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HomeMy WebLinkAboutSUS10027• • • CAMPS AND MILLS General Technical Report PNW-113 August 1980 PROCESSING MILLS AND CAMPS DONALD C. SCHMIEGE U.Si Department of Agriculture Forest Service . Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station This file was created by scanning the printed publication. Mis-scans identified by the software have been corrected; however, some errors may remain. Influence of Forest and Rangeland Management on Anadromous Fish Habitat in Western North America For nearly 50 years, effluents from pulp and paper mills have been known to be toxic to fish and other aquatic animals. Lethal concentrations have been determined for several species of fish and other organisms. Many factors--such as water temperature, age of fish, and additional stresses--affect the ability of fish to withstand pollution. Kraft mill wastes are generally more toxic than sulfite wastes. The high biological oxygen demand of sulfite wastes is often more serious than the chemical toxicity of the effluents. Studies on the effect of kraft effluents on invertebrates show that none of them are more sensitive than juvenile salmonids and some species are more resistant. Fish habitat may also be affected by mill stack emissions. High concentrations of sulfur dioxide may damage or kill trees and other vegetation. The effect of logging camps on fish habitat is largely unknown. KEYWORDS: Pulp/paper industry, toxic effects (biocide), wood wastes, fish habitat, water quality. USDA FOREST SERVICE General Technical Report PNW-113 INFLUENCE OF FOREST AND RANGELAND MANAGEMENT ON ANADROMOUS FISH HABITAT IN WESTERN NORTH AMERICA William R. Meehan, Technical Editor 11. Processing Mills and Camps DONALD C. SCHMIEGE Forestry Sciences Laboratory Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Stat ism Juneau, Alaska 1980 PACIFIC NORTHWEST FOREST AND RANGE EXPERIMENT STATION Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Portland, Oregon This is one of a series of publications summarizing knowledge about the influences of forest and rangeland management on anadromous fish habitat in the Western United States. This paper addresses the effects of processing mills and camps on anadromous fish habitat. Our intent is to provide managers and users of the forests and rangelands of the Western United States with the most complete information available for estimating the consequences of various management alternatives. In this series of papers, we summarize published and unpublished reports and data as well as observations of resource scientists and managers. These compilations should be valuable to resource managers in planning uses of forest and rangeland resources, and to scientists as a bibliography on forest and rangeland resources and their uses. in planning future research. The extensive lists of references serve Previous publications in this series include: 1. "Habitat requirements of anadromous salmonids," by D. W. Reiser and T. C. Bjornn. 2. "Impacts of natural events," by Douglas N. Swanston. 4. "Planning forest roads to protect salmonid habitat," by Carlton S. Yee and Terry D. Roelofs. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PROCESSINGMILLS ......................... 2 OxygenDemand ........................ 5 Suspended Settleable Materials ............... 6 AirPollution ........................ 8 Toxicity of Effluents .................... 2 CAMPS .............................. 9 GravelRemoval ....................... 10 Fishing by Residents .................... 11 Other Effects of Camps ................... 12 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ..................... 13 LITERATURE CITED .......................... 14 COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF TROUTS, FAMLY SALMONIDAEL' ~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ Common name Scientific name Pink salmon Chum salmon Coho salmon Sockeye salmon (kokanee) Chinook salmon Cutthroat trout Rainbow (steelhead) trout Atlantic salmon Brown trout Arctic char Brook trout Dolly Varden Lake trout Oncorhynchus Oncorhynchus Oncorhynchus Oncorhynchus Oncorhynchus SaZmo cZmki gorbuscha (Walbaum) keta (Walbaum) kisutch (Walbaum) nerka (Walbaum) tskmytscha (Walbaum) Richard son Sazmo gairdneri Richardson SaZmo salar Linnaeus Sa Zmo trutta Linnaeus SaZveZinus aZpinus (Linnaeus) Salve Zinus fontinalis (Mitchill) SaZveZinus matma (Walbaum) SaZvezinus nwnaycush (Walbaum) - '' From "A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada," American Fisheries Society Special Publication No. 6, Third Edition, 1970, 150 p. INTRODUCTION Many pulp and paper mills in North America are either on or near tidal estuaries or on rivers adjacent to estuaries. The anadromous fish that migrate through these estuaries