HomeMy WebLinkAboutPoint Lay Wind Project Site Characterization and Avian Field Study for the Proposed Community-Scale Wind Project in Northern Alaska - Feb 2014 - REF Grant 7040027 FINAL REPORT
SITE CHARACTERIZATION AND AVIAN FIELD STUDY
FOR THE PROPOSED COMMUNITY-SCALE
WIND PROJECT IN NORTHERN ALASKA
TODD J. MABEE
TAWNA C. MORGAN
ADRIAN E. GALL
WENDY A. DAVIS
LESLIE B. RODMAN
ALEX K. PRICHARD
PREPARED FOR
NORTH SLOPE BOROUGH
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS
BARROW, ALASKA
PREPARED BY
—ABR, INC. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH & SERVICES
FAIRBANKS, ALASKA FOREST GROVE, OREGON
Printed on recycled paper.
SITE CHARACTERIZATION AND AVIAN FIELD STUDY FOR
THE PROPOSED COMMUNITY-SCALE WIND PROJECT IN
NORTHERN ALASKA
FINAL REPORT
Prepared for
North Slope Borough
Department of Public Works
P.O. Box 350
Barrow, Alaska 99723
Prepared by
Todd J. Mabee
Tawna C. Morgan
Adrian E. Gall
Wendy A. Davis
Leslie B. Rodman
Alex K. Prichard
ABR, Inc. —Environmental Research & Services
P.O. Box 80910
Fairbanks, Alaska 99708
and
P.O. Box 249
Forest Grove, Oregon 97116
February 2014
iii Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures...............................................................................................................................................iii
List of Tables................................................................................................................................................iv
List of Appendices.........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments .........................................................................................................................................v
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................1
Study Area.....................................................................................................................................................1
Point Hope..............................................................................................................................................1
Point Lay................................................................................................................................................3
Wainwright.............................................................................................................................................3
Methods .........................................................................................................................................................3
Site Characterization Study....................................................................................................................3
Plants.................................................................................................................................................7
Animals.............................................................................................................................................7
Bird Movement and Nesting Surveys....................................................................................................7
Data Collection.................................................................................................................................9
Data Analysis..................................................................................................................................10
Results..........................................................................................................................................................10
Site Characterization Study..................................................................................................................10
Plants...............................................................................................................................................10
Wildlife...........................................................................................................................................12
Field Studies: 2013...............................................................................................................................23
Bird Movement Study.....................................................................................................................23
Nesting Survey................................................................................................................................49
Discussion....................................................................................................................................................49
Site Characterization Study..................................................................................................................49
Field Studies.........................................................................................................................................55
Site Comparisons .................................................................................................................................56
Conclusions..................................................................................................................................................56
Literature Cited............................................................................................................................................57
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Map of proposed locations and corresponding ecoregions for community-scale
wind projects in Point Hope, Point Lay, and Wainwright, Alaska...........................................2
Figure 2. General wetland types and field sample plot locations within 1-mi buffer areas
surrounding alternative wind-tower sites at Point Hope, Alaska, 2012 ...................................4
Figure 3. General wetland types and field sample plot locations within 1-mi buffer areas
surrounding alternative wind-tower sites at Point Lay, Alaska, 2012......................................5
Figure 4. General wetland types and field sample plot locations within 1-mi buffer areas
surrounding alternative wind-tower sites at Wainwright, Alaska, 2012 ..................................6
Figure 5. Movement rate for waterfowl and cranes at 3 proposed wind-turbine sites in
northwestern Alaska during spring 2013................................................................................29
Figure 6. Movement rate for seabirds at 3 proposed wind-turbine sites in northwestern Alaska
during spring 2013..................................................................................................................30
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study iv
Figure 7. Movement rate for raptors, shorebirds, and passerines at 3 proposed wind-turbine
sites in northwestern Alaska during spring 2013....................................................................31
Figure 8. Mean daily movement rates (birds/h) at 3 proposed wind-turbine sites in northwestern
Alaska during spring 2013......................................................................................................32
Figure 9. Movement rate for waterfowl and cranes at 2 proposed wind-turbine sites in
northwestern Alaska during fall 2013.....................................................................................36
Figure 10. Movement rate for seabirds at 2 proposed wind-turbine sites in northwestern Alaska
during fall 2013.......................................................................................................................37
Figure 11. Movement rate for raptors, shorebirds, and passerines at 2 proposed wind-turbine
sites in northwestern Alaska during fall 2013........................................................................38
Figure 12. Mean daily movement rates at 2 proposed wind-turbine sites in northwestern Alaska
during fall 2012.......................................................................................................................51
Figure 13. Locations of bird nests near 3 proposed wind-turbine sites in northwestern
Alaska, 2013...........................................................................................................................52
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Acreage of generalized wetland types derived from the NWI wetland mapping layer
for 3 proposed wind-turbine sites along the Chukchi Sea coast, Alaska..................................8
Table 2. Sampling effort summary for bird movement studies at 3 proposed wind-turbine sites
along the Chukchi Sea coast, Alaska, during spring and fall 2013..........................................9
Table 3. Listing of documented collections of rare and sensitive plant species along a 1-mi
corridor of the Chukchi Sea coast from Point Hope to Wainwright, Alaska .........................12
Table 4. Federal- and state-recognized bird species of special concern in Alaska...............................13
Table 5. Federal- and state-recognized mammal species of special concern in Alaska.......................15
Table 6. Incidental wildlife observations at Point Hope, Point Lay, and Wainwright, Alaska,
20–23 August 2012.................................................................................................................17
Table 7. Locations of Spectacled Eiders from weekly satellite-telemetry data collected by the
U.S. Geological Survey, 2009–2010......................................................................................20
Table 8. Overall flight-height characteristics and percentage of avian species observed flying
within 1,000 m of survey points during movement studies at a proposed wind-turbine
site in Point Hope, Alaska, during spring 2013......................................................................24
Table 9. Flight behavior of bird flocks observed at a proposed wind-turbine site at Point Hope,
Alaska, during spring and fall 2013........................................................................................26
Table 10. Overall flight height characteristics and percentage of avian species observed flying
within 1,000 m of survey points during movement studies at a proposed wind turbine
site in Point Hope, Alaska, during fall, 2013..........................................................................34
Table 11. Overall flight height characteristics and percentage of avian species observed flying
within 1,000 m of survey points during movement studies at a proposed wind turbine
site in Point Lay, Alaska, during spring, 2013 .......................................................................39
Table 12. Percentage of groups in each behavior category at a proposed wind turbine site in
Point Lay, Alaska, during spring, 2013..................................................................................42
v Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
Table 13. Overall flight height characteristics and percentage of avian species observed flying
within 1,000 m of survey points during point count surveys at a proposed wind turbine
site in Wainwright, Alaska, during spring, 2013....................................................................44
Table 14. Flight behavior for flocks observed at a proposed wind turbine site during spring and
fall 2013 in Wainwright, Alaska.............................................................................................46
Table 15. Overall flight height characteristics and percentage of avian species observed flying
within 1,000 m of survey points during movement studies at a proposed wind turbine
site in Wainwright, Alaska, during fall, 2013.........................................................................50
Table 16. Likelihood of being affected by project activities for the focal species at Point Hope,
Point Lay, and Wainwright, AK.............................................................................................53
Table 17. Proposed sampling periods for focal species at Point Hope, Point Lay, and Wainwright,
Alaska, 2013...........................................................................................................................54
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Plot photos and corresponding general wetland types for locations visited at 3
proposed wind-turbine sites in northwestern Alaska, 20–23 August 2012 ....................63
Appendix 2. Common and scientific names of bird species recorded at study-sites and
species-groups used in this report...................................................................................70
Appendix 3. Definitions for federal- and Alaska state-listed species. Definitions derived
from the Endangered Species Act of 1973 and the State of Alaska, Department
of Fish and Game............................................................................................................72
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was funded by the North Slope Borough, Alaska, through a grant received from the
Alaska Energy Authority. In Wainwright, we thank the Olgoonik Corporation for assistance with housing
and equipment needs. In Point Hope we thank Steve Oomittuk, John Long, David Kirk, Grace Kirk, Molly
Omnik, Joe Casados, Marie Casados, Phyllis Frankson, Bessie Kuwanna, and Ron File for local logistics
and information. In Point Lay we thank the staff at Cully Beluga Camp. We also thank the Department of
Public Works and Richard San Jose and Todd Sformo for their input. At ABR, Thomas DeLong provided
contract support, Tony LaCortiglia provided help with project preparation and logistical support, and
Pamela Odom assisted with travel and report production. We also thank Robert Day for comments on
earlier drafts of this report. Pam Seiser and Alice Stickney assisted with data collection.
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study vi
Introduction
1 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
INTRODUCTION
The North Slope Borough (NSB) is proposing
to construct community-scale wind power facilities
in 3 Alaska villages: Point Hope, Point Lay, and
Wainwright. In 2010, WHPacific conducted
feasibility assessments in each of the villages with
assistance from the local city, tribal, and
corporation representatives and identified as
possible locations for wind turbines 2 sites in each
village that met criteria for wind resources,
geotechnical characteristics, and land ownership.
As the project moved into the permitting phase,
ABR, Inc.—Environmental Research & Services
(ABR) was hired to conduct a review and
assessment of habitat and wildlife issues for
each site.
ABR followed the guidelines on Tier 2 Site
Characterization Studies (SCS; USFWS 2012a) for
the initial phase of this project. These guidelines
are designed to help identify potential sites where
wind-energy development would be appropriate.
This is accomplished by identifying key biological
resources on the proposed project sites, assessing
their risk of exposure to wind turbines (based on
the scientific literature), and identifying studies
needed to fill in gaps in the available information.
ABR accomplished this objective in 2012 and
submitted a progress report on 6 September 2012
to the NSB Department of Public Works. We met
with representatives from the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (USFWS) and the NSB to discuss
results of the analyses on 15 October 2012. All
parties agreed to focus 2013 field studies on the
“focal species” identified in the draft report and
agreed that only 1 site from each village would be
considered for field studies in 2013. This final
report combines both the draft SCS and the 2013
field surveys to evaluate how wind-energy
development may affect the focal species at the 3
main proposed project sites.
The objectives of the SCS study were to: (1)
compile and review existing landcover map
products to prepare generalized landcover maps;
(2) characterize the biological resources present;
(3) summarize the potential exposure of biological
(particularly avian) resources to impacts; and (4)
identify field studies to identify site-specific risks
to biological resources (particularly birds). The
objectives of the field studies conducted in 2013
were to: (1) describe temporal and spatial patterns
of habitat use of all birds within and near proposed
wind-sites; and (2) provide a summary of the
exposure of focal species to collision risk at each
proposed site. This final report summarizes the
SCS and field data to describe the relative exposure
of the focal species to the proposed wind-energy
development at the 3 villages.
STUDY AREA
The proposed projects are located along the
Chukchi Sea coast of northwestern Alaska (Figure
1), at the intersection between coastal and
terrestrial lowland ecoregions (Jorgenson and
Grundblatt 2013). The village of Point Hope is
located on a barren coastal spit within the Southern
Chukchi Coast ecoregion. Both Point Lay and
Wainwright are located in the Northern Chukchi
Coast ecoregion and are located adjacent to the
Beaufort Sea Coast ecoregion (Figure 1). Typical
substrates in the coastal zone are composed of
well-drained sands and gravels that are subject to
tidal salt-water fluctuations.
