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HomeMy WebLinkAboutNaknek Windfarm Potential Enviornmental Effects on Wildlife Species - Mar 2009 - REF Grant 7013005 Printed on recycled paper. POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON WILDLIFE SPECIES FROM A PROPOSED WINDFARM AT NAKNEK, ALASKA FINAL REPORT Prepared for Naknek Electric Association P.O. Box 118 Naknek, AK 99633 By Jennifer H. Boisvert Melanie M. Wahl Ann M. Wildman —ABR, Inc. Environmental Research & Services P.O. Box 240268 Anchorage, AK 99524 March 2009 iii Naknek Windfarm Study TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................................................iii LIST OF APPENDICES...............................................................................................................................iii INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................................1 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF WINDFARM DEVELOPMENT ON WILDLIFE......................................1 HABITAT LOSS......................................................................................................................................1 BEHAVIORAL DISTURBANCE AND DISPLACEMENT..................................................................1 INCREASED ACTIVITY BY PREDATOR/SCAVENGERS................................................................1 COLLISION MORTALITY ....................................................................................................................2 ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS AFFECTING WINDFARMS.....................................................2 WILDLIFE HABITATS IN THE NAKNEK AREA....................................................................................2 WILDLIFE POPULATIONS IN THE NAKNEK AREA ............................................................................2 WILDLIFE SPECIES OF CONSERVATION OR MANAGEMENT CONCERN ..................................2 BIRDS......................................................................................................................................................4 MAMMALS...........................................................................................................................................11 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................12 LITERATURE CITED................................................................................................................................13 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Avian species of high conservation concern occurring in the Naknek area, Alaska................3 Table 2. Wildlife species occurring in the Naknek area.........................................................................5 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A. Literature sources for information on wildlife species in the Naknek region, Alaska ...19 Introduction 1 Naknek Windfarm Study INTRODUCTION The Naknek Electric Association is interested in building a windfarm on Cape Suwarof in Kvichak Bay, Naknek, Alaska. Prior to construction and operation of the windfarm and its associated powerlines, information on environmental resources and potential impacts to these resources is necessary for permitting by state and federal agencies. To assess costs and benefits of a windfarm project on Cape Suwarof, V3 Energy contracted ABR Inc. to evaluate potential wildlife-related issues with windfarm development at the site. This report comprises a review of available data and literature on wildlife species in the Naknek region and an assessment of the potential impacts to these species or species-groups, particularly those of significant conservation concern (i.e., species protected by the Endangered Species Act, species listed on agency or organization conservation lists, game animals of importance). POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF WINDFARM DEVELOPMENT ON WILDLIFE HABITAT LOSS Habitat loss is a direct impact of windfarm construction on wildlife. Habitats within the footprint of a windfarm are manipulated and altered to a condition that often are unsuitable for use by animals that originally were present. Habitats in powerline corridors also may be altered, resulting in habitat loss (or gains) for some species. Additional functional loss of habitat may occur for some wildlife in the vicinity of a windfarm. Animals may avoid using surrounding habitats because of disturbance from noise, movement of the turbine blades, or human activities during construction and