and rivers are valuable for commer- cial and sport fishing. In- evitably some of these fish contact mill effluents at some concentration . For nearly 50 years, we have known that effluents from pulp and paper mills may be toxic to fish and other aquatic animals. Effluents from both kraft and sulfite mills are complex mixtures that differ greatly in toxicity, depending on many factors. The toxicity of mill effluents results from the combined activity of a number of chemicals, some of which have not been completely identified. In addition to acute toxicity, pulp and paper mill effluents may be harmful to fish and other aquatic animals because of their bio- logical oxygen demand. High concentrations of wood sugars in mil 1 ’ wastes require oxygen during decomposition; hence, as the sugars are stabilized, dissolved oxygen in the re- ceiving water is rapidly de- pleted. Dissolved oxygen is required by all aquatic animals except anaerobic bacteria. The difficulty of sepa- rating effects of chemical toxicity from effects of bio- logical oxygen demand, and the inability to identify the chemical constituents of ef- f luents, have complicated pollution evaluation studies in the past. The recent develop- ment and testing of reproducible bioassay procedures has dramat- ically changed this situation. Simple, accurate, and sensitive biological assessments are now possible (Walden 1976). The acute toxicity of various pulp and paper mill effluents is often quite low, Despite their low toxicity, pulp and paper discharges may have a high impact on receiving waters because of the tremen- dous volumes discharged. Considerable technological progress in the past decade has reduced harmful effluents. Modern mills that meet Federal and State requirements for pol lution abatement differ substantially from the mills that operated 20 or 30 years ago . Many of the logging camps in Alaska and British Columbia are closely associated with pulp and paper mills because much of the harvested timber goes to the mills. Because of this close association, a discussion of camps and their potential effects on anadromous fish habitat is included in this paper. 1 PROCESSING MILLS TOXICITY OF EFFLUENTS The toxicity of effluents from pulp and paper mills has been studied for many years. Some of this work was on the effects of pulp effluents on salmonid fishes (Dimick and Haydu 1952, Lasater 1953, Williams et al. 1953, Alderdice and Brett 1957, Van Horn 1958, Waldichuk 1960, Howard and Walden 1965, Servizi et ale 1968). A general review of the environmental effects of pulp and paper wastes has been prepared by Marier (1973). Van Horn (1961, 1971) reviewed the pulp and paper industry as it affects aquatic biology. Walden (1976) published an excellent review on the toxicity of ef- fluents from pulp and paper mills. Effluents from both kraft and sulfite mills are complex mixtures that differ greatly in toxicity depending on many fac- tors. Because all chemical constituents have not been iden- tified, the effects must be assessed biologically. Several species of fish and many other aquatic organisms have been used for test purposes (Dimick and Haydu 1952, Lasater 1953). Laboratory bioassays have been used to predict toxicity under conditions in natural ecosystems. The definition of reproducible bioassay procedures has been an important step in making bio- assays useful (Walden 1976) . Simple, accurate, and sensitive bioassays are now possible. Data are converted into toxic units, which may be compared directly, even though bioassay procedures may vary. Maximum accuracy is achieved with 50 percent fish survival. Most toxicity tests require at least 24 hours' ex- posure time (Walden 1976). For pulpmill effluents, chemical assays are not feasible. Some toxicants have not yet been identified; consequently, they cannot be assayed chemically. Chemical assays would only be useful if they could be corre- lated with biological responses. Because of the low con- centration of toxicants in effluents from pulp and paper mills, large amounts of effluent must be used in solutions to be bioassayed . The high biological oxygen demand of these solutions requires oxygenation to maintain fish respiration during the tests (Walden 1976) . 