HomeMy WebLinkAboutSuWa211Alaska Resources Library & Information Services
Susitna-Watana Hydroelectric Project Document
ARLIS Uniform Cover Page
Title:
Overwintering and spawning ecology of fishes in cold climates : an
annotated bibliography
SuWa 211
Author(s) – Personal:
Jason E.B. Mouw
Author(s) – Corporate:
AEA-identified category, if specified:
AEA-identified series, if specified:
Series (ARLIS-assigned report number):
Susitna-Watana Hydroelectric Project document number 211
Existing numbers on document:
Published by:
[Anchorage, Alaska : Alaska Board of Forestry, 2004]
Date published:
July 2004
Published for:
Originally compiled for the Region II FRPA Riparian
Management Science & Technical Committee
Date or date range of report:
Volume and/or Part numbers:
Final or Draft status, as indicated:
Document type: Pagination:
p. 5-13
Related work(s):
Excerpt (Section 1) from: Region II forest resources &
practices, riparian management annotated bibliography : report
to the Alaska Board of Forestry.
Pages added/changed by ARLIS:
Notes:
All reports in the Susitna-Watana Hydroelectric Project Document series include an ARLIS-
produced cover page and an ARLIS-assigned number for uniformity and citability. All reports
are posted online at http://www.arlis.org/resources/susitna-watana/
Section 1
OVERWINTERING AND SPAWNING ECOLOGY OF
FISHES IN COLD CLIMATES
An Annotated Bibliography
Compiled for the
Region II FRPA Riparian Management Science & Technical Committee
by
Jason E.B. Mouw
Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Sport Fish Division
SUMMARY
In South Central Alaska (Region II), rivers and streams are covered with ice and develop
ice on the streambed for significant periods of the year. These conditions reduce the
habitat suitability of certain portions of these systems for overwintering juvenile and
resident fish species (Cunjak, 1996). Though these icing conditions prevail in primary
channels, side channels and sloughs that are typical of glacial systems in Region II
provide suitable habitat for overwintering fishes due to upwelling groundwater, low flow
velocities, and suitable cover in the form of living and dead large woody debris and
standing riparian vegetation. Lake systems that are connected to river systems also
provide important overwintering habitat for resident and juvenile fish species in Alaska
(Palmer, 1998, Meka et al. 2003). Of the factors that characterize suitable overwintering
habitat in side sloughs and channels of large river systems, upwelling groundwater is
considered the primary influence to overwintering habitat suitability in Region II Alaska
(Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1981, 1983a, 1983b). Other studies also indicate
that feeding for juvenile salmonids is also very pertinent to winter survival and growth
(Moles et al. 1997). In side slough habitats, overwintering fish are able to reduce energy
expenditure due to low flow velocities, feed on a limited basis, avoid frazil ice, and
experience higher rates of survival (Swales et al., 1986, Bustard, 1986). On rivers such
as the Susitna River, resident rainbow and juvenile salmon are known to prefer side
slough habitats near tributary confluences.
On large glacial river systems, high volume ground water flow paths that may extend
kilometers from the main channel (Boulton et al. 1998) are thermally buffered from
ambient conditions in winter. Where this groundwater upwells, it is rich in nutrients and
relatively warm in winter. This key influence on juvenile salmon and resident species
habitat is expressed within the context of high habitat heterogeneity to provide a wide
variety of suitable habitats. The availability of these sites is restricted on smaller clear
5
water streams that do not have the physical habitat complexity and adequate stream flow
to provide adequate numbers of sites for overwintering of fish.
The complexity of side slough habitats is also critical due to the variety of species –
specific microhabitat preferences. Complexity of habitat allows for the coexistence of
several species in the same general location without significant competition (Cunjak
1996). For these reasons, glacial systems have been found to be extremely important to
overwintering salmonids in southcentral Alaska.
Many species also show preference for sites characterized by upwelling when spawning
(Baxter and McPhail, 1999, Baxter and Hauer, 2000). This is especially true for chum
and sockeye salmon that prefer to spawn in side sloughs of the Susitna River. Baxter
and McPhail (1999) document higher survival of bull trout embryos to the alevin stages
at sites characterized by upwelling.