Terrestrial systems outside of the zone of
coastal influence are typical of arctic peaty
lowlands in which soils are poorly drained,
permafrost lies near the surface, and vegetation
varies from dry dwarf-shrub tundra to moist
tussock tundra, wet-sedge meadows, and
drained-lake basins. Riverine processes also are
drivers of landscape features at all 3 project sites:
the Kukpuk River empties into the tidally
influenced Marryat Inlet at Point Hope, Point Lay
is located near the mouth of the Kokolik River,
and Wainwright is located on Kuk River
Lagoon, which is a tidally influenced estuary
extending inland. The climate is arctic, with
average minimum temperatures ranging from
approximately –30° C (–22° F) in the winter to +1°
C (33° F) in the summer. Precipitation is light,
averaging only 13–26 cm (5–10 in) of water
equivalent annually but may vary locally along the
Chukchi coast (Gallant et. al. 1995).
POINT HOPE
Point Hope is located in the Chukchi Sea near
the tip of Point Hope (Tikeraq) peninsula, which is
a large gravel spit that forms the westernmost
extension of northwestern Alaska. Point Hope
Study Area
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 2 Figure 1. Map of proposed locations and corresponding ecoregions for community-scale wind projects in Point Hope, Point Lay, andWainwright, Alaska.
Methods
3 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
peninsula is one of the oldest continuously
occupied Iñupiat settlements in Alaska and has a
population of 674 residents (2010 census). The
North Slope Borough provides all utilities in Point
Hope. Subsistence activities include the
hunting/gathering of seals, bowheads, belugas,
caribou, polar bears, birds, fish, and berries
(Alaska Community Database Community
Information Summaries [CIS]). Site descriptions
for all locations (below) are from recent
wind–diesel feasibility studies at the respective
locations (Vaught 2011a, 2011b, 2011c).
Site A is located 4 km (2.5 mi) east of the
village at Jabbertown and is large enough to
accommodate several wind turbines (Figure 2).
Site B is located 1 km (0.6 mi) west of the village,
midway between the village and the active airstrip;
it also is large enough to accommodate several
wind turbines (Figure 2).
POINT LAY
Point Lay is located just south of the mouth of
the Kokolik River, ~300 km (~190 mi) southwest
of Barrow. Point Lay is one of the more recently
established Iñupiat villages on the Arctic coast
and has a population of 189 residents. The North
Slope Borough provides all utilities in Point
Lay. Subsistence activities include the hunting/
gathering of seals, walruses, belugas, caribou, and
fish (Alaska Community Database CIS).
Site A is located on a fairly low, north–south
oriented hill of dry tundra immediately north of the
village and immediately south of the mouth of the
Kokolik River (Figure 3). This site is large enough
for several wind turbines. Site B is located in a
well-exposed area south of the village, between the
village and the airport (Figure 3). The site is
constrained by roads and the airport, both of which
may restrict the option of future wind-power
expansion at this site.
WAINWRIGHT
Wainwright is located on the Chukchi Sea
coast, ~5 km (3 mi) northeast of the Kuk River
Lagoon (also known as Wainwright Inlet). It is one
of the older, more established villages on the North
Slope and has a population of 556 residents who
primarily are Iñupiat. The North Slope Borough
provides all utilities in Wainwright. Subsistence
activities include the hunting/gathering of
bowheads, belugas, seals, walruses, caribou,
polar bears, birds, and fish (Alaska Community
Database CIS).
Site A is a fairly dry location immediately
northeast of the village and just beyond the
protective snow fences on Wainwright’s northern
side (Figure 4). It appears to have space for several
wind turbines, although its proximity (~1 km [0.6
mi]) to the airstrip should be evaluated carefully
for flight hazards. Site B is located 2.4 km (1.5 mi)
northeast of Wainwright on a raised ridgeline
immediately east of the sewage settling pond
(Figure 4). It appears to have space for several
wind turbines, although its proximity (2 km [1.2
mi]) to the airstrip also should be evaluated
carefully for flight hazards.
METHODS
SITE CHARACTERIZATION STUDY
In 2012, we characterized the biological
resources within the 3 project areas by reviewing
the existing literature and landcover and wetlands
maps; consulting borough, state, and federal
agency staff; and conducting on-site visits of the
proposed project sites. We relied on several sources
of available data, including published literature,
unpublished reports, and web-based sources. All
sources used to complete this report are included as
references.
ABR corresponded with Jewel Bennett of the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Fairbanks, AK) via
email on 11 September 2012 about the project
objectives and potential field studies on species of
concern. Representatives of ABR (Adrian Gall)
and NSB (Price Leavitt) met with those of the
USFWS (Jewel Bennet, Megan Boldenow, Louise
Smith, and Neesha Stellrecht) on 15 October 2012
to discuss proposed field studies of bird
movements and nesting. A study plan detailing
bird movement and nest surveys then was
submitted to the NSB (Price Leavitt and Todd
Sformo) and USFWS (Jewel Bennet, Megan
Boldenow, Louise Smith, Neesha Stellrecht, and
Ted Swem) for comment on 14 March 2013. The
field studies conducted during May–October 2013
followed that revised study plan.
Methods
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 4 Figure 2. General wetland types and field sample plot locations within 1-mi buffer areas surrounding alternative wind-tower sites at Point Hope, Alaska, 2012.
Methods
5 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
Figure 3. General wetland types and field sample plot locations within 1-mi buffer areas surrounding
alternative wind-tower sites at Point Lay, Alaska, 2012.
Methods
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 6
Figure 4. General wetland types and field sample plot locations within 1-mi buffer areas surrounding
alternative wind-tower sites at Wainwright, Alaska, 2012.
Methods
7 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
ABR wildlife biologist Adrian Gall and
habitat biologist Wendy Davis conducted initial
site visits to the 3 villages on 20–23 Aug 2012.
They recorded the vegetation, soil, and wildlife
species while walking through study areas within a
1.6-km (1-mi) radius of each site being considered
for wind-energy development. This distance
includes much of the area that is important to
consider for construction and operations permitting
and is similar to study areas used at other
wind-sites around Alaska (e.g., Gambell [Day et al.
2002], St. Michael Island [Gall and Day 2007a],
and Eva Creek [Shook et al. 2011]).
At each village, we also met with
representatives of the city government to present
field maps of each of the study sites and requested
input on wildlife issues related to the site
selections. We also encouraged them to contact
NSB Department of Public Works with any further
questions or to request more information about the
project. The NSB conducted additional community
outreach in April 2013 to describe the project and
receive input.
PLANTS
Landcover mapping and ground-truthing
For landcover assessments in the initial site
characterization field work, we collected basic
information on the vegetative cover of dominant
plant species, landscape position, and drainage at
various sites within the 2 proposed wind-site
locations at each village. Field-site photos and
general landcover categories (wetland types) are
presented in Appendix 1. Field-assessment points
were selected based on the existing National
Wetland Inventory (NWI) mapping overlaid on
publicly available web-based digital imagery. The
NWI maps that we used originally were produced
by the USFWS in 1992 but were updated to
digital format in 2009 (USFWS 2012b). The maps
are at a scale of 1:64,000 and portray wetland
classifications following the system developed by
Cowardin et al. (1979). For this project we used
high-resolution (2.5-m pixel resolution) pseudo-
natural-color satellite imagery (SPOT 5) obtained
from the Alaska Mapped website (GINA 2012).
We corrected any obvious boundary deviations due
to aerial-photo rectification errors, then developed
a set of general wetland types using information
collected during the field survey and the wetland-
map attributes. Correspondence of general wetland
types with NWI coding is shown in Table 1. The
general wetland types were presented within a 1-mi
radius for each alternative site to characterize
landcover types at the site accurately. Wetland
types were used for the site characterization
because they may be used directly as wetland maps
if required for future Section 404 permitting
activities; alternatively, they can be converted to
wildlife habitat types, if desired.
Rare-plant Literature Search
Few resources are available in Alaska to
characterize and locate rare-plant populations
along the Chukchi Sea coast. We developed a list
of species with the potential to occur at the
proposed wind sites by: (1) requesting specimen
collection information from the Alaska Natural
Heritage Program (AKNHP) BIOTICS program
for a specific range surrounding the wind-sites; and
(2) reviewing available literature on rare plant
surveys done in the area or on the North Slope.
ANIMALS
Birds
During the initial site visit in 2012, we
recorded all bird species (see Appendix 2 for
scientific names of birds referenced in this report)
observed and periodically took photographs
(Appendix 1) to document representative features
of each area. For a rapid bird inventory, we
conducted 5-min scans of each waterbody that lay
entirely within the study area. For the marine coast,
we scanned for birds within 300 m (~0.20 mi) of
shore for 5 min to get maximal counts. We also
recorded anecdotal information on all species seen
in terrestrial habitat while walking among the
waterbodies. We emphasize that our list of
observed species is incomplete because of the brief
duration of our initial visit.
BIRD MOVEMENT AND NESTING
SURVEYS
Based on initial site visits and discussions
with the USFWS, we conducted bird movement
studies at all 3 villages during spring migration and
the early breeding season in 2013. In addition, we
conducted bird movement studies during fall
Methods
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 8
Table 1. Acreage of generalized wetland types derived from the NWI wetland mapping layer (USFWS
2012) for 3 proposed wind-turbine sites along the Chukchi Sea coast, Alaska.
Methods
9 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
migration at Point Hope and Wainwright. Point
Hope and Wainwright were considered priority
sites for risk assessment during both migration
periods because of their locations on the Chukchi
Sea coast itself (Point Lay is located within a
lagoon and, hence, is not on the coast). Our
research objectives were to: (1) describe temporal
and spatial patterns of habitat use of all birds
within and near proposed wind-sites; and (2)
quantify the number of federal- and/or state-
designated threatened and endangered species
nesting within 1.6 km (1 mi) of proposed
wind-sites.
We studied bird movement within a 1-km
(0.6-mi) radius around proposed wind-sites and
conducted nest searches within a 1.6-km (1-mi)
radius around proposed wind-sites (Figures 2–4).
We focused movement studies on 2 migration
periods in 2013: spring for all three villages, and
fall for Point Hope and Wainwright (Table 2). The
proposed wind-site for Point Lay is located farther
inland than the sites at Point Hope and Wainwright,
making local movements of birds during breeding
activities a greater concern than during migration
at Point Lay. We focused our movement study to
include both spring migration and breeding at all 3
villages and conducted movement studies only at
Point Hope and Wainwright in the fall.
DATA COLLECTION
Diurnal Bird Movements
At Point Hope, we selected 2 observations
sites prior to field work: 1 at the proposed turbine
location and 1 along the proposed powerline
corridor (Figure 2). When conditions were
unsuitable at predetermined observation sites (e.g.,
heavy snow, polar bear activity), we sampled from
a third site that provided a safe and accessible view
of the study area. At Point Lay and Wainwright, we
established single observation sites that permitted a
clear view of the respective proposed wind-site
(Figures 3 and 4). Weather permitting, we sampled
each study area for 8 h/day. We did not conduct
observations when wind, rain, or fog obscured our
ability to see or identify birds up to 200 m (~660 ft)
away. Observations were conducted in 25-min
sessions, with 5-min breaks between them to
collect weather information prior to beginning the
session. We sampled throughout the period of
daylight from 0400 to 0000 in the spring and from
0630 to 2130 in the fall.