2 EFFLUENTS OF KRAFT MILLS Reported toxicity of kraft wastes to fish dates back to the work of Ebeling (1931) in Sweden. Many workers since then have confirmed that concentrations of kraft mill effluents needed to kill fish ranged from 10 to 100 percent . The first studies with salmonids (Dimick and Haydu 1952) demonstrated that sodium hy- droxide, methyl mercaptan, sodium sulfide, and hydrogen sulfide were toxic (table 1). Seven pulpmills were mon- itored daily for 40 days to determine the amount and dur- ation of effluent toxicity. All sewers in the kraft mills contained toxic chemicals, and substantial daily variation in toxicity was common. Toxicity levels of effluents seldom remained constant more than 12 hours and often varied more frequently (Howard and Walden 1971) . Howard and Walden (1965) studied the toxicity of streams with kraft-process effluents to guppies, Poecilia reticulata (Peters), and sockeye salmon in fresh water at neutral pH. As much as 75 percent of the mortality reported by previous authors was caused by an im- balance in pH. Fish acclimated to increasing concentrations of effluents in a few days. Test fish exposed to gradually in- creasing effluent could survive concentrations considerably higher than the values demon- strated as lethal in the bio- assays. Thus, concentration values related to various rates of mortality, such as LC50 (50 percent of the test animals are killed), can be misleading. Length of exposure, other stresses on the fish, pH and temperature of the water, age of the fish, and many other factors can significantly affect pollution concentrations necessary to cause fish mortality. Effects of kraft effluents on invertebrates indicate that none are more sensitive than juvenile salmonids and some species are much more resistant (Walden 1976) . SULFITE WASTES Williams et al. (1953) first demonstrated that sulfite waste liquids were acutely toxic to fish. Previous workers had difficulty demonstrating tox- icity, other than the effects of heavy oxygen demand. Kondo et al. (1973), working with neutral sulfite semichemical wastes, showed that they were about one- third as toxic as kraft wastes. Toxicity did not diminish in storage as it did with kraft Table 1--Threshold concentrations (mg/l) of toxicants in kraft mill wastes lethal to salmonid fishes (after Dimick and Haydu 1952) Chemical Chinook salmon Coho salmon Cutthroat trout Hydrogen sulfide Methyl mercaptan Sodium sulfide Sodium hydroxide Sodium carbonate Sodium sulfate 0.3 0.7 0.5 -5 .7 b9 1.8 1.3 1.0 27 11 10 58 44 33 -- 10,000 2,500 3 wastes. Holland et al. (1960) found no significant difference in toxicity in ammonia-base and calcium-base pulping liquors. The toxicity to fish of sulfite pulping wastes is well documented, a1 though the dif f i- culty in segregating toxic effects from those of oxygen demand indicates the limited role toxicity alone plays in natural ecosystems (Walden 1976). Literature on the effects of sulfite wastes on organisms other than fish is scarce. The available evidence shows that bivalves are especially suscept- ible. Odlaug (1949) showed that concentrations as low as 100 parts per million of spent sulfite liquor reduced the pumping rate of Olympia oysters (Ostrea lurida Carpenter) by 8 percent after immediate exposure. Complete cessation of pumping occurred after 15 days. Stein et al. (1959) showed that concentrations of ammonia-base, spent sulfite liquor greater than 55 parts per million af- fected spawning of oysters, but lower concentrations stimulated activity. Oysters appear to be more sensitive to spent sulfite wastes than any other species tested (Woelke 1967). P SUBLETHAL EFFECTS OF PULPMILL EFFLUENTS Biologists have long recog- nized that concentrations ap- proaching lethal amounts of pollutants, as determined in bioassays, are not safe for survival and maintenance of fish stocks. (Fry 1971). The results of bioassays are valueless and misleading unless they can be related -to concentrations pro- ducing no harmful effects to the ecosystem. Stresses are cumu- lative, and any stress on an organism reduces its ability to withstand other stresses. The known sublethal effects of pulp and paper effluents are attributable to coniferous fibers, hydrogen sulfide, and nonvolatile soluble toxic sub- stances (Walden 1976). The last group is of major environmental concern . Walden and Howard (1968) described effects displayed by fish after exposure to lethal concentrations of kraft ef- fluent: loss of schooling, respiratory distress, abnormal gill movements, reluctance to eat, loss of equilibrium, con- vulsive coughing, excessive mucous production, and finally death. Jones et a1 . (1956) showed that some species of salmon avoided regions containing pulpmill waste. Chinook salmon were best able to avoid the waste, coho salmon were less able, and steelhead trout showed no noticeable reaction. In- consistent results were demon- strated in some other studies, such as those of Dimick et al. 4 ( 1957 ) ; salmon sometimes avoided concentrations that attracted other test fish. The ability of fish to swim is affected by pulpmill wastes (Howard 1973, 1975). Howard and Walden (1974) developed tech- niques to measure swimming; speed and stamina decreased after effluents reached a thresh- old concentration. Fish growth may be adversely affected 'by moderate to high concentrations of kraft mill effluents, but low concentra- tions stimulated growth (Webb and Brett 1972). Schaumburg et al. (1967) studied the effects of sublethal concentrations of kraft effluent on fish respiration. They found that stressed fish reversed the flow of water past their gills; this was designated as "coughing. 