Because side slough habitats occupy the peripheral portions of gravel-bed floodplains,
they are particularly susceptible to modification due to riparian forest practices and
floodplain land developments. Access developments, for example typically require
culverts or fill material when building roads to access main river channels of glacial
systems. These actions can reduce the hydrologic connectivity of side slough habitats.
Flood control projects that stabilize main channels also have the potential to disconnect
rivers channels from its floodplain sloughs. Such modifications may also introduce
sediment into the aquatic system, such as side sloughs that typically run clear throughout
the year. Through experimentation, Bustard and Narver (1975) found that juvenile
salmon prefer clean versus silted substratum, a preference that increased with cold water
temperatures. Tschaplinski and Harman (1983) found a 63-74% decrease in abundance
of overwintering juvenile fish at sites adjacent to clear cut riparian zones. Temperature is
also affected by buffer strip architecture. Curry et al. (2002) report marked decreases in
temperatures of surface waters at sites with no buffer strip.
Winter fish habitats are also extremely vulnerable to withdrawal of stream water for
consumptive out of stream uses. Withdrawals of water that significantly reduce stream
flow lead to accelerate icing characteristics that may result in disconnecting important
side slough habitats and lake systems with primary channels (Cunjak, 1996). This either
precludes fish from accessing their preferred habitats or strands those already occupying
disconnected habitats. Because glacial systems are characterized by low flow in winter,
these systems are particularly sensitive to withdrawals of water in winter.
6
REFERENCES
Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1981. Juvenile anadromous fish study on the
Lower Susitna River (November 1980 – October 1981). Susitna Hydro Aquatic
Studies. Phase 1 final draft report. Subtask 7.10. APA Document #322
This report discusses basic data on the presence, abundance, geographical distribution,
age class composition, length distribution, and smolt migration timing of juvenile salmon
in the Susitna River between Cook Inlet and Devil Canyon. Field data collection took
place from November 1980 – October 1981 using a variety of sampling methods. Five
juvenile salmon species were captured throughout the study area. The majority of
Chinook were captured during winter at slough and mainstem Susitna River. In summer
the majority of Chinook were captured at tributary mouth sites. The majority of coho
captured on the River below Talkeetna were found at tributary mouth sites in winter and
summer. Between Talkeetna and Devil canyon occurrence of juvenile coho was greatest
in Susitna side sloughs in winter and tributary mouth sites in summer. Three age classes
were captured, 0+, I+, and II+. Sampling scheme bias imposed by gear types did not
allow for sufficient capture of juvenile pink, chum, and sockeye.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1983a. Resident and juvenile anadromous
fish studies on the Susitna River below Devil Canyon, 1982. Susitna Hydro Aquatic
Studies. Phase 2 basic data report. APA document #486.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1983b. Synopsis of the 1982 aquatic studies
and analysis of fish and habitat relationships (section 1 of 2). Susitna Hydro
Aquatic Studies. Phase 2 Report. APA Document #40.
These reports discuss the distribution, abundance, adult movement and migration
patterns, spawning, and juvenile rearing areas for rainbow trout, arctic grayling, burbot,
Dolly Varden, and other resident species. Adult rainbow trout were found to occupy side
slough habitats of the Susitna River near tributary confluences in winter.
Baxter, C.V. and F. R. Hauer. 2000. Geomorphology, hyporheic exchange, and
selection of spawning habitat by bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus). Canadian
Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 57: 1470-1481
The distribution and abundance of bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus) spawning were
affected by geomorphology and hyporheic groundwater - stream water exchange across
multiple spatial scales in streams of the Swan River basin, northwestern Montana.
Among spawning tributary streams, the abundance of bull trout redds increased with
increased area of alluvial valley segments that were longitudinally confined by
geomorphic nickpoints. Among all valley segment types, bull trout redds were primarily
found in these bounded alluvial valley segments, which possessed complex patterns of
hyporheic exchange and extensive upwelling zones. Bull trout used stream reaches for
7
spawning that were strongly influenced by upwelling. However, within these selected
reaches, bull trout redds were primarily located in transitional bedforms that possessed
strong localized downwelling and high intragravel flow rates. The changing relationship
of spawning habitat selection, in which bull trout selected upwelling zones at one spatial
scale and downwelling zones at another spatial scale, emphasizes the importance of
considering multiple spatial scales within a hierarchical geomorphic context when
considering the ecology of this species or plans for bull trout conservation and
restoration.