For each observation session, we recorded
wind speed (km/h) and direction (° True),
precipitation (e.g., none, light rain, light snow,
fog), air temperature (° C), and light conditions
(i.e., daylight, twilight, night). During each
observation session, we continuously mapped the
flight path of all birds observed within the study
area. For each observation, we recorded the time of
day, species, group size, minimal and maximal
flight altitudes (m above ground level [agl]), and
flight behavior. Flight behaviors included circling,
display or erratic flights, foraging or hunting
flights, kettling or soaring, landing or taking off,
local flights (i.e., short movements within a
breeding area or home range), and straight-line
flights. Minimal flight altitudes for flights that
included take-offs or landings were recorded as
0 m. We entered flight paths directly into the
program ArcPad (ESRI, Redlands, CA) running on
a portable tablet or laptop and used aerial imagery
to facilitate accurate mapping of all flight paths.
Table 2. Sampling effort summary for bird movement studies at 3 proposed wind-turbine sites along
the Chukchi Sea coast, Alaska, during spring and fall 2013.
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 10
Nest-searching
We conducted nest searches for endangered
Spectacled and Steller’s eiders in suitable nesting
habitat within 1.6 km (1 mi) of the proposed
wind-sites. Suitable nesting habitat was identified
from recent (2009–2013) SPOT 5 satelite imagery
(Figures 2–4) of the study site and was validated on
the ground prior to conducting nest searches. Areas
of suitable habitat consisted of fresh graminoid
marsh, wet sedge-meadow tundra, salt marshes,
ponds, and lakes. Some areas identified as suitable
nesting habitat in aerial photos had been altered
after photos were taken and no longer contained
suitable nesting habitat.
When conducting nest searches, 1–2
observers walked parallel transects spaced 6–10 m
apart and scanned the area on either side of the
transect for nests or birds (following Seiser and
Johnson 2012). Transects deviated around
waterbodies, with the entire shorelines of
waterbodies being searched. We recorded the
locations of all nests found, even though our search
efforts were designed to locate eiders. When
possible, we attempted to locate nests without
flushing the sitting adult. If a bird flushed during
the initial detection, we approached the nests
closely and recorded contents of the nest, then left
the area quickly to minimize disturbance.
DATA ANALYSIS
We summarized the bird movement data with
methods and descriptive statistics similar to those
used in previous studies (e.g., Day et al. 2007, Gall
and Day 2007, Boisvert and Sanzenbacher 2011,
Shook et al. 2011). For each location and season,
we calculated the total number of flocks recorded,
the total number of individuals, the percentage of
observed individuals that were recorded in flight,
and the percentage of individuals flying below,
within, and above the proposed RSA. Three
models of wind turbines are currently being
considered for this project: Aeronautics 255–30
(RSA = 16–46 m agl); Northern NPS (RSA =
27–46 m agl); EWT (RSA = 48–102 m agl). We
also summarized flight behaviors for each species
and calculated the movement rate (birds/h) for each
site as the mean ± SE birds/h for each day.
To describe the spatial distribution of flights,
we used GIS software (ESRI, Redlands, CA) to
overlay a grid of 60-m x 60-m cells on a map of
each site. For each grid cell, we calculated the
mean flight movement rate (birds/h) for 3 broad
taxonomic groups: waterfowl (geese, ducks, and
loons); seabirds (gulls, jaegers, and murres); and
others (raptors, shorebirds, and passerines).
Shorebirds and passerines were included in a single
group because we had few observations and flight
behaviors were similar between the 2 taxa. Raptors
also were lumped with passerines and shorebirds
because we had very few observations within this
taxonomic group.
Based on flight paths mapped in the field, we
also calculated the orientation of each flight path.
Orientation was then binned into 20° intervals and
is presented with rosettes generated in program R
with the analysis package Plotrix (Lemon 2006).
RESULTS
SITE CHARACTERIZATION STUDY
PLANTS
Point Hope
Point Hope Site A is located on the spit east of
the town-site and consists primarily of marine and
estuarine waters together accounting for 73% of
the study area (Table 1). The eastern portion of Site
A has some freshwater wetland types more typical
of common North Slope landcover. Moist
sedge-shrub tundra surrounds the 2 lake basins
(Figure 2), and low-lying wet-sedge meadows are
characterized by high-center polygons and thick
moist organic layers supporting a variety of
ericaceous and broadleaf deciduous low shrubs.
The most common landcover types at Point
Hope Site B are uplands (46% of the study area)
and marine waters (41% of the study area; Table 1,
Figure 2). Uplands at this site are composed
primarily of dry active beaches (exposed to daily
tidal fluctuations) and partially vegetated
abandoned beach ridges covered by a variety of
dwarf shrubs and prostrate herbs commonly found
in dry arctic and alpine locations. The townsite of
Point Hope and associated human development
accounts for the uplands in the study area. The
remaining portions of the study area are occupied
by estuarine waters (7% of the study area) of the
Marryat Lagoon and associated intertidal barrens
that are the active beaches (4% of the study area).
Wetland types that individually account for 1% or
Results
11 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
less of the study area include, naturally occurring
salt marshes, wet sedge-meadow tundra, and moist
sedge-shrub tundra.
Point Lay
Estuarine waters of Kasegaluk Lagoon and its
associated intertidal barrens are the most
commonly occurring landcover types at Site A in
Point Lay; they collectively account for 59% of the
study area (Figure 3, Table 1). Moist sedge-shrub
tundra and wet sedge-meadow tundra combined
account for 36% of the study area and have plant
species-composition similar to wetlands found
throughout the North Slope. At Point Lay, the
moist sedge-shrub tundra generally is composed of
tussock communities supporting Eriophorum
vaginatum and low shrubs including Cassiope
tetragona,Salix pulchra, and Vaccinium vitis-idaea
with drier hydrology, whereas the wet sedge-
meadow tundra ranges towards semi-permanently
flooded hydrological regimes with obligate sedges
such as Carex aquatilis and Eriophorum
angustifolium. A small section of salt marsh (2% of
the study area) was mapped within a basin feature
known as Dry Lake. The previous NWI mapping
and an obvious surface water connection to the salt
water estuary drove the salt marsh classification of
Dry Lake but field observations revealed that the
area was dominated by freshwater sedges (Carex
aquatilis and Eriophorum angustifolium) and
grasses (Arctophila fulva). Dry Lake most likely
receives salt water input on a seasonal basis due to
storm surge events. Uplands account for only 3%
of the study area and are composed primarily of
artificially filled surfaces (imported sands and
gravel for roads and building pads) within the Point
Lay town-site.
The two study areas at Point Lay overlap
substantially, and the proportions of wetland
habitats are similar (Table 1). Site B does not
include the riverine system north of the village and
extends farther south beyond the airstrip towards a
drained-lake basin complex (Figure 3). The ratio of
wet sedge-meadow tundra to moist sedge-shrub
tundra is reversed from Site A, with wet
sedge-meadow tundra accounting for 26% and
moist sedge-shrub tundra accounting for 14% of
the study area. The drained-lake basins southeast
of the airport are low-lying, poorly drained
surfaces, whereas the terrain is more rolling north
of the Point Lay town-site. None of the
waterbodies at Site B have visible surface water
connections to the estuary; not surprisingly, only
trace amounts of salt marsh were mapped at that
site. The Site B study area encompasses the
majority of the town-site, which was designated as
uplands as in Site A.
Wainwright
The most commonly occurring landcover type
at Wainwright Site A is marine waters (39% of the
study area; Table 1). Estuarine waters near
Wainwright are found in Kuk River Lagoon, which
is a large tidally influenced riverine outlet south of
the town-site and that intersects with the study area
only in 2 small spots that together account for less
than 1% of the study area (Figure 4). Terrestrial
portions of the study area are composed primarily
of moist sedge-shrub tundra and wet sedge-
meadow tundra that together account for 50% of
the study area. The terrain surrounding Wainwright
is composed primarily of drained-lake basins
surrounded by low-relief rolling tundra. The
low-lying drained-lake basins consist primarily of
wet sedge-meadow tundra interspersed with small
ponds and fresh graminoid marshes. The higher
topographic features on the landscape support
moist sedge-shrub tundra with a variety of low and
dwarf shrubs, including C. tetragona,V. vitis-
idaea,Rubus chameamorus, and Salix pulchra.
Most of the Wainwright town-site falls within the
Site A study area; the town-site is designated as
uplands (7% of the study area) and consists of dry
gravel fill and urban development. Sites A and B
overlap considerably at this village location, and
the wetland habitat characteristics are similar
between both areas. Site B does not include the
town-site or the airstrip but does include the road to
the dump and the dump itself.
Rare plants
No threatened or endangered plant species are
endemic to the Chukchi Sea coast. The Alaska
Natural Heritage Program (AKNPH) and the U.S.
Bureau of Land Management (BLM) track records
of rare plant species throughout the state of Alaska;
both organizations provided state rankings for
individual plant species in relation to their rarity
and sensitivity (AKNHP 2014). The AKNHP also
maintains the BIOTICS database that stores data
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 12
on collection locations of rare plants throughout
the state; this database can be queried for specific
geographic locations. The Rare Vascular Plant List
(AKNHP 2014) currently has 316 taxa that include
BLM “Sensitive” and “Watch” species. To narrow
the list of potential rare species within the 3 study
areas, we requested a spatial dataset of rare plant
species from a 1.6-km (1-mi) corridor along the
coast from Point Hope to Wainwright from the
AKNHP BIOTICS database. At the time of this
analysis the BIOTICS database records were not
available to be queried online so we worked
directly with AKNHP personnel in the fall 2012 to
obtain information on collection locations. Of the
316 taxa on the Rare Vascular Plant List, 9 taxa
with state rankings ranging from S1 (critically
imperiled) to S4 (apparently secure in the state but
with cause for long-term concern) have been
collected within the coastal corridor; 6 of these 9
taxa are on the recently updated BLM sensitive
plant list (Table 3).
The collection records from the BIOTICS
database were scattered along the coast. Saxifraga
rivularis (S2), Ranunculus turneri ssp. turneri
(S2), and Papaver gorodkovii (S2S3) all were
found on the Point Hope Peninsula, whereas the
remaining records were from the Lisburne Hills
area, Cape Beaufort, and Icy Cape. No records of
these species were found in the immediate vicinity
of Point Lay or Wainwright. The low number of
collection records obtained from the broad
Chukchi Sea coast area highlights a lack of
targeted studies, rather than a lack of rare plants in
the area (Cortes-Burns et al. 2009).
WILDLIFE
Several federally listed wildlife species occur
along the Arctic Coastal Plain (ACP); lists of these
and other species of concern and their conservation
status are maintained by USFWS and the Alaska
Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G; Tables 4
and 5, Appendix 3). The USFWS land-based wind-
energy guidelines (USFWS 2012a) recommend
Table 3. Listing of documented collections of rare and sensitive plant species along a 1-mi corridor of
the Chukchi Sea coast from Point Hope to Wainwright, Alaska.