'I Coughing increased with increas- ing concentrations of effluents. Evidence of effects of sublethal concentrations of wastes from pulp and paper mills on organisms other than fish is not extensive. Available data indicate that the threshold at which sublethal concentrations affect invertebrates corresponds roughly to that affecting fish (Walden 1976). OXYGEN DEMAND High concentrations of wood sugars in sulfite wastes require oxygen during decomposition . The oxygen requirements for stabilization of the sugars result in a high biological oxygen demand which.can result in rapid depletion of dissolved oxygen in the receiving water (Waldichuk 1960). Kraft mill wastes also contain high concentrations of organic material, but not nearly as much as in sulfite liquor. 5 Walden (1976) stated that difficulties in segregating toxic effects from those caused by oxygen demand emphasize the limited role toxicity plays in natural situations, compared to problems arising from potential oxygen depletion. Thus, the primary effect of sulfite wastes is apparently to increase bio- logical oxygen demand. The dissolved oxygen level required to sustain fish varies considerably, because it depends on other factors such as water temperature, salinity, pH, fish species, and other stresses on the fish. Despite efforts to decrease the biological oxygen demand of wastes from pulp and paper mills, the effect of these wastes on dissolved oxygen remains a problem in some receiving waters . SUSPENDED SETTLEABLE MATERIALS Bark, chips, and pulp fibers concern fishery biolo- gists and others because they have long-term effects on the aquatic environment. As these materials begin to cover the bottom, the rich fauna of ten found there is either destroyed or forced to move. Fish that normally feed on or near the bottom also find the area un- attractive and move elsewhere. As the organic materials start to decompose and dissolved oxygen in the water is used up, hydrogen sulfide is released. The bottom layer of water, with low dissolved-oxygen levels, may become very thick and, thus, unsuitable for many species of food fish. This is especially true in inlets and other re- stricted locations where strong tidal flushing does not occur. Particles of bark, chips, and fibers come mainly from drum and hydraulic barkers, paper machines, and from transferring chips from scows to the mill. Bark also sloughs off logs during raft transport and during storage in holding ponds. Log-transfer sites often contain heavy accumulations of bark and other wood debris (Schaumburg 1973) . Row and Cook (1971) found that most of the toxicity from mechanical pulping effluents was caused by resin acid soaps. Wilson (1975) studied the tox- icity of effluents from news- print operations. Biotreated effluent had no adverse reaction on any of the zooplankton and invertebrates tested. Raw wood is about half cellulose fibers. Modern mills use settling tanks, filters, and other devices to keep fibers out of receiving waters . Bark accumulations may contaminate salmon spawning grounds (Servizi et al. 1968). Servizi and his coworkers found that the oxygen demand of bark is great enough and of long enough duration that eggs can be killed. Fine bark particles can also clog the gravel, causing egg mortality. These authors estimated that bark concen- trations of 4 percent and more were likely to increase egg-to- fry mortality because of oxygen depletion at incubation velo- cities of 5 cm/h. Even bark concentrations of 1 percent and greater could. retard emergence . Egg mortality increased as bark accumulations increased and water flow decreased. Even though bark leachates are toxic, studies by Schaumburg (1973) showed that leachates from logs in natural waters had little toxic effect. In a study of woodroom effluents, Howard and Leach (1973) found that softwood species tended t’o be more toxic than hardwood species. Leachates from logs also contain wood sugar and other biodegradable materials that exert a large biochemical oxygen demand (Schaumburg 1973). Extracts of spruce (Picea sp.) and hemlock (Tsuga sp.) bark are also toxic to fish,shrimp (Pandalus sp.) and dungeness crab (Cancer magister Dana) (Buchanan et al. 1976) . Toxic effects on salmon fry were observed as soon as 3 hours after exposure to hemlock bark extracts. After a 96-hour exposure at a concentration of 56 milligrams per liter, 50 percent of the salmon fry were kil led . Spruce bark extracts were consistently toxic to a1 1 invertebrates tested. Concentrations of leachates great enough to be toxic are unlikely except in certain locations with little or no tidal flushing, such as log- handling and storage areas. 