operation. Functional habitat loss is usually more common during the construction phase because of the greater disturbance to wildlife caused by human activities associated with the construction. Following construction, human activities decrease both in the windfarm and in the powerline corridors, and functional habitat loss may also decrease. BEHAVIORAL DISTURBANCE AND DISPLACEMENT Noise and visual stimuli from construction and operation of wind turbines also can cause changes in the behaviors of wildlife using areas in the vicinity of a windfarm. Behavioral disturbance is regarded as a change in normal activities of wildlife caused by a response to stimuli such as noise or movement associated with a windfarm, and the energetic costs to the animal or population caused by disruption of their normal biological activities (i.e., like breeding displays or movement patterns). Intolerance of the disturbance also can result in displacement of the animal. Mammals often are disturbed and displaced most by construction of the windfarm, while birds are likely to be disturbed both in the short-term by the construction, and then perpetually by operation of the wind turbines. Although this effect is more perpetual in migratory birds, returning migrants (i.e., those individuals that migrate through the area year after year) and resident birds (i.e., those individuals that remain in the area seasonally or year-round) can become habituated to the visual and auditory disturbance from the windfarm over time; so that it no longer physically disturbs them, and only displaces them from the immediate vicinity of the turbines. INCREASED ACTIVITY BY PREDATOR/SCAVENGERS Man-made towers and other structures often provide elevated nesting platforms and perches for ravens, jaegers, gulls, and raptors that would otherwise be unavailable for these predatory birds in tundra environments. The use of man-made structures by nesting birds in Alaska is of particular concern because they can allow some populations of avian predators to increase or expand their ranges. By nesting on towers and man-made structures, Common Ravens, in particular, as well as other raptors in Alaska, have exhibited altered nesting behaviors and increases in abundance and ranges, even nesting in locations with significant noise and other human disturbance (Ritchie 1991, AKCFWRU 2002, Shook et al. 2008). Open lattice towers are of the greatest concern because they provide easy perches and support for stick nests that are built by ravens and some gull and raptor species. Wildlife Habitats in the Naknek Area Naknek Windfarm Study 2 In areas where bird movements are concentrated seasonally, elevated structures (i.e., windturbines and powerline poles) and their associated wires (electrical and guy-wires), may present substantial hazard to birds, resulting in avian collision injuries or mortalities and an increase in scavenger activity because of the availability of carcasses/carrion in the area. Indirect impacts on locally breeding birds or small mammals may result from the increased predator activity, since many raptors and gulls are both predators and scavengers. In coastal Alaska, elevated structures frequently present unexpected hazards to low-flying birds in tundra environments, particularly during fog or darkness (Johnson and Richardson 1982, Day et al. 2001, Boisvert and Day 2005; see Collision Mortality, below). COLLISION MORTALITY Considerable avian and bat mortality has been documented in association with windfarms in both the U.S. and Canada (Orloff and Flannery 1996, Anderson et al. 1996, Johnson et al. 2000, Erickson et al. 2003, Johnson 2005, Arnett et al. 2008). Currently, the overall average avian collision rate is low, averaging 2.19 birds/turbine/year (Erickson et al. 2001), partially because concerns about notable avian mortality events has improved the evaluation of siting of windfarms. Thus, the collision fatality of birds is substantially lower at newer windfarms (Erickson et al. 2001, 2002). Conditions that are known to result in problematic rates of avian collisions include site locations in high-use breeding or migratory routes and operation of turbines during high winds and low visibility— conditions which are common in some areas of coastal Alaska. Additionally, windfarms are still a major concern where bats occur. ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS AFFECTING WINDFARMS Several federal environmental laws and regulations may be pertinent to the development and operation of the proposed windfarm. These include: •Endangered Species Act •Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act •Migratory Bird Treaty Act •National Environmental Policy Act •Clean Water Act WILDLIFE HABITATS IN THE NAKNEK AREA The area of consideration for wildlife impacts from the Naknek windfarm project is a region of ~60 mi surrounding Naknek that includes the Nushagak Peninsula, Nushagak Bay and River, Kvichak Bay and River, the Naknek River, and the coastal lowlands south to Egegik Bay and east to Katmai National Park. Naknek is located in the Bristol Bay coastal lowland region, at the geographic transition between southwestern coastal Alaska and the northwestern end of the Alaska Peninsula. This region includes parts of the Togiak National Wildlife Refuge, the Egegik State Critical Habitat Area, the Becharof National Wildlife Refuge, the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge, and Katmai National Park and Preserve. This area of Alaska is highly productive for wildlife and fish, and provides habitats for many breeding and migrating bird species, particularly waterbirds and shorebirds, and large mammals. Major habitats in the area include nearshore marine waters, mudflats, low coastal shorelines, lowland wetlands, small ponds and lakes, small creeks, large river drainages, and wet and moist tundra habitats. This area is beyond the range of coastal boreal forests, but low and tall shrub habitats and discontinuous spruce woodlands occur in areas with well-drained uplands, and along creek and river drainages throughout the region. WILDLIFE POPULATIONS IN THE NAKNEK AREA WILDLIFE SPECIES OF CONSERVATION OR MANAGEMENT CONCERN Seventeen species of birds (Table 1) occurring in the Naknek area are considered species of conservation or management concern. The Steller ’s Eider is listed as a threatened species under the federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 (as amended) and has been observed in small numbers in the Naknek area during the spring migration season (Larned 2007). This species migrates along the western coast of Alaska and winters on the Wildlife Populations in the Naknek Area 3 Naknek Windfarm Study northern end of the Alaska Peninsula and in Cook Inlet (Fredrikson 2001), passing the southern ends of Nushagak and Kvichak Bays during spring and fall migration (Fredrickson 2001, Larned 2007). Another seaduck species, the King Eider, is known to winter and congregate during migration in the nearshore waters of Nushagak, Kvichak, and Egegik bays (Larned 2007). Studies indicate that Kvichak Bay, in particular, is a highly important spring staging and fall molting area for the Pacific population of King Eiders, a large proportion of which may be concentrated there seasonally. Black Scoters and Long-tailed Ducks also breed in ponds in the Naknek area during summer, but primarily these species congregate in nearshore waters of Kvichak Bay and on the Kvichak and Naknek rivers during migration in spring and fall. The Red-throated Loon breeds in ponds and lakes around Naknek and uses nearshore waters of Nushagak and Kvichak bays in small numbers in spring and fall (King and Dau 1992). Two raptor species of conservation concern, the Osprey and Peale’s Peregrine Falcon, potentially occur in the Naknek area in low numbers during breeding and migration. Ten shorebird species of conservation concern (Table 1) are presumed to occur in the Naknek area at some time during the year. Few studies have been conducted on shorebirds in the Naknek area during breeding, and only a few have targeted shorebirds during migration. Of these 10 shorebird species, only the Pacific Golden-Plover and Short-billed Dowitcher have been documented breeding in the area (observed south of Naknek and King Salmon; Savage 2007). Black Turnstones, Rock Sandpipers, and Dunlin also likely breed in suitable habitats on the Nushagak Peninsula and areas around Naknek south to Egegik Bay, as these species have been observed using coastal and upland tundra habitats in these areas during late summer, spring, and fall (Gill and Sarvis 1999, MacDonald 2000). The 5 remaining shorebird species of conservation concern (Wandering Tattler, Whimbrel, Bristle-thighed Curlew, Bar-tailed Godwit, and Surfbird) are thought to migrate through the Naknek area during spring and fall, but only the Pacific Golden-Plover, Dunlin, and Bar-tailed Godwit occur in large numbers seasonally in the Naknek area. Table 1. Avian species of high conservation concern occurring in the Naknek area, Alaska. ¹ Wildlife Populations in the Naknek Area Naknek Windfarm Study 4 Mammal species of management concern include