Solids in
Wat•r. Pl•num Pr•ss, New York, NY. pp. 173-193.
Cham1p, M.A., and P.K. Park, 1982. Global marin• pollution
bibliography• oc•an dumping of municipal and industrial
wast••• IFI/Pl•num, N•w York, NY. 399 PP•
Chaw••• R. R. P., 1979. S.ttling behavior of natural aquatic
part iculat•s. Limnology and Oc•anography, 24 C3) 1417-4-26.-
Davis, H.C., 1960. Eff•cts of turbidity-producing mat•rials in
••a wat•r on •a;• and larva• of th• clam t~nYA <mt~aDA~i&>
mtC~tnACiAl• Biological Bulletin, 118(1)14S-e4.
d• Glroot, S • .J., 1979. An assessm•nt of th• potential environ-
mental impact of larg•-scal• sand-dredging for th• building
of artificial islands in th• North S••· Oc•an Manag•m•nt,
Sl211-232.
lD•hiplane, W. H., Jr., 1974. Comparison of 1 ight transmission to
susp•nded particulat•s gravim•try at a dr•da• spoil disposal
sit• n•ar N.w London, Connecticut. In• Proc••dings of
National Oc•anographic Instrum•ntation C•ntr Workshop held
at Washington, D.C. on May 6-8, 1974. National
Oc•ano;raphic Instrum•ntation C•nt•r, Washington, D.c. pp.
107-122.
OiTc•ro, D. M., 1978. Optics of turbid -tuarin• water• approxi-
mations and applications. Water R•••arch, 12a10S9-1068.
DOWl'l•ing, .J.P., 1983. An optical instrument for monitoring
susp•ndad particulat•s in oc•an and laboratory. In•
Proce•dings of th• Oceans 1983, San Francisco, California.
IEEE and Marin• T•chnology Sociaty. pp. 199-202.
l0ow,1ing, J.P., R.W. St•inberg, and C.R.B. List•r, 1981. N•N
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proc••••s in th• shallow marin• •nvironm•nt. Marin• B•ology
42119-34.
-=t/9
REVIEW DRAFT "'8/19/SS PAGE 0-3
Drake, D.E., D.A. Cacchione, R.D. Muench, and C.H. Nelson, 1980.
S.aiment transport in Norton Sound, Alaska. Marine Geology,
36197-126.
Drake, D. E., D. A. Segar, R. L. Charnell, and G. A. Maul'-, 1974.
Comparison o~ optical measur.ments and suspended solids
concentrations in the ocean. lD• Proceedings of National
Oceanographic lnstrumentaion Center Workshop held at
Washington, D.C. on May 6-8, 1974. National Oc•anographic
Instrumentation Center, Washington, D.C. PP• 123-142.
Duane, D.B., 1976. Sedimentation and ocean engineering• placer
min•r r•source. Int D.J. Stanley and D.J.P. Swift Cads.),
Marin• Sediment TRansport and Environmental Management.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. pp. e3e-se6.
Duinker, J.c., R.F> Nolting, and H.A. Van Dar Sloot, 1979. The
det•rmination of suspend•d metals in coastal wat•r• by
differ•nt sampling and processing techniques (filtration,
centrifugation). Neth•rlands Journal of Sea Research,
13(2)1282-297.
Ellis, D.V., (ed.), 1982. Marine tailings disposal. Ann Arbor
Sci•nc•, Th• Butt•rworth Group, Ann Arbor, MI. 368 pp. -
Eisma, D., 1981. Suspended awttter as a carri•r for pollutants
in ••tuaries and the sea. !n• R.A. G•yer Ced.), Marin•
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EPA, 1982. A compilation o~ water quality standards for marine
waters. Office of Wat•r R•;ulations and Standards,
Environmental Prot•ction Ag•ncy, Washington, D.C.
Feely, R.A., and G.J. Massoth, 1982. Sources, composition and
transport of susp•nded particulate matter in lower Cook
Inl•t and northwest•rn Shelikof Strait, Alaska. NOAA
Technical R•port ERL-41e PMEL-34. 28 pp.
Fischer, J.K., and a.s. Karabashev, 1977. A comparison of th•
size distribution of susp•nd•d particl•• and their optical
properties. Pol. Archs Hydrobiol., 24(Suppl.)t109-113.
Flemer, D.A., W.L. Dov•l, and H.T. Pfitz•nm•y•r, 1968.
Biological •ff•cts of spoil dispo .. l in Chesap•ake Say. J.
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Folger, D.W., 1968. New particulate matter sampling devices
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q/·-j
REVIEW DRAFT ~i9/8~ PAGE D-4
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aattro, L. w., 1976. Ci~culat ion and sediment d ist~ibut ion in
l:ook Inlet, Alaska. .In• Hood, o.w., and D.c.' Burrell
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Hoskins, C.M., D.C. Burrell, and G.R. Freitag, 1976. Suspended
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J'arlov, N.G., H. Postma, and e. Zaitschel, 1972. Suspended
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Owen, R.M., 1977. An assessment of' the environmental impact of'
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