7 AIR POLLUTION Stack emissions from pulp and paper mills contain many chemicals. Some, such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), can damage plants if concentrated sufficiently and if exposure continues long enough (Faller 1971, Linzon et al. 1972, Carlson 1974). Sulfur dioxide is a soluble gas readily absorbed by foliage through the stomata. Absorption can also occur through wet leaf surfaces (Thomas et al. 1950). If SO2 is not removed from the air, it oxidizes to SO3 and becomes a sulfuric acid mist. This mist is corrosive and can cause lesions on plant tissue. Confirmation of damage to needles by SO2 requires that foliage samples be analyzed for sulfur. Histological examination of needles shows a distinctive syndrome unlike that caused by pathogens, drought, or freezing. Several investigators have established that high sulfur dioxide concentrations can injure or kill plants (Thomas et al, 1950, Faller 1971, Linzon et al. 1972, Ratsch 1974). When mills are located near rivers used by salmon and other anadromous fish, they can affect fish habitat through air pol- lution that kills riparian vegetation. Several studies have shown the importance of streamside vegetation in re- ducing stream temperatures, producing logs in the stream for cover, and forming pools (Meehan et al. 1977). Trees along streambanks also harbor insects that drop into streams and are eaten by fish and other aquatic organisms. The extent and severity of injury to riparian vegetation resulting from pulpmills depend on wind patterns and surrounding terrain as well as the amount of pollutants emitted from the mill. The presence of a pulp- mill does not guarantee that nearby trees will die. If emissions are not great and air currents provide mixing, SO2 concentrations may not be high enough to cause damage to trees or other plants (Ratsch 1974). 8 CAMPS Except in Alaska and Brit- ish Columbia, logging camps are nearly nonexistent in North America. A few camps occur in other places, but they are I usually not permanent. About 60 logging companies operate in southeast Alaska (Pease 1974). Some have float- ing camps that are towed from one anchorage to another but most are land based. They range in size from a one-family operation to a community of 500 people or more. Camps are usually located in protected harbors that serve as log- storage and transfer sites. In the past, few regu- lations control led logging camps. Some activities could have affected anadromous fish, but we have no record of it. Logging camps are now regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency, the USDA Forest Service, and the States. In Alaska, the State Department of Environ- mental Conservation also has authority. Logging camp sewage or solid wastes are unlikely to affect fish habitat adversely if regulations of these agencies are complied with. The Environ- mental Protection Agency requires secondary sewage treat- ment. Chlorinated wastewater could be toxic to fish if con- centrations of chlorine were high. Logging camps used to leave rusting cables, junked machinery, bands from log bundles, spilled fuel, and other debris on or near their sites when a camp was abandoned. No studies document the effects of these materials on fish habitat, however. Present regulations require that the sites be cleaned before the camp is moved. 9 I 1 4- I 0 I GRAVEL REMOVAL Large amounts of gravel are needed for building logging roads and developing campsites. Some locations have no source of gravel nearby, other than stream- beds. Although gravel has been taken from streams in the past, this practice was probably never common and it will no doubt become less common. Two examples of gravel removal from streambeds have been documented in Alaska. Sheridan reported on the removal of gravel from a stream on Baranof Island near Sitka, Alaska .\g/ Road construction and logging were started in the Rodman Creek watershed in 1960 and completed in 1965. Surveys showed that the stream and alluvial flood plain contained the only gravel nearby; 64,000 cubic yards of gravel were taken from 16 borrow pits located on the tideflats, flood plain, and in the stream. Pink and chum salmon spawned in the intertidal area and up to 5 miles upstream. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game had records of escape- ment before gravel removal and continued these surveys during and after the gravel was removed. The borrow pits filled with gravel in 4 years, no signifi- cant changes were observed in streambed gradient, and the pits accelerated bank cutting in their vicinity, causing several trees to fall into the stream and a high intermittent sediment load. The pit-f illing probably increased bedload movement and likely increased the instability of spawning beds upstream. Salmon escapement showed no Unpublished paper, "Effects of gravel removal on a salmon spawning stream," by W. L. Sheridan. USDA For. Serv., 26 p. On file, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Juneau, Alaska, 1967. 