caribou, moose, and bears. These species are of high subsistence and game value to village residents and hunters in the Naknek area. Caribou are a species of elevated management concern in the Naknek area because both the Mulchatna Caribou Herd (MCH) and Northern Alaska Peninsula Caribou Herd (NAPCH) are in decline (Valkenburg and Keech 2002, Butler 2007a, Woolington 2007). Both herds are an important subsistence and resident hunter resource, and current population numbers and accessibility of caribou are only marginally able to meet harvest demands (Sellers and Squib 1998). Moose are not abundant directly around Naknek and populations have remained stable for the past 25 years (Butler 2006a). Hunter interest has been fairly consistent for the past 20 years, but has declined slightly with the reduction in combined opportunities for caribou hunting (Butler 2006a). The Alaska Peninsula is a premier area for large brown bears, and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game has placed a high priority on maintaining a quality bear hunting experience for sport hunters. Brown bears also are of high aesthetic value on the Alaska Peninsula and nearby Katmai National Park and Preserve, and of management concern with regards to human-bear interactions (Butler 2007b). Currently there is a reasonably stable population of brown bears on the Alaska Peninsula (Butler 2007b), and there is little concern about their populations in the Naknek area. BIRDS Bird populations in the Naknek area are representative of southwestern Alaska and its associated habitats. This area supports a large number of breeding and migrating waterbirds, and migrating shorebirds (Table 2). Raptor and passerine species also occur in the area but are less abundant and less diverse. Breeding Birds Studies on breeding birds in the Naknek area have focused primarily on specific species such as Sandhill Cranes and Greater White-fronted Geese on the Nushagak Peninsula (Pogson and Cooper 1983, Ely and Takekawa 1996), and on Tundra Swans on the northern Alaska Peninsula (Doster 2002). Other available literature includes avian species-group surveys at a regional- or statewide-scale (Platte and Butler 1995, Conant and Groves 2004, 2005; Conant and Mallek 2006, Mallek and Groves 2007, 2008), and generalized bird surveys across the northern Alaska Peninsula (Savage 2007). Very limited information is available on wildlife specifically in the Naknek area, although the available literature suggests that coastal tundra habitats, small ponds, and lakes near Naknek provide breeding habitat for many ducks, geese, swans, loons, gulls, jaegers, terns, cranes, shorebirds, and passerines (Table 2). Most of these species are not particularly abundant in the Naknek area during breeding, with the exception of Tundra Swans and Black Scoters (Wilk 1987, Conant and Mallek 2006). The breeding population of swans in the Bristol Bay lowlands comprises ~18% of the Pacific Flyway population (Doster 2002), and some of the highest density of breeding swans in the Bristol Bay region occur between the Naknek River and Egegik Bay (Wilk 1988, Platte and Butler 1995). Breeding surveys also indicate that the Bristol Bay coastal lowlands are one of the highest densities of Black Scoters in Alaska (Conant and Mallek 2006). Surveys of pelagic waterbirds in Kvichak Bay in summer (Barontek and Gibson 1972) suggest that seabirds, ducks, geese, and gulls are not abundant breeders in the Naknek area during summer. Five species of raptors potentially breed near Naknek (Table 2), though few surveys specific to raptor species have been conducted. Bald and Golden eagles are protected by the federal Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act of 1940 (and amended in 1978). Golden Eagles have not been documented in the Naknek area and are generally restricted to mountainous habitat, even during migration, and are not likely to be affected by developments in Naknek. Bald Eagles presumably occur in the Naknek area year-round, although no winter reports are available and few studies have focused on Bald Eagles in the Naknek area during the breeding or migration seasons. Previous studies have recorded Bald Eagles nesting on Naknek Lake (Dewhurst 1991), and occurring in inland habitats south of Naknek (Savage 2007). They also have been observed using rivers and intertidal and Wildlife Populations in the Naknek Area 9 Naknek Windfarm Study coastal habitats between the Nushagak Peninsula and Egegik Bay during spring (King and Dau 1992) and fall (Gill and King 1980, Trapp 1981, Savage et al. 2006). Bald Eagles