Cardamine blaisdellii
Koeleria asiatica
Oxygraphis glacialis
Papaver gorodkovii
Puccinellia wrightii
wrightii
Ranunculus turneri .
turneri
Rumex krausei
Saxifraga rivularis
arctolitoralis
Smelowskia johnsonii
Results
13 Site Characterization and Avian Field StudyTable 4. Federal- and state-recognized bird species of special concern in Alaska.Chen canagica Branta hutchinsii leucopareia B. canadensis occidentalis Cygnus buccinator Polysticta stelleri Somateria fischeri Gavia stellata G. adamsii Phoebastria albatrus Aquila chrysaetos Numenius borealis N. phaeopus N. tahitiensis Limosa haemastica L. lapponica Calidris canutus roselaari C. alpina arcticola C. ptilocnemis tschuktschorum Tryngites subruficollis Sterna paradisaea Brachyramphus marmoratus B. brevirostris Asio flammeus Falco peregrinus anatum F. peregrinus tundrius Contopus cooperi Catharus minimus Calcarius pictus Plectrophenax hyperboreus Setophaga striata
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 14Table 4. Continued.S. townsendiEuphagus carolinus
Results
15 Site Characterization and Avian Field StudyTable 5. Federal- and state-recognized mammal species of special concern in Alaska.Sorex yukonicus Martes americana kenaiensis Odobenus rosmarus divergens Eumetopias jubatus Eumetopias jubatus Ursus maritimus Spermophilus parryii osgoodi Lepus othus
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 16
compiling lists of species of concern when
developing wind-energy sites in the U.S. This
report focuses on those sensitive species that are
known or suspected to occur in habitats present at
the wind-sites.
Six species of federally listed threatened and
endangered vertebrate species occur in Alaska
(Tables 4 and 5). The polar bear and walrus occur
throughout various coastal locations along the
ACP, but, because no significant adverse effects
are anticipated from the project (Jewel Bennett,
USFWS, pers. comm.), we do not discuss these
species in detail. We discuss below the other 2
threatened species, the 1 candidate species, and the
3 species of conservation concern that may occur
in the project areas. Several wildlife species were
recorded during the initial site-visit (Table 6), and
one species (Spectacled Eider) is listed as
threatened under federal law.
Federally listed species
Steller’s Eider
The ACP, which lies on the North Slope from
the Alaska/Yukon border west to an area southwest
of Point Lay, is an area of great significance to
North American ducks, geese, and swans
(NAWMP 2012). One important species of
waterfowl that nests in this region is the Steller’s
Eider, a seaduck that was federally listed as
threatened in Alaska in 1997 (USFWS 1997).
Steller’s Eiders spend most of the year in shallow,
nearshore marine waters where they feed by diving
and dabbling for mollusks and crustaceans
(USFWS 1997). In the spring, large numbers
concentrate in Bristol Bay during migration; in
1992, an estimated 138,000 Steller’s Eiders
congregated before sea-ice conditions allowed
movement northward (USFWS 1997). In the
northern Gulf of Alaska migration northward to the
breeding grounds begins in late April. Somateria
eiders migrate side-by-side in long lines only a few
feet above the water and generally travel along
coastlines or follow open leads in the ice.
During the breeding season, Steller’s Eiders
move inland from coastal areas to nest adjacent to
shallow ponds or within drained-lake basins
(USFWS 1997, Schick et al 2004). They reach
nesting sites in the arctic tundra in late May to
early June. Their breeding range has contracted in
recent decades in the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta,
other areas in western Alaska, parts of the central
North Slope, and historically used areas of the
eastern North Slope (Quakenbush et al. 2002).
Their current breeding distribution encompasses
the region from Wainwright to Prudhoe Bay and up
to 90 km (56 mi) inland (USFWS 1997,
Obritschkewitsch and Ritchie 2013).
Steller’s Eiders are considered rare near
Wainwright, and none have been found nesting
there for several years (USFWS 1997, Schick et al.
2004). Based on aerial surveys, breeding pairs on
the ACP occur primarily near Barrow (Rojek 2008,
Obritschkewitsch and Ritchie 2013). Since 1986,
the USFWS has conducted annual aerial surveys of
the ACP, although methods have changed slightly.
During 1986–2006, surveys were flown in late
June over the entire ACP. In 2007, surveys were
changed to combine the original ACP survey area
with the timing of North Slope Eider breeding-bird
surveys (sampled 1992–2006), resulting in the
current ACP survey flown in early June, when
male eiders are still present on the breeding
grounds. Mean breeding population estimates for
Steller’s Eiders from the original ACP survey (742
breeding pairs; 1986–2006), the ACP survey
averages (102 breeding pairs; 2007–2010), and the
current ACP survey (0 breeding pairs) show a
decline throughout this region (Larned et al. 2011).
Intensive aerial surveys conducted annually from
1999 to 2012 indicate that the number of Steller’s
Eiders present within the primary ACP breeding
area near Barrow fluctuates annually, with surveys
in 2012 recording a higher-than-normal number of
Steller’s Eiders (156 individuals; Obritschkewitsch
and Ritchie 2013). Males leave breeding areas in
early July to travel to marine molting areas (ADFG
2012a); after the nesting season, females also
return to marine molting areas (USFWS 1997).
The females remain on the breeding grounds until
the chicks fledge, then travel to molting areas or
directly to wintering grounds farther south.
Spectacled Eider
Spectacled Eiders are seaducks that spend
8–10 months/year in the Bering and Chukchi seas
(USFWS 1993), where they feed primarily on
bottom-dwelling mollusks and crustaceans
(Lovvorn et al. 2003). The largest breeding
population in North America occurs on the North
Slope north of 70° N between Icy Cape and the
Results
17 Site Characterization and Avian Field StudyTable 6. Incidental wildlife (bird and mammal) observations at Point Hope, Point Lay, and Wainwright, Alaska, 20–23 August 2012.Gavia pacifica Aythya marila A. marila A. marila Somateria mollissima LarusUria aalge Rissa tridactyla Oenanthe oenanthe Spermophilus parryii Clangula hyemalis O. oenanthe Cygnus columbianus Gavia stellata G. pacifica Grus canadensis Limnodromus scolopaceus Bubo scandiacus Lagopus lagopus Gavia pacifica Bubo scandiacus
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 18Table 6. Continued.Gavia stellata G. pacifica Somateria mollissima Larus hyperboreus Anser albifrons Cygnus columbianus Anas crecca A. acuta Somateria fischeri Clangula hyemalis Gavia stellata G. pacifica Limnodromus scolopaceus
Results
19 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
Shaviovik River, with most occurring between
Cape Simpson and the Sagavanirktok River
(USFWS 2001). There are historical records of
Spectacled Eiders nesting near Point Hope (Bailey
et al. 1933, Bailey 1948) and Wainwright (Bailey
et al. 1933). Both Point Hope and Point Lay appear
to be outside of the currentbreeding range of the
Spectacled Eider (USFWS 1996), but they have
been recorded nesting in Wainwright (Schick
et al. 2004). Spectacled Eiders on the North Slope
have been recorded at low densities within about
80 km (50 mi) of the coast, occurring most
commonly on large, shallow, and productive thaw
lakes with convoluted shorelines or small islands
during pre-nesting and the early nesting season
(USFWS 1997).
The USFWS North Slope Eider Survey, which
samples between Point Lay and Kaktovik, was
initiated in 1992. It was timed in early to mid-June
to coincide with the peak presence of adult male
Spectacled and Steller’s eiders on the breeding
grounds and was designed to assess and monitor
the abundance and distribution of these species
(Larned et al. 2011). Moderate nesting densities
of Spectacled Eiders occurred near Wainwright
but densities were zero near Point Lay during
2007–2010 (Larned et al. 2011).
Spectacled Eiders arrive on the breeding
grounds paired and often in small flocks in late
May to early June in arctic portions of their
range (Johnson and Herter 1989). Median
nest-initiation dates for Spectacled Eiders at
Prudhoe Bay from 1993 to 1996 ranged from 7 to
16 June (average 1982–1996 = 15 June; Larned et
al. 2006). Telemetry data suggest that males
depart within about 3 days of that date and that
departure is more synchronized in years in
which arrival occurs later (Johnson and Herter
1989). Most males leave the breeding grounds for
the post-nuptial molt by 20 June ± 1 week (Larned
et al. 2011).
Movements of Spectacled Eiders based on
satellite telemetry (USGS 2009; Table 7) showed
the following annual movement patterns. In early
to mid-April, males and females departed their
wintering grounds and moved northward along the
Russian side of Bering Strait, passing Point Hope
in early May. By late May to early June, eiders
returned to their breeding grounds on the ACP. By
late June to early July, males moved out to the
coast, and, by mid-August to mid-September,
males and females were concentrated in Ledyard
Bay. By early October, males and females passed
Point Hope on their southward migration, and they
passed through Bering Strait by mid-October. Birds
settled into their wintering grounds in the Bering
Sea by late October to early November.
Spectacled Eiders molt in Ledyard Bay
(Chukchi Sea) and Norton Sound (Bering Sea;
USFWS 2001), and Mechigmenskiy Bay, Russia
(ADFG 2012b) where they congregate in large,
dense flocks. The females molt and stage in eastern
Norton Sound if they nested on the Yukon–
Kuskokwim Delta and molt in Ledyard Bay and
Mechigmenskiy Bay, Russia, if they nested on the
North Slope (ADFG 2012b). Ledyard Bay is used
by eiders from late June through mid-October and
is one of the primary molting grounds for female
Spectacled Eiders nesting on the North Slope
(USFWS 2001). Satellite-telemetry data suggest
that male Spectacled Eiders from the North Slope
appear to molt and stage in equal numbers in
Ledyard Bay and the two primary molting areas in
Russia: Mechigmenskiy Bay and off the coasts of
the Indigirka River and Kolyma River deltas.
Aerial surveys in September 1995 found 33,192
Spectacled Eiders in Ledyard Bay concentrated in
a 37-km- (23-mi-) diameter circle, with their
distribution centered ~67 km (42 mi) southwest of
Point Lay and ~41 km ( 25 mi) offshore (USFWS
2001). Spectacled Eiders arrive in eastern Norton
Sound in mid-July and depart in late-October.
During the winter, Spectacled Eiders congregate in
extremely large and dense flocks in openings in the
pack ice between St. Lawrence and St. Matthew
islands in the central Bering Sea (USFWS 2001).
Critical habitat for the Spectacled Eider was
designated in 2001 and includes the Ledyard Bay
Critical Habitat Unit (from Cape Lisburne to Icy
Cape), Norton Sound, the Bering Sea between St.
Lawrence and St. Matthew islands, and part of the
Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta (USFWS 2001).
Candidate species & species of conservation
concern
Yellow-billed Loon and Red-throated Loon
Yellow-billed and Red-throated loons breed
throughout the ACP and currently are of
conservation concern. The Yellow-billed Loon is a
candidate species for listing under the Endangered
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 20Table 7.Locations of Spectacled Eiders from weekly satellite-telemetry data collected by the U.S. Geological Survey, 2009–2010. Available at http://alaska.usgs.gov/science/biology/seaducks/spei/2009_spei_animation.php. Accessed 5 October 2012.