10 decrease, even though a short- term decrease in survival of salmon embryos could have occurred because of increased sedimentation. Sheridan cau- tioned that gravel should be removed from streams only if no other source of gravel is available and the,value of timber far exceeds the potential damage to salmon habitat. During World War 11, large amounts of gravel were removed from four salmon streams near the Kodiak Naval Station (McVey 1959). Sections of the stream- bed were removed to depths of 20 feet., The fish-producing potential was reduced in two streams because the tailings from washing and screening reduced the average size of stream gravel, resulting in instability. In the other two streams, bottom materials broke up and were washed downstream. As a result, streamflow was limited to subterranean seepage 1 during low water flows, and several miles of excellent spawning grounds became in- accessible to spawning fish. By 1958, the gravel of only one of the two streams showed signs of stabilizing. Logging camps congregate people in remote areas of south- east Alaska and British Colum- bia. The camps are often near highly productive stream and estuarine fisheries. This combination of people and re- sources results in heavy use. Some biologists believe that logging camps are respon- sible for unusually heavy fish- ing pressure in some streams. Depletion of runs has been mentioned, but quantitative data are lacking. Species such as steelhead trout would be es- pecial ly vulnerable, because the runs are small in some streams. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game has estimated that sport harvest in Rodman Creek, Baranof Island, took over 60 percent of the mature Dolly Varden char in 1963, based on tag returns. This pressure was mainly from nearby logging camps.- 3/ J/ - Data on file, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Juneau, Alaska. 11 The Alaska Department of Fish and Game is now conducting a statewide sport fishing survey. Information will be received from high-quality watersheds, including those near logging camps, so sport fishing harvests from logging camps can be estimated. If anglers all carry proper licenses and observe bag limits, the logging camps only serve to distribute and congregate people, so it may be misleading to view camps as detrimental to the fisheries resource. OTHER EFFECTS OF CAMPS Some logging camps probably have affected the local fish- eries by sewage pollution, water diversion, oil and lubricant spills, and gravel removal, although the effects of these activities have not been docu- mented. In light of the detailed State and Federal water and air- quality standards, logging camps are unlikely to have any appre- ciable effect on fish habitat now or in the future. Logging camps may be viewed as small communities, subject to the same regulations as any other com- munity. If environmental degra- dation occurs it is because State and Federal regulations are being violated. 12 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Pulp and paper mills re- lease enormous amounts of ef- fluents daily into receiving waters. The toxicity of these wastes varies widely and is dependent on factors such as chemical processes used, waste recovery, and biological oxygen demand caused by decomposition of sugars in the effluents. Until recently, assessing the harmful effects of mill wastes was difficult because the chemical constituents are com- plex, and some remain unident- ified. The relation between the concentration of many toxic constituents and biological activity has not been estab- lished. In addition, separating chemical toxicity from bio- logical oxygen demand is often difficult. As a result chemical assays cannot be used. Laboratory and field studies have accumulated the data needed to design accurate and sensitive acute lethal bioassays for effluents from pulp and paper mil 1s . These bioassays have been used to identify thresh- holds of effluent toxicity for several aquatic animals, in- cluding salmonid fishes. This work has demonstrated that the previous history of test animals is very important. Fish and other aquatic animals can be conditioned to withstand in- creasing levels of pollutants to a point. Stresses tend to be cumulative, however, and such factors as water temperature and pH can compound the effects of other stresses. Despite some shortcomings, recent research on biological