breed in low numbers in suitable habitats but are not abundant in the Naknek area, occurring mostly along river drainages and at large lakes where nest sites (i.e., large spruce or poplar trees) are available. However, they may be more abundant in the area, congregating on rivers and along the coasts during salmon runs in late summer and fall. Northern Harriers and Gyrfalcons have been observed southwest of Naknek during summer (Savage 2007), and Northern Harriers were observed on the Kvichak River during fall (Trapp 1981). These species, along with Osprey and Peregrine Falcons, all potentially breed and migrate through the area. It is unlikely that any raptor species is abundant in the Naknek area during either breeding or migration. Little information is available on passerine species in the Naknek area. Breeding surveys on the northern Alaska Peninsula, south of Naknek, indicate a low diversity of passerine species in the area (Savage 2007). Only 18 species of passerines (including Common Ravens) are thought to occur in the Naknek area and only 15 are thought to breed in the area (Trapp 1981, Savage 2007; Table 2). Passerine species diversity and abundance in the area probably is limited by low habitat diversity and lack of highly productive breeding habitats for this species-group in the area. Staging and Wintering Birds The Naknek and Kvichak rivers, and Nushagak, Kvichak, and Egegik bays are important staging and wintering areas for seaducks, waterfowl, and shorebirds in southwestern Alaska and the Bristol Bay area. The Naknek River represents one of the more important spring waterfowl staging areas on the Alaska Peninsula (Meixell and Savage 2004, Schuster 2004, Savage et al. 2006) because it provides ice-free habitat earlier than other waterbodies on the northern Alaska Peninsula, attracting thousands of migrant ducks, geese, and swans during April and May (Wilk 1987, Wilk 1988, Savage et al. 2006). Although not as abundant as in spring, many waterfowl and gulls also use the Naknek River during fall staging and wintering (Trapp 1981, King and Dau 1992, Scharf 1993, Savage et al. 2006). In fall, Mallards, American Wigeon, Northern Pintail, Green-winged Teal, Greater Scaup, Buffleheads, Red-breasted Mergansers and gulls are the most abundant species (Trapp 1981, King and Dau 1992, Scharf 1993), whereas mergansers, Greater Scaup, Long-tailed Ducks, Black Scoters, geese, and swans are the most abundant species in spring (Oligschlaeger and Schuster 2004, Schuster 2004, Savage et al. 2006). Mergansers and goldeneyes are the most abundant species in winter (King and Dau 1992, Oligschlaeger and Schuster 2004, Schuster 2004, Savage et al. 2006). The Kvichak River also is an important area for fall-staging waterfowl and gulls. In 1981, Trapp (1981) observed 5.5 birds/km on the Kvichak River during staging in September. This is higher than that observed for the Naknek River and Iliamna Lake during that same time period (Trapp 1981). Greater Scaup, American Wigeon, Northern Pintails, Red-breasted Mergansers, and gulls were the most abundant species observed during fall (Trapp 1981). Although a great deal of survey work has been conducted on waterbirds and shorebirds in the Bristol Bay region during spring, none have focused specifically on the Kvichak River. Studies from adjacent areas such as the Naknek River and Kvichak Bay suggest that the Kvichak River also may be an important spring-staging area for waterfowl. An abundance of literature has documented the use of Kvichak Bay by seaducks and other waterfowl during spring and fall migration and in winter. Kvichak Bay is often the northernmost ice-free estuary on the Alaska Peninsula during spring staging and it often stays ice-free in winter. Studies indicate that Kvichak Bay is a highly important spring staging, fall molting, and wintering area for the Pacific population of King Eiders. During April 2007, ~525,000 eiders were estimated to be staging in Kvichak Bay (Larned 2007), and large groups of King Eiders also have been observed molting there in the fall (Larned and Tiplady 1998). Less is known about use of the Naknek area by King Eiders in winter, but studies indicate that moderate numbers likely winter in Nushagak and Kvichak bays (Scharf 1993, Suydam 2000, Savage 2007). Steller’s Eiders and Common Eiders also use Kvichak Bay during Wildlife Populations in the Naknek Area Naknek Windfarm Study 10 migration, but in substantially smaller numbers than King Eiders (Gill and King 1980, Larned 2007). Spring surveys suggest that Steller’s Eiders are most abundant farther