Results
21 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
Species Act because of its restricted range, small
population size (~1,000 nesting pairs in northern
Alaska), specific habitat requirements, and
perceived threats to its breeding and wintering
habitats (Earnst et al. 2005); its listing status is
being reviewed at this time, and a preliminary
decision by the USFWS should have been made
public by 30 September 2013. Within the U.S., this
species breeds almost entirely within the National
Petroleum Reserve—Alaska, with the highest
concentration occurring between the Meade and
Ikpikpuk rivers (Earnst et al. 2005). Yellow-billed
Loons are currently not known to nest near Point
Hope (AKNHP BIOTICS database), and there are
no obvious breeding concentrations near Point
Lay, but they do nest in moderate densities near
Wainwright (Larned et al. 2011, ABR unpublished
data). Adult Yellow-billed Loons have been
recorded in low numbers in Kasegaluk Lagoon
(Johnson et al. 1993) and in large numbers in
Wainwright Inlet during summer (ABR
unpublished data).
The Red-throated Loon is classified as a Bird
of Conservation Concern by the USFWS (2008)
because of declining numbers on the ACP. Mean
estimates of the breeding population in this region
declined over time for the standard ACP survey
(3,240 birds in 1986–2006 to 2,820 in 2007–2009
and to 2,107 in 2010; Larned et al. 2011).
Red-throated Loons are not known to occur near
Point Hope (AKNHP BIOTICS database), but nest
in moderate to high densities near Point Lay and
Wainwright (Bailey 1948, Larned et al. 2011,
Schmutz and Rizzolo 2012; USGS, Anchorage,
AK, unpubl. data).
Yellow-billed Loons migrate between their
summer breeding grounds on the arctic tundra and
their coastal wintering grounds to the south and
east by traveling along the northern coast of
Canada and the northern and northwestern coasts
of Alaska (ADFG 2012c).Yellow-billed and
Red-throated loons are present in the Chukchi Sea
during spring migration from late May through
early June (Schmutz and Rizzolo 2012), usually
arrive at nesting areas near the Beaufort Sea in
early June (Johnson and Herter 1989), and are
present in the Chukchi during fall migration from
late August through late September (Bailey 1948,
Morgan et al. 2011, Schmutz and Rizzolo 2012;
ABR, unpubl. data). Migration of Yellow-billed
Loons peaked at Icy Cape on 14–20 September
(Lehnhausen and Quinlan 1981) and at Wainwright
Inlet in late September (Bailey 1948).
State endangered/threatened species
Two state-listed endangered avian species
occur in the ACP (Table 4), but the lack of suitable
habitat in the project areas makes the probability of
occurrence of these species (Short-tailed Albatross,
Eskimo Curlew) extremely unlikely. In addition,
the Eskimo Curlew has not been recorded in the
state since the late 1800s (Gabrielson and Lincoln
1959) No state-listed threatened species are known
to occur in the ACP.
BLM sensitive species
Nineteen wildlife species considered sensitive
by BLM are reported for the ACP (Tables 4 and 5).
The Yellow-billed Loon was discussed above.
Suitable habitat for Dusky Canada Goose,
Trumpeter Swan, Golden Eagle, Bristle-thighed
Curlew, Bering Sea Rock Sandpiper, Marbled
Murrelet, Olive-sided Flycatcher, McKay’s
Bunting, Blackpoll Warbler, Rusty Blackbird,
American Marten, and Alaska hare does not occur
on the project areas. The remaining 6 species
include Emperor Goose, Red Knot, Kittlitz’s
Murrelet, Short-eared Owl, Alaska tiny shrew, and
Osgood’s arctic ground squirrel. All the above
species have a state rank of S3 (vulnerable) or
lower extinction risk except for the Red Knot
(S2/S3B) and Kittlitz’s Murrelet (S2B/S2N), which
are discussed below.
Red Knot
The Red Knot is a Holarctic breeder, with 3
races distributed in the Nearctic from Greenland to
northern Alaska. The roselaari subspecies nests on
Wrangel Island and in northern Alaska in montane
tundra; its breeding distribution probably is
centered on the Seward Peninsula (R. Gill, USGS,
Anchorage, AK, pers.comm.), but it also nests in
the DeLong Mountains and, rarely, near Point
Barrow (AOU 1998). It arrives in breeding areas
during late May or early June. Little is known
about its distribution in Alaska, and the size of the
breeding population is unknown but probably is
not more than a few thousand birds (AKNHP
2012). The Red Knot is considered a “priority
species” in Bird Conservation Region (BCR) 3
(Arctic Plains and Mountains) during breeding and
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 22
migration in the Alaska Shorebird Conservation
Plan (Alaska Shorebird Group 2008). It also is
designated a “high priority species of high concern
for North America populations” by the U.S.
Shorebird Conservation Plan (USFWS 2004).
Kittlitz’s Murrelet
The Kittlitz’s Murrelet is considered imperiled
by the BLM because of concerns over poor
productivity (Day and Nigro 2004, Kaler et al.
2009) and potential population declines in several
parts of its range (Piatt et al. 2007). In northwestern
Alaska, the Kittlitz’s Murrelet is widely distributed
and occurs during a 7-month period (15 April to at
least 18 October) north of Bering Strait where it
can be fairly common in the Chukchi Sea and
extremely rare in the Beaufort Sea (Day et al.
2011). Their nests have been found in an arc from
the western third of the Seward Peninsula to the
western end of the DeLong Mountains and in the
Lisburne Hills (Day et al. 2011). Hence, nests have
been found near Point Hope but not near Point Lay
or Wainwright. Assuming that known nesting
elevations (160–430 m [525–1,410 ft]) define
usable nesting habitat in that region, the amount of
such habitat in northern Alaska is quite small (Day
et al. 2011).
Kittlitz’s Murrelets occur in the Chukchi Sea
in high numbers during autumn, apparently
reflecting post-breeding movements of birds
northward. Population estimates (450 birds in the
breeding season; 8,500 birds post-breeding) are
imprecise because the species rarely is encountered
at sea in northern Alaska. There is no clear
evidence of population change between historical
(1970–1999) and recent (2000–2009) surveys in
either season (Day et al. 2011).
Other birds
Birds have long been considered indicators of
biological health, and the proactive implementa-
tion of conservation management helps to ensure
the survival of birds and the well-being of the
ecosystems in which they exist. Two conservation
strategies implemented to protect bird diversity are
the classification of Birds of Conservation Concern
(USWFS 2008) and the designation of Important
Bird Areas (IBAs; National Audubon Society
2012). Birds of Conservation Concern are those
species not designated otherwise as endangered or
threatened that, without proactive conservation
actions, are likely to become candidates for listing
under the Endangered Species Act (USFWS 2008).
In Alaska’s BCR3 (Arctic Plains and Mountains),
10 species are listed as warranting conservation
concern; 8 of these 10 species may occur in the
project areas (Table 4).
Although IBAs do not confer regulatory status
or protection to sites, they do help identify sites
that provide essential habitat for breeding,
wintering, and/or migrating birds. There are 2
IBAs in the ACP between Point Hope and
Wainwright. The Cape Lisburne IBA provides
nesting habitat for cliff-nesting seabirds; however,
it is located ~40 km (25 mi) northeast of Point
Hope and, hence, is unlikely to be of concern for
any potential development near Point Hope.
Kasegaluk Lagoon IBA is one of the longest
(>170 km [~105 mi]) lagoon–barrier island
systems in the world and provides staging and
foraging habitat for up to 25,000 shorebirds,
including Red Phalaropes, Red-necked Phalaropes,
Dunlins, Pectoral Sandpipers, Semipalmated
Sandpipers, Black Brant and other waterfowl
(Johnson 1993, Johnson et al 1993). Kasegaluk
Lagoon also is considered an “important location”
in the U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan (USFWS
2004) that is used by over 19 species of shorebirds
during fall migration; up to 68,000 post-breeding
shorebirds (mainly juvenile Semipalmated
Sandpipers, Western Sandpiper, Dunlins, and Red
Phalaropes) occur there between July and
September.
Mammals
Caribou
Four herds of barren-ground caribou inhabit
Alaska north of the Brooks Range. The herds differ
in their use of calving, insect-relief, and winter
ranges (Murphy and Lawhead 2000). The 4 herds
are (proceeding from west to east): the Western
Arctic Herd (WAH), the Teshekpuk Herd (TH), the
Central Arctic Herd (CAH), and the Porcupine
Herd (PH). The Chukchi Sea coast is used by both
the WAH and the TH but lies outside of the normal
ranges of the CAH and PCH.
The WAH is the primary herd that occurs
along the Chukchi Sea coast; it also currently is the
largest herd in Alaska, peaking at an estimated
490,000 animals in July 2003 (Dau 2011). Since
then, the herd has declined by an estimated 4–6%
Results
23 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
per year and was estimated to number about
325,000 animals in July 2011 (ADFG 2012d).
WAH caribou calve in the Utukok Uplands north of
the western Brooks Range, then move into the
Brooks Range and western North Slope during the
insect season; most animals in the herd migrate
south long distances in the fall to winter in western
Alaska (Dau 2009, 2011). Based on data from
satellite-telemetry collars, Wainwright is in an area
considered “outer range” (i.e., an area with
inconsistent or low-density use) for the WAH,
Point Hope is within the summer range for the
WAH, and Point Lay is near the edge of the
summer range of the WAH (Dau 2011). The
Chukchi Sea coast is outside of the main winter
range, but up to 30,000 WAH caribou have
wintered in the Wainwright–Atqasuk–Umiat area
in many years since the mid-1980s (BLM 2003).
Between 1988 and 2011, an average of 3.1% (range
0–10%) of collared WAH caribou wintered in the
northern ACP area including Wainwright, an
average of 0.5% (range 0–9%) wintered in the area
around Point Lay, and an average of 3.6% (range
0–25%) wintered in the area around Point Hope
and the northwestern Brooks Range (Dau 2011).
The TH was estimated at ~55,000 caribou in
July 2011 (L. Parrett, ADF&G, pers. comm.); it
calves near Teshekpuk Lake, ~140 km (~90 mi)
east of Barrow and uses coastal habitats and areas
around Teshekpuk Lake for insect relief (Carroll et
al. 2005, Person et al. 2007, Parrett 2011, Wilson et
al. 2012). The TH often winters on the Arctic
Coastal Plain, but large numbers also winter in the
Brooks Range or near the Seward Peninsula
(western Alaska) in some years (Carroll et al. 2004,
Person et al. 2007, Parrett 2011); large numbers
also occasionally migrate along the Chukchi Sea
coast (Person et al. 2007, Parrett 2011). A large
number of TH caribou have wintered near
Wainwright in some recent years (Parrett 2011,
unpublished data). Although both the WAH and
TH use the Chukchi Sea coast sometimes in the
summer and winter, the largest use of the coast
typically occurs during fall migration or winter.
All three communities rely on subsistence
harvest of caribou. Point Lay harvests an estimated
average of 234 WAH caribou/year and 58 TH
caribou/year, Point Hope harvests an estimated
average of 220 WAH caribou/year and 0 TH
caribou/year, and Wainwright harvests an
estimated average of 278 WAH caribou/year and
417 TH caribou/year (Parrett 2011). There is no
evidence to suggest that caribou would be affected
by these community-scale projects.