assessment has re- sulted in the development of tables showing concentrations of effluents associated with effects on various organisms. Threshold concentrations of effluents from paper mills have been based on extensive technical data; this work has been reviewed by Walden (1976). The acute lethal bioassay is now well established for measuring toxicity of industrial pollution. Using such bioassays to determine safe levels of effluent in the environment is risky, however. Each biological system is unique; plants and animals in the system are sub- jected to various stresses. The amount and duration of these stresses determine the animal's ability to withstand the added stress of mill pollution. What is needed is a sublethal bio- assay, sensitive enough to detect changes in the natural environment as they relate to biological requirements of the animal s . Little information is available on the effects of logging camps on anadromous fish habitat. Because camps are often near productive fish habitat, however, they are potentially hazardous. Present regulations pertaining to camps and associated activities appear adequate to prevent appreciable damage. 13 LITERATURE CITED Alderdice, D. F., and J. R. Brett. 1957. Some effects of kraft mill effluent on young Pacific salmon. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 14 (5) :783-795 . Buchanan, D. V., P. S. Tate, and J. R. Moring. 1976. Acute toxicities of spruce and hemlock bark extracts to some estuarine organisms in southeastern Alaska. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33(5):1188-1192. Carlson, C. E. 1974. Sulfur damage to Douglas-fir near a pulp and paper mill in western Montana. USDA For. Serv. Rep. 74-13, 41 p. Missoula, Mont. Dimick, R. E. , and E. P. Haydu. 1952. The effects of kraft mill waste liquors and some of their components on certain salmonid fishes of the Pacific Northwest. Natl. Counc. Stream Improv., Inc., New York (Natl. Counc. Pap. Ind. Air and Stream Improv.) Tech. Bull. 51, 23 p. Dimick, R. E., C. E. Warren, B. F. Jones, P. Doudoroff, and H. R. Amberg. 1957. Some preliminary observations on the avoidance reactions of salmonid fishes to pulp mill effluents. Natl. Counc . Stream Improv . , Inc., New York (Natl. Counc. Pap. Ind. Air and Stream Improv . ) Tech. Bull. 93, 14 p. Ebeling, G. 1931. Recent results of the chemical investigation of the effect of waste waters from cellulose plants on fish. Vom Wasser 5 :192-200. Faller, N. 1971. Effects of atmospheric SO2 on plants. The Sulfur Inst. J. 6(4) :5-7. Fry, F. E. J. 1971. The effect of environmental factors on the physiology of fish. In Fish physiology, Vel. 6, p. 1-98. W. S. Hoar and D. J. Randall (eds.). Acad. Press, New York . - Holland, G. A., J. E. Lasater, E. D. Neumann, and W. E. Eldridge. 1960. Toxic effects of organic and inorganic pollutants on young salmon and trout. Wash. Dep. Fish. Res. Bull. 5, 264 p, Olympia. Howard, T. E. 1973. Effects of kraft pulp mill effluents on the stamina, temperature tolerance, and respiration of some salmonid fish. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland. 183 p. 14 Howard, T. E. 1975. Swimming xhvnchus performance of juvenile J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 3 2 (6 ) : 789-793 . Howard, T. E., and J. M. Leach. 1973. Identification and treatment of the toxic materials in woodroom effluents. Can. For. Serv. CPAR Pro]. Rep. No. 148-1, 56 p. Ottawa, Ont. Howard, T. E., and C. C. Walden. 1965. Pollution and toxicity characteristics of kraft pulp mill effluents. TAPPI 48(3):135-141. Howard, T. E., and C. C. Walden. 1971. Effluent charac- teristics of bleached kraft pulp mills. Pulp and Pap. Mag. Can. 72(1):T3-T9. Howard, T. E., and C. C. Walden. 1974. Measuring stress in fish exposed to pulp mill effluents. TAPPI 57 (2) :133-135. Jones, B. F., C. E. Warren, C. E. Bond, and P. Doudoroff. 1956. Avoidance reactions of salmonid fishes to pulp mill effluents. Sewage Ind. Wastes 28(11):1403-1413. Kondo, R., K. Sameshima, and To Kondo. 1973. Spent semi- chemical pulping liquor. (3). Toxicity character- istics of SCP spent liquor and reduction of its tox- icity. Japan Tech. Assoc. Pulp and Pap. Ind. 10: 476-485. Linzon, S. N., W. Do McIlveen, and P. J. Temple. 1972. Sulphur dioxide injury to vegetation in the vicinity of a sulphite pulp and paper mill. Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 2 (1973) : 120-134. Marier, J. 1973. The effects of pulp and paper wastes with particular attention to fish and bioassay pro- cedure for assessment of harmful effects. Natl. Res. Counc. Can., 13501. Environ. Secr. Publ. 73-3, Ottawa, Ont. 33 p. McVey, R. 1959. Gravel removal and the fisheries. Alaska Fisheries Briefs. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. 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