south along the Alaska Peninsula and do not venture much into Kvichak Bay during winter or migration. For example, Steller ’s Eiders were not observed north of Egegik Bay by King and Dau (1992), and Larned (2007) recorded only 44 Steller ’s Eiders in Kvichak Bay versus ~800 in Egegik Bay during the same survey. Surveys of northern Alaska Peninsula estuaries in spring have recorded large numbers of waterfowl and gulls, and of all the bays along the western coast of the Alaska Peninsula, Kvichak Bay has the highest density of diving and dabbling ducks during spring (Arneson 1980). Geese, Northern Pintails, Greater Scaup, Long-tailed Ducks, and Black Scoters are abundant in Kvichak Bay during spring, often numbering in the thousands (Arenson 1980, King and Dau 1992, Larned 2007). The largest concentrations of Black Scoters and Long-tailed Ducks along the entire western Alaska Peninsula in spring, occurs in Kvichak Bay, where ~5,000 Long-tailed Ducks and ~28,000 Black Scoters were recorded in April 2007 (Larned 2007). During fall, species such as Mallards, Northern Pintails, Black Scoters, Tundra Swans, and gulls are the most common species, and often number in the hundreds to thousands (Gill and King 1980, Mallek and Dau 2000, Mallek and Dau 2007). Although there are no studies on use of Nushagak and Kvichak bays by waterfowl during winter, it is presumed that some species such as Black Scoters and Long-tailed Ducks also may occur there during winter. Several studies have reported that Emperor Geese are abundant and concentrated along the western Alaska Peninsula during migration. But Emperor Geese have not been observed farther north than Egegik Bay (Gill and King 1980, Petersen and Gill 1982, King and Dau 1992, Hupp et al. 2008), and likely bypass the Naknek area altogether. In spring, fall, and winter, Bald Eagles have been observed using rivers and intertidal and coastal habitats between the Nushagak Peninsula and Egegik Bay (King and Dau 1992, Gill and King 1980, Trapp 1981, Savage et al. 2006). Bald Eagles may be seasonally abundant at specific sites during late summer and fall, congregating on rivers and along the coasts during salmon runs. Bristol Bay is a major migration corridor for many shorebirds that breed in western and northern Alaska (Arneson 1980). Coastal surveys of Bristol Bay and the northern Alaska Peninsula in spring and fall indicate that Nushagak, Kvichak, and Egegik bays all are important stopovers and migratory routes for many of these birds. Additionally, Nushagak and Kvichak bays are designated as Regional Shorebird Reserves in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network; these bays are 2 of only 5 sites designated in Alaska (WHSRN 2006). Surveys conducted for shorebirds from August to mid-September in estuaries on the Nushagak Peninsula observed a total of ~35,000 and ~31,000 shorebirds in 1999 and 2000, respectively (MacDonald 2000). Surveys in early September recorded >22,000 shorebirds in Nushagak Bay, ~45,000 shorebirds (consisting primarily of small shorebirds) in Kvichak Bay, and >66,000 shorebirds (primarily small shorebirds and Bar-tailed Godwits) in Egegik Bay (Gill and Sarvis 1999). Numbers of shorebirds present in the Naknek area drops dramatically by late September and October, where ~5,500–7,500 shorebirds were observed in Nushagak Bay (Gill and King 1980, Mallek and Dau 2000), 10,500 shorebirds were seen in Kvichak Bay, and 14,000 shorebirds were recorded in Egegik Bay (Gill and King 1980). Shorebirds typically use stopovers for shorter periods and with less intensity in spring, as King and Dau (1992) only observed ~3,000 shorebirds in Nushagak Bay, ~6,100 shorebirds in Kvichak Bay, and ~1,700 shorebirds in Egegik Bay during April. Dunlin were the predominant shorebird species observed in bays on the Nushagak Peninsula in late summer, where 20,000 and 14,000 were recorded by MacDonald (2000) in 1999 and 2000, respectively. It is thought that the Nushagak Peninsula may be the autumn terminus for Dunlin before they begin their trans-oceanic migration to wintering grounds (Gill and Sarvis 1999). Small sandpipers and dowitchers also were abundant on the Nushagak Peninsula during late summer (MacDonald 2000). Greater Yellowlegs are a common shorebird species observed in both Nushagak and Kvichak Bays during spring and fall Wildlife Populations in the Naknek Area 11 Naknek Windfarm Study staging (Gill and Sarvis 1999, MacDonald 2000). In surveys along the southwestern Alaska shoreline from Togiak Bay to Nelson Lagoon, during fall 1997, ~86% of the Black-bellied and Pacific