Baxter, J.S. and J.D. McPhail. 1999. The influence of redd site selection,
groundwater upwelling, and over-winter incubation temperature on survival of bull
trout (Salvelinus confluentus) from egg to alevin. Can. J. Zool. 77:1233-1239.
We measured survival of bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus) embryos to the alevin stage
in areas selected and not selected by females for spawning. In this study we tested the
hypotheses that (1) females are utilizing habitats influenced by discharging groundwater
and that (2) there is a reproductive advantage to spawning at these selected sites. Embryo
survival was assessed by placing fertilized eggs in capsules that could be retrieved once
they were placed in selected and nonselected locations. The survival rate was
significantly higher (88.6 vs. 76.1%) and less variable in the selected area, but alevin
lengths did not differ significantly between areas. The selected areas were, on average,
locations of groundwater discharge and higher water temperatures over the incubation
period, while nonselected locations were in areas of surface-water recharge and lower
water temperatures. The results suggest that appropriate reproductive habitats which offer
the best incubation environments may be limited in bull trout systems, and that site
selection by females may increase fitness and be critical for population viability.
Bustard, D.R., and Narver, D.W. 1975. Preferences of juvenile coho salmon
(Onchorhynchus kisutch) and cutthroat trout (Salmo clarki) relative to simulated
alteration of winter habitat. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 32:
681 – 687.
This paper found through experimentation that juvenile salmonids prefer clean substrata
versus silted substrata and that this preference was greatest at cold temperatures.
Bustard, D.R. 1986. Some differences between coastal and interior stream
ecosystems and the implications to juvenile fish production. Canadian Technical
Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 1483: 117-126.
This study demonstrated that juvenile steelhead, coho, and Chinook salmon have
increased winter survival in side channel and side slough habitats that are characterized
by relatively warm water due to upwelling groundwater
8
Craig, P.C., and Poulin, V.A. 1975. Movements and growth of Arctic grayling
(Thymallus arcticus) and juvenile Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) in a small Arctic
stream, Alaska. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 32: 689-697
Craig, P.C. 1978. Movements of stream resident and anadromous arctic char in a
perennial spring of the Canning River, Alaska. Journal of the Fisheries Research
Board of Canada. 35: 48-52
Cunjak, R.A., and Power, G. 1986. Winter habitat utilization by stream resident
brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and brown trout (Salmo trutta). Canadian Journal
of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 43: 1970 – 1981
This study proposed the important hypothesis that overwintering fishes utilize off –
channel habitats in winter in part due to energetic demands in cold temperatures
associated with low metabolic rates.
Cunjack, R.A. 1996. Winter habitat of selected stream fishes and potential impacts
from land-use activity. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 53:
267-282.
This paper reviews studies on winter fish habitat and the negative impacts of certain land
use activities on overwintering fish habitat. In particular this paper discusses the adverse
impacts to fish habitat due to inadequate riparian forest practices that result in substratum
embeddedness and inadequate cover. This paper also discusses the negative impacts
associated with water withdrawal during winter months. Inadequate streamflow results in
increases in ice formation that results in stranding of fish and dewatering of off channel
habitats as well as the excluding fish from important channel margin habitat that is
utilized for feeding and cover.
Cunjack, R.A. 1996. Winter habitat of selected stream fishes and potential impacts
from land-use activity. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 53:
267-282.
This review paper discusses a large body of literature focusing on winter habitat
relationships for juvenile and adult life stages of fish. This very important review
discusses the use of side channel (off channel) habitats by overwintering fish and the
importance of upwelling groundwater in these habitats. Due to energetic constraints
associated with reduced metabolic activity fish seek aquatic habitats characterized by
relatively warm water that is flowing slowly. Due to upwelling groundwater these
habitats are key to survival in winter when deep pools in main channels develop frazil ice
and become unsuitable to occupy. This paper also discussed the importance of habitat
complexity for overwintering fishes due to species-specific habitat requirements or
preferences. This paper also discusses the importance of beaver ponds and large wood
9
debris to overwintering salmonids. Both beaver ponds and large wood create deep pools
in off channel habitats that are very important winter habitat to fish, especially those
species sensitive to light in winter.