FIELD STUDIES: 2013
BIRD MOVEMENT STUDY
We conducted 69 hours of sampling in Point
Hope during 17–29 May 2013 and 69 hours of
sampling during 27 September–10 October 2013
(Table 1). We conducted 72 hours of sampling in
Point Lay, during 1–17 June 2013 but did not
sample there in fall 2013. We conducted 77 hours
of sampling in Wainwright during 2–13 June 2013
and 96 hours of sampling during 26 September–9
October 2013.
Point Hope
Spring
We recorded 33 bird taxa within the study area
during the spring. Glaucous Gulls were the most
abundant taxon recorded within the study area.
They were observed most frequently in small
flocks and primarily flew at altitudes below the
rotor-swept area (RSA) of all 3 possible
wind-turbine models (Table 8). Their flights were
mostly straight-line or local flights (Table 9).
Murres were the second-most-common taxon
recorded and were observed in large flocks. They
frequently flew at altitudes within the RSA of the
Aeronautics 255 and NPS1000 but below the RSA
of the EWT (Table 8). Most (95%) of their flights
were straight-line flights (Table 9). Waterfowl and
cranes were rare within the study area in the spring
(Figure 5). Seabirds commonly traversed the study
area while traveling between waterbodies (Figure
6), whereas raptors and passerines were limited
primarily to local flights within the study area
(Figure 7). The peak mean daily movement rate
during the spring (514 birds/h) occurred on 25 May
(Figure 8).
Of the three federally listed or candidate
species with potential to occur in Point Hope, we
recorded only 1 flock of Spectacled Eiders during
spring sampling. This flock consisted of 11
individuals and was traveling in a northwestern
direction at an altitude below the RSA for all 3
possible turbine models.
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 24Table 8. Overall flight-height characteristics and percentage of avian species observed flying within 1,000 m of survey points during movement studies at a proposed wind-turbine site in Point Hope, Alaska, during spring 2013. Rotor-swept area (RSA) categories represent percentages of individual birds flying at altitudes below (<RSA), within (RSA), and above (>RSA) the RSA for three possible turbine models: Aeronautics 255–30 (RSA 16–46 m agl); Northern NPS1000 (RSA 27–46 m agl); and EWT (RSA 48–102 m agl).
Results
25 Site Characterization and Avian Field StudyTable 8. Continued.
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 26Table 9. Flight behavior of bird flocks observed at a proposed wind-turbine site at Point Hope, Alaska, during spring and fall 2013. The no flight behavior category indicates birds were observed sitting on water or land, foraging along the ground or were on nests, and did not take flight during our sampling session.
Results
27 Site Characterization and Avian Field StudyTable 9. Continued.
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 28Table 9. Continued.
Results
29 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
Figure 5. Movement rate for waterfowl and cranes at 3 proposed wind-turbine sites in northwestern
Alaska during spring 2013.
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 30
Figure 6. Movement rate for seabirds at 3 proposed wind-turbine sites in northwestern Alaska during
spring 2013.
Results
31 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
Figure 7. Movement rate for raptors, shorebirds, and passerines at 3 proposed wind-turbine sites in
northwestern Alaska during spring 2013.
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 32
Figure 8. Mean daily movement rates (birds/h) at 3 proposed wind-turbine sites in northwestern Alaska
during spring 2013. Error bars indicate 1 standard error. Note the difference among figures in
scales of Y-axes. No sampling occurred at Point Lay on 13 June or Wainwright 1 June.
Results
33 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
Fall
Species diversity was lower in the fall than in
the spring, with only18 taxa recorded. Glaucous
Gulls, Common Ravens, and eiders were the most
common taxa. All species were seen as individuals
or in small flocks (<10 birds) and typically flew
<15 m (50 ft) agl (Table 10). Eiders, loons,
cormorants, gulls, and murres flew at altitudes
within the RSA of the Aeronautics 255, but only
loons, cormorants, and a few Glaucous Gulls flew
at an altitude within the RSA of either of the other
2 potential turbine models. Flight behaviors in the
fall consisted of erratic behavior, hunting and
foraging, landing or taking off, local movements,
and straight-line flights. Several species also were
recorded as stationary within the study site (Table
10. Waterfowl flew primarily east to west (Figure
9); in contrast, seabirds flew both north–south and
east–west (Figure 10). Other species (raptors,
shorebirds and passerines) flew extensively along
the southern Chukchi coastline (east–west) but also
made local flights in all directions (Figure 11). The
peak mean daily movement rate during the fall (31
birds/h) occurred on 9 October and was lower than
the peak mean daily movement rate during the
spring.
Of the 3 federally threatened and candidate
species, we recorded Spectacled Eiders and
Yellow-billed Loon at Point Hope in the fall. Two
flocks of Spectacled Eider were recorded. One
flock consisted of 2 individuals and was swimming
along the coast. The second flock consisted of 1
individual that flew below the RSA of all 3
possible turbines. Four flocks of Yellow-billed
Loons were recorded, but only one was in flight.
That flock flew perpendicular to the proposed
powerline corridor at an altitude of 20 m agl. The
remaining flocks were recorded in the water south
of study Site A.
Point Lay
Spring
We recorded 46 taxa within the study area
during the spring. Glaucous Gulls, Greater
White-fronted Geese, and Northern Pintails were
the most common taxa within the study area. All 3
species occurred most frequently in small flocks
(<3 individuals) and flew <15 m (50 ft) agl (Table
11). All 3 species also frequently made local flights
or landed/took off within the study area (Figures
5–7, Table 12). Glaucous Gulls also foraged within
the study area.
Flight paths generally were <100 m (~330 ft)
long because of localized flight behaviors and were
concentrated within a small area near observation
points (Figures 5–7). Flight paths of Spectacled
Eiders were oriented in both north–south and
east–west directions (Figure 5). The peak mean
daily movement rate was 10 birds/h on June 6, and
mean daily movement rates consistently were 1–10
birds/h (Figure 8). No sampling occurred during
the fall at Point Lay.
Of the 3 federally threatened and candidate
species with potential to occur in Point Hope, we
recorded Spectacled Eiders and Yellow-billed
Loons. We recorded 5 flocks of Spectacled Eiders
in the study area (Figure 5) Two of these 5 flocks
consisted of a male–female pair and were flying in
a straight line at an altitude <5 m agl. One of these
5 flocks was a mixed-sex flock consisting of 3
individuals that moved locally within the study
area at a maximal flight altitude of 9 m agl. The
remaining 2 flocks were either landing/taking off
from or making local flights within the study area,
with a maximal flight altitude of 12 m agl. We
recorded 3 individual Yellow-billed Loons in flight
and an additional flock of 2 individuals offshore.
One of the 3 individuals in flight was recorded at
an altitude within the RSA of Aeronautics 255 and
NPS1000 but was below the RSA of the EWT. The
other 2 individuals in flight were not within the
RSA of any turbine models.
Wainwright
Spring
We recorded 37 taxa within the study area
during the spring. Lapland Longspurs, Glaucous
Gulls, Northern Pintails, and Greater White-
fronted Geese were the most common species
recorded. Greater White-fronted Geese and
Northern Pintails occurred most frequently as
individuals or pairs making local flights at low
altitudes (Tables 13 and 14). Glaucous Gulls
occurred as single individuals or small flocks; they
also made local flights but typically did so at
altitudes higher than geese and ducks. Gulls and
loons traveled frequently between the coast and
ponds that occurred inland. Lapland Longspurs
frequently made erratic (display) flights within the
study area (Table 14). Waterfowl and shorebirds
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 34Table 10. Overall flight height characteristics and percentage of avian species observed flying within 1,000 m of survey points during movement studies at a proposed wind turbine site in Point Hope, Alaska, during fall, 2013. RSA categories are the percentage of individual birds flying at altitudes below the RSA, within the RSA, and above the RSA for three different proposed turbine types: Aeronautics 255–30 (RSA 16–46 m agl), Northern NPS1000 (RSA 27–46 m agl), and EWT (RSA 48–102 m agl).
Results
35 Site Characterization and Avian Field StudyTable 10. Continued.
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 36
Figure 9. Movement rate for waterfowl and cranes at 2 proposed wind-turbine sites in northwestern
Alaska during fall 2013. Point Lay was not sampled during this season. There were no
waterfowl or cranes recorded in Wainwright during the fall.
Results
37 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
Figure 10. Movement rate for seabirds at 2 proposed wind-turbine sites in northwestern Alaska during
fall 2013. Point Lay was not sampled during this season.
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 38
Figure 11. Movement rate for raptors, shorebirds, and passerines at 2 proposed wind-turbine sites in
northwestern Alaska during fall 2013. Point Lay was not sampled during this season.
Results
39 Site Characterization and Avian Field StudyTable 11. Overall flight height characteristics and percentage of avian species observed flying within 1,000 m of survey points during movement studies at a proposed wind turbine site in Point Lay, Alaska, during spring, 2013. RSA categories are the percentage of individual birds flying at altitudes below the RSA, within the RSA, and above the RSA for three different proposed turbines: Aeronautics 255–30 (RSA 15.5–45.5 m agl), Northern NPS 1,000 (RSA 26.5–45.5 m agl), and EWT (RSA 48–102 m agl).
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 40Table 11. Continued.
Results
41 Site Characterization and Avian Field StudyTable 11. Continued.
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 42Table 12. Percentage of groups in each behavior category at a proposed wind turbine site in Point Lay, Alaska, during spring, 2013. The no-flight behavior category indicates birds were observed sitting on water or land, foraging along the ground or were on nests, and did not take flight during our sampling session.
Results
43 Site Characterization and Avian Field StudyTable 12. Continued.
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 44Table 13. Overall flight height characteristics and percentage of avian species observed flying within 1,000 m of survey points during point count surveys at a proposed wind turbine site in Wainwright, Alaska, during spring, 2013. RSA categories are the percentage of individual birds flying at altitudes below the RSA, within the RSA, and above the RSA for three different proposed turbine types: Aeronautics255–30 (RSA 15.5–45.5 m agl) Northern NPS1,000 (RSA 26.5–45.5 m agl) and EWT (RSA 48–102 m agl).
Results
45 Site Characterization and Avian Field StudyTable 13. Continued.Charadrius
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 46Table 14. Flight behavior for flocks observed at a proposed wind turbine site during spring (Jun 2–Jun 13) and fall (Sept 26–Oct 9) 2013 in Wainwright, Alaska. The no flight behavior category indicates birds were observed sitting on water or land, foraging along the ground or were on nests, and did not take flight during our sampling session.
Results
47 Site Characterization and Avian Field StudyTable 14. Continued.
Results
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 48Table 14. Continued.
Discussion
49 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
occurred within the RSA of all 3 potential turbines;
however, a greater percentage of flights occurred
within the RSAs of the Aeronautics 255 and
NPS1000 than within the RSA of the EWT. The
predominant flight orientation during spring was
east–west. Common Ravens moved throughout the
site, and shorebird and passerine flights typically
were short, local movements (Figure 7). The peak
mean daily movement rate (9 birds/h) during the
spring occurred on 10 June (Figure 8).
We did not record any of the 3 federally listed
threatened or candidate species within the study
area in Wainwright during the spring. Spectacled
Eiders were seen south of the study area, but those
individuals did not enter the study area during our
sampling.