Curry, R.A., D.A. Scruton, and K.D. Clarke. 2002. The thermal regimes of brook
trout incubation habitats and evidence of changes during forestry operations.
Canadian Journal of Forest Research 32: 1200-1207.
The thermal regimes in streambed substrates used by brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis
Mitchell, for incubation of embryos were examined in reference and treatment (0- and
20-m riparian buffer strips) streams in a clear-cut harvested, northern temperate forest of
western Newfoundland. In these streams, incubation habitats (redds) were primarily
composed of downwelling surface waters with variable but minor mixing of upwelling
groundwater. The resulting incubation temperatures were cold (<1°C) and surface water
temperatures were accurate predictors of redd temperatures. Both treatment streams
displayed evidence of warming in the fall and spring of the 2 years beginning the year of
initial harvesting. The increase was most pronounced in the stream without a riparian
buffer strip. Clear-cut harvesting with and without a riparian buffer strip altered the
thermal regime of surface water and the hyporheic zone in this northern temperate forest
where, in addition to salmonid incubation, many biological processes take place. The
potential for impacts on stream ecosystems is estimated to be high for the managed
forests of this region. Future studies should strive to enhance our understanding of the
hydrological connections between forests and streams on this landscape to determine the
full effects of timber harvesting on the hydrology and biology of a watershed and its
streams.
Jackson, D.A., P.R. Peres-Neto, and J.D. Olden. 2001. What controls who is where
in freshwater fish communities – the roles of biotic, abiotic, and spatial factors.
Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 58: 157-170
We examine evidence for the structuring of fish communities from stream and lake
systems and the roles of biotic, abiotic, and spatial factors in determining the species
composition. Piscivory by fish is a dominant factor in both stream and lake systems
whereas evidence for the importance of competition appears less convincing. Within
small streams or lakes, the impact of predation may exclude other species, thereby
leading to mutually exclusive distributions and strong differences in community
composition. Within a geographic region, abiotic effects frequently dictate the relative
importance of piscivory, thereby indirectly influencing the composition of prey species
present. The spatial scale of studies influences our perceived importance of biotic versus
abiotic factors, with small-scale studies indicating a greater importance of competition
and large-scale studies emphasizing abiotic controls. The scale of the individual sites
considered is critical because smaller systems have higher variability and wider extremes
of conditions than larger lakes and rivers. The stability of physical systems and degree of
spatial connectivity contribute to increased diversity in both larger stream and larger lake
10
systems. We identify challenges and needs that must be addressed both to advance the
field of fish community ecology and to face the problems associated with human-induced
changes.
Meka, J.M., E.E. Knudson, D.C. Douglas, and R.B. Benter. 2003. Variable
migratory patterns of different adult rainbow life history types in a Southwest
Alaska watershed. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 132:717-732.
Radiotelemetry was used to document population structure in adult rainbow trout
Oncorhynchus mykiss from the Alagnak River, southwest Alaska. Rainbow trout (N =
134) longer than 440 mm were implanted with radio transmitters and tracked for varying
periods from July 1997 to April 1999. Fifty-eight radio-tagged fish were tracked for
sufficient duration (at least 11 months) to allow description of seasonal migratory
patterns. Unique seasonal movements of fish suggested discrete, within-basin population
structure. Telemetry data documented the existence of multiple migratory and
nonmigratory groups of rainbow trout, indicating unique life history patterns. The
observed groups consisted of what we defined as a lake-resident ecotype, a lake–river
ecotype, and a riverine ecotype; the riverine ecotype demonstrated both highly migratory
and nonmigratory movement behavior. Considerable variation in movement patterns was
found within both the lake–river group and the river migratory group. Radio-tagged trout
did not migrate between the two Alagnak watershed lakes in either year of the study,
suggesting lake fidelity in the population structure. Alagnak River rainbow trout may
have evolved the observed seasonal movement patterns to optimize winter thermal
refugia and summer food availability of salmon eggs and carcasses.