Fall
In contrast to the spring, we recorded only 5
species during the fall (Table 15). Glaucous Gulls
were the most common species; their flight
altitudes ranged from 2 to 40 m agl. Most flights of
Glaucous Gulls occurred within the RSA of the
Aeronautics 255; less than half of their flights
occurred within the RSA of the NPS1000, and
none occurred within the RSA of the EWT. They
occurred in both large and small flocks, and their
movements consisted of transits among primary
foraging areas (e.g., the dump, whale carcasses) or
foraging flights across the tundra (Table 14);
however, the direction of travel was nearly always
north–south (Figure 10). The north–south flight
orientation was driven by flights originating at the
dump, which was located north of the study site,
and following the coastline southward towards
whale carcasses lying on the beach near town.
Gulls frequently flew from whale carcasses
towards the dump, but most of those flights
occurred over water, outside of the study area. The
peak mean daily movement rate (358 birds/h)
occurred on 28 September (Figure 12). We did not
observe any federally threatened or candidate
species during the fall sampling period in
Wainwright.
NESTING SURVEY
At Point Hope, we did not locate any
Spectacled or Steller’s Eider nests within a 1.6-km
(1-mi) radius of the proposed wind-site, but we did
locate 1 Red Phalarope nest (Figure 13). At Point
Lay, we located 1 King Eider nest and 14 nests of
other species within a 1.6-km (1-mi) radius of the
proposed wind-site (Figure 13). At Wainwright, we
located 17 nests within a 1.6-km (1-mi) radius of
the proposed wind-site; none of the nests were
those of eiders, but we did see 2 pairs of Spectacled
Eiders within the search area (Figure 13).
DISCUSSION
SITE CHARACTERIZATION STUDY
All 3 potential windfarm projects are located
on the Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska within the
Chukchi Coast and Beaufort Sea Coast ecoregions.
Potential impacts of wind-energy development on
plant diversity and associated wildlife in this
ecosystem would be either indirect, through the
loss of suitable habitat or disturbance of breeding
behavior, or direct, through road and pad
construction or through collisions with turbines or
associated powerlines.
Site characterization studies are designed to
summarize the biological resources, describe the
potential exposure of resources to the proposed
development (Table 16), and recommend priority
species and sampling periods for additional study
to help assess impacts from proposed wind-energy
facilities (Table 17). These studies are strongly
recommended in the USFWS land-based wind-
energy guidelines (USFWS 2012a). This project
combined a site characterization study (as defined
by USFWS) with a field assessment study in 2013
to collect data on focal wildlife species (as
identified through agency meetings) within the
proposed project areas.
Habitat in the project areas is composed
primarily of typical tundra types underlain by
permafrost ranging from moist-sedge shrub to
wet-sedge meadows and marshes. Marine and
estuarine nearshore water and coastal barrens also
account for a large percentage of habitat at each of
the proposed sites, and wetlands within the project
areas are typical of the two ecoregions. There are
no known threatened or endangered plant species
that occur on any of the sites and therefore we did
not recommended any rare-plant surveys in the
SCS. State-ranked S1 (critically imperiled)
rare-plant species and BLM Sensitive Species,
however, have the potential to occur at each
proposed location because these areas have not
Discussion
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 50Table 15. Overall flight height characteristics and percentage of avian species observed flying within 1,000 m of survey points during movement studies at a proposed wind turbine site in Wainwright, Alaska, during fall, 2013. RSA categories are the percentage of individual birds flying at altitudes below the RSA, within the RSA, and above the RSA for three different proposed turbine types: Aeronautics 255–30 (RSA 16–46 m agl) Northern NPS1000 (RSA 27–46 m agl) and EWT (RSA 48–102 m agl).
Discussion
51 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
Figure 12. Mean daily movement rates (birds/h) at 2 proposed wind-turbine sites in northwestern Alaska
during fall 2012; Point Lay was not sampled during this season. Error bars indicate 1 standard
error Note difference among figures in scales of Y-axes. No sampling occurred at Point Hope
on 26 September or Wainwright 10 October.
Discussion
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 52
Figure 13. Locations of bird nests near 3 proposed wind-turbine sites in northwestern Alaska, 2013.
Discussion
53 Site Characterization and Avian Field StudyTable 16. Likelihood of being affected by project activities for the focal species (i.e. Steller’s and Spectacled eiders, Yellow-billed and Red-throated loons) at Point Hope, Point Lay, and Wainwright, AK. Location Species/activity Point Hope Point Lay Wainwright Comments Steller’s Eider Nesting none none low No known nests near Point Hope or Point Lay; no recent nests near Wainwright Migration low low low Movement patterns poorly known Spectacled Eider Nesting none none moderate No known nests near Point Hope or Point Lay; confirmed nests near Wainwright Migration low low moderate Males and females molt in large numbers in Ledyard Bay. Critical Habitat Unit offshore; seen staging in pond near proposed site in Wainwright Yellow-billed Loon Nesting low low moderate Moderate nesting density near Wainwright; also summers in Kuk Lagoon Migration low moderate moderate Post-breeding movements indicate staging in Kuk and Kasegaluk lagoons Red-throated Loon Nesting low moderate moderate High nesting densities near Point Lay and Wainwright Foraging movements low moderate moderate Daily foraging flights to nearshore waters at altitudes within proposed RSA Migration low low low Use Chukchi Sea coastal waters in spring and fall
Discussion
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 54Table 17. Proposed sampling periods for focal species (Steller’s and Spectacled eiders, Yellow-billed and Red-throated loons) at Point Hope, Point Lay, and Wainwright, Alaska, 2013. Survey dates are approximate and should be adjusted according to annual phenology. PointHope and Wainwright are considered priority sampling locations because of their proximity to the coastline. Location Study Point Hope Point Lay Wainwright Comments Spring-migration surveys 4–15 May 16–31 May 16–31 May Timed for passage of male and female Spectacled Eiders; should be similar for focal species Breeding-season surveys June/July June/July June/July Timed for nesting of focal species Fall-migration surveys 6–13 October 6–18 August 4–18 August Timed for passage of female Spectacled Eiders Fall-migration surveys 1–15 October 15–30 September 15–30 September Yellow-billed Loon and Red-throated Loon present in Chukchi late August and September; peak YBLO migration mid-September (Point Lay) to late September (Wainwright)
Discussion
55 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
been well surveyed for rare plants. If state-ranked
plant species are of concern they should be
surveyed for in the proposed development
locations.
The project areas include habitat and
resources for breeding and migratory birds,
including federally-listed species (Steller’s and
Spectacled eiders). Wetlands provide suitable
habitat for nest sites, and proximity to coastal
molting and staging areas makes movements
through the project areas expected. Additional field
studies were recommended in the initial SCS
(Table 17), and these recommendations were
discussed with Jewel Bennett and Neesha
Stellrecht (USFWS Field Office, Fairbanks, AK) to
produce a list of focal species (Steller’s and
Spectacled eiders, Yellow-billed and Red-throated
Loons) and an agreed-upon sampling effort for
field studies in 2013 (see below). At this meeting,
there also was agreement that sampling would only
occur at 1 site/village (Point Hope Site A, Point
Lay Site A, Wainwright Site B).
FIELD STUDIES
The actual timing of the field studies in 2013
(Table 2) differed from the timing proposed for the
site characterization study (Table 17) in response to
a delayed spring. In Point Hope, we delayed the
start of the spring-migration survey because of
persistent winter conditions. Despite the delay, we
still were hampered by heavy snow and the
presence of polar bears around the village. Based
on the sampling challenges in Point Hope and
concerns about bird activity during nesting, we
decided to delay sampling in Point Lay and
Wainwright to capture local movements associated
with access to nesting areas. This delay also
allowed us to conduct nest searches immediately
after the movement surveys, rather than making a
separate trip as we did for Point Hope. Surveys in
the fall were delayed until September to allow us to
record as many of the focal species (eiders and
loons) as possible.
Field studies recorded Spectacled Eiders using
coastal habitat at Point Hope, coastal and large
pond habitats at Point Lay, and a sewage lagoon
and small lakes at Wainwright. All Spectacled
Eiders were recorded flying below the RSA at
Point Hope and Point Lay in 2013; they were not
seen in flight at Wainwright. Eiders are considered
susceptible to collision with man-made structures
because of their high flight speeds, large flocks
sizes, and low maneuverability in the air (Day et al.
2005). Spectacled Eiders tend to migrate in pulses
(J. Bennett, USFWS, Fairbanks, AK, pers. comm..)
and because our surveys occurred fairly late in the
fall, we may have missed movements of large
flocks. Nonetheless, the risk of impact at both
Point Hope and Point Lay may be reduced by flight
patterns that generally occur below the 3 possible
RSAs. No Spectacled Eider nests were located in
the study areas, although 2 pairs were seen in the
Wainwright study area. Steller’s Eiders were not
observed at any of the study-sites.
Yellow-billed Loons were observed flying
over the study sites and offshore at Point Hope and
at Point Lay but were not observed at Wainwright.
Yellow-billed Loons use the habitat surrounding
Wainwright (e.g, Bailey 1948), but they were not
recorded within 1 km of the proposed wind-turbine
location at that study-site in 2013. Most
Yellow-billed Loons were recorded flying below
the RSAs of all 3 turbine models at Point Hope and
Point Lay.
Red-throated Loons were seen flying over the
study-site and offshore at Point Lay and flying over
the study-site and using large ponds at Wainwright;
however, they were not recorded at Point Hope.
Most Red-throated Loons were recorded flying
below the RSAs at Point Lay and Wainwright.
We located 2 Red-throated Loon nests neat
Point Lay but found no nests of either Yellow-
billed or Red-throated loons near Point Hope or
Wainwright.
In addition to the presence of threatened and
endangered species at proposed wind-sites, several
other species nest in the area and could be at
risk of collision or displacement. The most
common of these species were Lapland Longspurs,
Semipalmated and Pectoral sandpipers, phalaropes
and Wilson’s Snipe, all of which are widespread on
the ACP. Shorebirds were recorded in moderate
numbers in spring at Point Lay and Wainwright,
and nests were recorded at Point Hope and
Wainwright. Few flights of any of these species
occurred within the RSAs of the proposed turbines.
Red Knots were not observed at any of the sites.
Conclusions
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 56
SITE COMPARISONS
The site characterization study (literature
review and analysis) included evaluations of 2
possible sites at each village. Geotechnical
requirements for windfarms were considered in the
initial feasibility studies (Vaught 2011a, 2011b,
2011c); because the turbines require solid ground
to support their weight, habitat in the immediate
vicinity of all 6 proposed locations consists of
upland tundra. When designing the bird surveys,
the NSB and the USFWS agreed that they should
be focused in the preferred site for development.
Direct comparisons between the 2 possible sites in
each village carry the caveat that bird movement
and nesting information is not available for both
sites. Without comparable bird movement and
nesting data, the proximity of wetlands and water
bodies to each site may be the next best factor to
speculate on which site may have the least avian
issues with the proposed development.
In Point Hope, Site A is located on a narrow
part of the peninsula and has large waterbodies to
both the north (Marryat Inlet) and south (Chukchi
Sea). We found both nesting and brood-rearing
birds in the small ponds west of the site. Most of
the bird movements around Site A were east–west
along the northern and southern coastlines. Site B
is farther from small ponds and coastlines that
focus bird movements, but it is closer to the point
of the peninsula. Birds may fly over the tip of the
peninsula rather than around it, especially during
inclement weather (when the exact tip of the
peninsula would be difficult to see), thereby
increasing their risk of collision with turbine
structures. Nonetheless, the probability of
interaction probably is higher at Site A because of
the short distances between the site and the
waterbodies. Based on an evaluation of the habitat
at both locations and the recorded bird movements
at Site A (but not Site B), we may expect Site B to
have fewer avian issues with the proposed
development.
In Point Lay, the 2 sites are located close to
one another. Site A is surrounded by waterbodies
that often are attractive to birds, and their
corresponding use of these habitats is evident in the
flight patterns recorded in the spring. Birds move
from Kasegaluk Lagoon eastward up the Kokolik
River and nest in the drained-lake basin on the
western side of the site. Site B also is located near
Kasegaluk Lagoon, but much of the area around it
already is occupied by village structures. The
proximity of Site B to the airstrip may be a
navigation hazard for aircraft, but it also reduces
the availability of preferred wildlife habitat
because so much of the area consists of existing
roads and gravel pads. Based on an evaluation of
the habitat at both locations and the recorded bird
movements at Site A (but not Site B), we may
expect Site B to have fewer avian issues with the
proposed development.
In Wainwright, both sites are located in dry
upland tundra. Site A is closer to the coastline than
Site B is but does not have any small ponds nearby.
Site B is located next to a road and a large sewage
pond that was attractive to birds and was used by
Spectacled Eiders. Movement rates at Site B were
focused primarily along the coastline and around
the sewage pond. Based on an evaluation of the
habitat at both locations and the recorded bird
movements at Site B (but not Site A), we may
expect Site A to have fewer avian issues with the
proposed development.
CONCLUSIONS
Understanding the risk of avian species to
collisions with wind turbines requires an
understanding of many factors, including (but not
limited to) the time of the year they are most
at risk (e.g., migration, breeding); their relative
abundance and frequency of occurrence; their
flight characteristics (e.g., the percentage of flights
occurring within the RSA of a particular turbine
model); their ability to avoid collisions (i.e., flight
speeds, maneuverability, and behavior); and the
history of fatalities at similar structures in other
locations. Migratory seasons were identified
during the SCS and agency meetings as times for
potentially increased exposure to turbine
collisions. Our literature review and field studies
focused on migration and breeding periods to
provide an assessment of avian movement rates
and flight characteristics at sites proposed for
development.
Species at the greatest risk of impact are those
that occur in high abundance or have limited
populations, such as Spectacled and Steller’s eiders
in northern Alaska. According to our literature
Literature Cited
57 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
review, the focal species in this study (Spectacled
and Steller’s eiders, Yellow-billed and Red-
throated loons) have varying degrees of exposure
to wind turbines based on differences in their
nesting distribution, migratory movement patterns,
and foraging patterns (Table 16). The additional
data from our field studies in 2013 suggest that
movements of Spectacled Eiders need to be
considered at all 3 locations, in contrast to our SCS
assessment. No Steller’s Eiders were recorded at
the proposed wind-turbine sites in Point Hope,
Point Lay or Wainwright (consistent with SCS);
therefore, the risk of impacts on this species is
minimal
The activity of Yellow-billed Loons appeared
higher at Point Hope than at Point Lay, and none
were recorded at Wainwright, in contrast to our
SCS assessment. Most Yellow-billed Loons near
Wanwright were recorded in Wainwright Inlet,
which is located 1.25 km (0.75 mi) from Site A and
3.0 km (1.9 mi) from Site B and outside our study
area. Red-throated Loons were absent at Point
Hope (in contrast to our SCS assessment) but were
recorded at both Point Lay and Wainwright
(consistent with our SCS assessment). The timing
and duration of our surveys may not have been
sufficient to detect Red-throated Loons at Point
Hope. Of the focal species, only Red-throated
Loons were observed frequently during our field
studies, and, of the individuals recorded flying,
most were observed flying below the proposed
RSAs of all 3 turbine models.
The risk to birds at each site is unique to the
characteristics of the site, in particular, bird
abundance and flight behavior. Although we did
not address collision-avoidance behavior directly
because few data exist for the focal species,
post-construction monitoring has indicated that
small windfarms may operate in rural Alaska with
limited direct impacts to (i.e., fatality of) birds
(Gall and Day 2007b, Gall 2011, Morgan and Gall
2014; ABR, unpub. data). Overall, we would
expect some impacts to individual birds that
undergo both local movements during the breeding
season and migratory movements at each site,
especially during inclement weather (i.e., periods
of reduced visibility). The selection of specific
wind turbine models may decrease potential
impacts and, if needed, operational adjustments
may also be used to decrease impacts on affected
species.
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63 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
Appendix 1. Plot photos and corresponding general wetland types for locations visited at 3 proposed
wind-turbine sites in northwestern Alaska, 20–23 August 2012. Plot ID locations are
shown on Figures 2–4.
POINT HOPE
Plot ID: PTH01
Wetland Type: Uplands
Plot ID: PTH02
Wetland Type: Fresh graminoid marsh
Plot ID: PTH03
Wetland Type: Uplands bordering salt marsh
Plot ID: PTH04
Wetland Type: Moist sedge-shrub tundra and pond
Plot ID: PTH05
Wetland Type: Moist sedge-shrub tundra
Plot ID: PTH06
Wetland Type: Fresh graminoid marsh bordering lake
Plot ID: PTH07
Wetland Type: Wet sedge-meadow tundra
Plot ID: PTH08
Wetland Type: Intertidal barrens
Plot ID: PTH09
Wetland Type: Salt marsh
Plot ID: PTH10
Wetland Type: Estuarine waters
Plot ID: PTH11
Wetland Type: Intertidal barrens
Plot ID: PTH12
Wetland Type: Uplands
POINT LAY
Plot ID: PTL01
Wetland Type: Moist sedge-shrub tundra
Plot ID: PTL02
Wetland Type: Wet sedge-meadow tundra
Plot ID: PTL03
Wetland Type: Salt marsh
Plot ID: PTL04
Wetland Type: Salt marsh
Plot ID: PTL05
Wetland Type: Moist sedge-shrub tundra
Plot ID: PTL06
Wetland Type: Wet sedge-meadow tundra
No photo available
Plot ID: PTL07
Wetland Type: Moist sedge-shrub tundra
Plot ID: PTL08
Wetland Type: Uplands
Plot ID: PTL09
Wetland Type: Wet sedge-meadow tundra
Plot ID: PTL10
Wetland Type: Wet sedge-meadow tundra
Plot ID: PTL11
Wetland Type: Wet sedge-meadow tundra
WAINWRIGHT
Plot ID: WAI01
Wetland Type: Fresh graminoid marsh
Plot ID: WAI02
Wetland Type: Wet sedge-meadow tundra
Plot ID: WAI03
Wetland Type: Moist sedge-shrub tundra
Plot ID: WAI04
Wetland Type: Lakes and ponds
Plot ID: WAI05
Wetland Type: Lakes and ponds
Plot ID: WAI06
Wetland Type: Moist sedge-shrub tundra
Plot ID: WAI07
Wetland Type: Wet sedge-meadow tundra
Plot ID: WAI08
Wetland Type: Wet sedge-meadow tundra
Plot ID: WAI09
Wetland Type: Wet sedge-meadow tundra
Plot ID: WAI10
Wetland Type: Intertidal barrens
Plot ID: WAI11
Wetland Type: Intertidal stream
Plot ID: WAI12
Wetland Type: Moist sedge-shrub tundra
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 70
Appendix 2. Common and scientific names of bird species recorded at study-sites and species-groups
used in this report.
Common name Scientific name Species-group
Greater White-fronted Goose Waterfowl
Snow Goose Waterfowl
Brant Waterfowl
Cackling/Canada Goose spp. Waterfowl
Unidentified goose Waterfowl
Unidentified merganser spp. Waterfowl
Tundra Swan Waterfowl
American Wigeon Waterfowl
Northern Shoveler Waterfowl
Northern Pintail Waterfowl
Green-winged Teal Waterfowl
Unidentified dabbler spp. Waterfowl
Greater Scaup Waterfowl
Unidentified scaup Waterfowl
Spectacled Eider Waterfowl
King Eider Waterfowl
Common Eider Waterfowl
Unidentified eider
or
spp. Waterfowl
White-winged Scoter Waterfowl
Long-tailed Duck Waterfowl
Red-breasted Merganser Waterfowl
Unidentified duck Waterfowl
Willow Ptarmigan Other
Unidentified ptarmigan spp. Other
Red-throated Loon Waterfowl
Pacific Loon Waterfowl
Yellow-billed Loon Waterfowl
Unidentified loon spp. Waterfowl
Pelagic Cormorant Seabird
Unidentified cormorant spp. Seabird
Northern Harrier Raptor
Sandhill Crane Crane
American Golden-Plover Shorebird
Semipalmated Plover Shorebird
Bar-tailed Godwit Shorebird
Black Turnstone Shorebird
Semipalmated Sandpiper Shorebird
Western Sandpiper Shorebird
Least Sandpiper Shorebird
Pectoral Sandpiper Shorebird
Dunlin Shorebird
Long-billed Dowitcher Shorebird
Wilson's Snipe Shorebird
Red-necked Phalarope Shorebird
71 Site Characterization and Avian Field Study
Appendix 2. Continued.
Common name Scientific name Species-group
Red Phalarope Shorebird
Unidentified phalarope spp. Shorebird
Unidentified shorebird Shorebird
Ivory Gull Seabird
Black-legged Kittiwake Seabird
Sabine's Gull Seabird
Thayer's Gull Seabird
Herring Gull Seabird
Glaucous Gull Seabird
Unidentified gull Seabird
Arctic Tern Seabird
Pomarine Jaeger Other
Parasitic Jaeger Other
Long-tailed Jaeger Other
Unidentified jaeger spp. Other
Common Murre Seabird
Thick-billed Murre Seabird
Unidentified murre spp. Seabird
Great Horned Owl Raptor
Short-eared Owl Raptor
Gyrfalcon Raptor
Peregrine Falcon Raptor
Common Raven Passerine
Horned Lark Passerine
Tree Swallow Passerine
Bluethroat Passerine
Northern Wheatear Passerine
Lapland Longspur Passerine
Snow Bunting Passerine
Savannah Sparrow Passerine
White-crowned Sparrow Passerine
Hoary Redpoll Passerine
Unidentified redpoll spp. Passerine
Unidentified passerine Passerine
Site Characterization and Avian Field Study 72
Appendix 3. Definitions for federal- and Alaska state-listed species. Definitions derived from the
Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA; as amended) and the State of Alaska,
Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G).
Federal or state status Definition
Federal endangered Any species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its
range other than a species of the Class Insecta determined by the Secretary to constitute a
pest whose protection under the provision of this Act would present an overwhelming
and overriding risk to man.
Federal threatened Any species that is likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future throughout
all or a significant portion of its range.
State endangered A species or subspecies of fish or wildlife is considered endangered when the
Commissioner of ADF&G determines that its numbers have decreased to such an extent
as to indicate that its continued existence is threatened.
Species of special
concern
As of 15 August 2011, ADF&G no longer maintains a Species of Special Concern list.
Available at: http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=specialstatus.akconcern.
(Accessed October 2012.)