Moles, A. Korn, S., and Rice, S. 1997. Effects of low temperatures and starvation on
resistance to stress in presmolt coho salmon. American Fisheries Society
Symposium 19: 148 – 154.
Arctic winter conditions in Alaska can cause a decline in juvenile salmonid overwintering
survival. Through controlled experimentation, the authors subjected juvenile coho to
temperature and feeding treatments. Fish that were starved were more susceptible to
disease, reduced tolerance to salinity and swimming stamina. They did not grow and
deteriorated in general throughout the experiment. In contrast, fish that were fed grew at
all temperatures, even at 0.2 degrees Celsius. Although food was found to be important,
it was considered of lesser importance to arctic fish than for temperate fish due to lower
metabolic rates associated with cold water temperatures.
11
Palmer, D.E. 1998. Migratory behavior and seasonal distribution of radio-tagged
rainbow trout in the Kenai River, Alaska. U S Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska
Fisheries Technical Report Number 46, Kenai, Alaska.
Radio telemetry was used to monitor seasonal movements of large rainbow trout in the
Kenai River. Rainbow trout began movements to overwintering areas in late September
and ceased migration by mid-December. Rainbow trout tagged above Skilak Lake
selected overwintering areas in Skilak Lake (64%), Kenai Lake (18%), and river
locations between Skilak and Kenai Lakes (18%). Rainbow trout radio tagged below
Skilak Lake selected Skilak Lake (72%) and river locations below the lake (28%) for
overwintering. Most fish showed high fidelity for overwintering locations from year to
year (1995 – 1996).
Riis, J.C. and Friese, N.C. 1978. Fisheries and habitat investigations of the Susitna
River – a preliminary study of the potential impacts of the Devils Canyon and
Watana Hydroelectric projects. Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division of
Sport and Commercial Fish.
This report documents the use of the Susitna River and its side sloughs by rearing
salmonids that were incubated in clearwater tributaries of the Susitna such as Montana
Creek. This report also documents that juvenile salmonids use side sloughs of the
Susitna from Portage Creek down to the Chulitna confluence for rearing habitat. The
predominant rearing species captured for this study were Chinook and coho.
Swales, S., Lauzier, R.B., and Levings, C.D. 1986. Winter habitat preferences of
juvenile salmonids in two interior rivers in British Columbia. Canadian Journal of
Zoology. 64: 1506-1514.
This study documents that Juvenile coho preferred off-channel habitats influenced by
warmer water temperatures due to upwelling groundwater and characterized by low flow
velocities.
West, R.L., M.W. Smith, W.E. Barber, J.B. Reynolds, and H. Hop. 1992. Autumn
Migration and Overwintering of Arctic Grayling in Coastal Streams of the Arctic
National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska Transactions of the American Fisheries Society:
Vol. 121, No. 6, pp. 709–715.
During 1984 and 1985, 67 adult Arctic grayling Thymallus arcticus with surgically
implanted radio transmitters were released at their summer feeding areas in three river
systems of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska. We tracked the fish from aircraft
to determine patterns of autumn migration to overwintering locations. During August or
September in each area, fish left the small tundra streams where they were tagged and
migrated into larger streams. Migration rates peaked at 5–6 km/d about 1 September and
12
averaged 1 km/d. Fish in two river systems moved into adjacent rivers after passage
through estuarine waters. Migration distances from spawning or summer feeding areas to
overwintering sites were as great as 101 km. Potential overwintering areas determined
from transmitter relocations included deep pools, spring-fed areas, and lakes.
Management problems associated with these extensive seasonal migrations may include
the maintenance of the species migratory circuit in a region that may face future
development.
Tschaplinski, P.J., and Harman, G.F. 1983. Winter distribution of juvenile coho
salmon (Onchorhynchus kisutch) before and after logging in Carnation Creek,
British Columbia, and some implications for overwinter survival. Canadian
Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 40: 452 – 461.
This paper notes a 63 – 74% decrease in abundance of overwintering juveniles adjacent
to inadequate forest buffer strip management, such as clear-cutting the riparian zone.
13