Golden-Plovers recorded were located in Kvichak Bay (Gill and Sarvis 1999). During the same survey, >32,000 Bar-tailed Godwits, ~33% of the world population, were located in Egegik Bay (Gill and Sarvis 1999). No information is available about passerine migration numbers in the Naknek area in spring and fall, though it is likely that a diversity of passerines regularly migrate through the area, but not in high numbers. MAMMALS Terrestrial mammal populations in the Naknek area are representative of the southwestern coastal Alaska ecosystem. The major large mammal species in the region include caribou, moose, brown bear, and wolf. Ten species of game and furbearing mammals occur in area (Table 2). Several additional species of small mammals, including voles, lemmings, and shrews, also are likely to occur in the area. The Naknek area occurs at the northern periphery of the NAPCH range, and the southern end of the MCH range. A small population of caribou also occurs on the Nushagak Peninsula, but does not traverse into the area around Naknek. Both the NAPCH and MCH have been suffering from major population declines since the early 1990s. The MCH was estimated at 45,000 animals in 2006, down from 200,000 in 1996 (Woolington 2007); and the NAPCH was estimated at 2,500 animals in 2005, down from 20,000 in 1984 (Butler 2007a). During past population highs of the NAPCH and MCH, both herds intermingled along the Kvichak River near Naknek in winter (Butler 2007a). In more recent years, however, the MCH has been wintering farther to the southwest near Togiak and the Kuskokwim Mountains (Woolington 2007), and currently calves near the Nushagak River northward to the Stoney and Hoholitna rivers (Woolington 2007). The NAPCH historically calved to the south of Naknek between the Cinder and Bear rivers and wintered near Naknek and King Salmon. They still occur in the Naknek area during winter but currently are rarely observed wintering north of the Naknek River (Butler 2007a). Moose are not abundant on the Alaska Peninsula or in the Naknek area. Census surveys in 1983, estimated 500–600 moose in GMU 9C (the area encompassing Naknek and King Salmon), and their populations are thought to have remained relatively stable in the past 25 years (Butler 2006a). Moose are an important subsistence resource and harvest species for Naknek and other regional village residents, but reduced harvests have occurred in the area since 2000 because of reduced hunter effort in coincidence with reduced opportunity for caribou hunting (Butler 2006a). The northern Alaska Peninsula is a premier area of interest for brown bears. Although census of bears is difficult, population numbers of brown bears on the Alaska Peninsula and around the Naknek area currently are presumed to be stable (Butler 2007b). Brown bear densities vary along the Alaska Peninsula, but are lowest in areas around Naknek and the Kvichak River. Surveys in 1991 estimated 879 brown bears in GMU 9B (an area encompassing Iliamna lake to the Kvichak River) and 429 bears in GMU 9C (the area around Naknek and King Salmon; Sellers and Miller 1991). Surveys conducted again in 1999–2000, estimated 272 bears in the northern portion of GMU 9B (Butler 2007b). Wolves are found throughout southwestern Alaska and the Alaska Peninsula in low-to-moderate numbers (Butler 2006b, Woolington 2006). Accurate population estimations of wolves are difficult and costly, and no estimates are available for the Naknek area. Information suggests that ~350 wolves occupy the entire Alaska Peninsula and Unimak Island (Butler 2006b), and 150–200 wolves occur in GMU 17C (encompassing Nushagak River and Dillingham area; Woolington 2006). This information suggests that numbers of wolves in the Naknek area is very low. Little information is available on the relative abundance or distribution of the 7 other game and furbearer species likely to occur in the Naknek area (Table 2), although none are thought to be abundant in the area (Butler 2007c). Although several species of small mammals (shrews, voles, etc.) occur in the area, none are Summary Naknek Windfarm Study 12 likely to be considered at risk from proposed development in the Naknek area. Of small mammals, only the potential impacts on bats are likely to be a consideration for windfarm developments. The little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) is the only bat species that occurs north of southeast Alaska and the 59° latitude (Parker et al. 1997). This species is the most common and widely-distributed bat in Alaska, and outside of southeast Alaska, occurs primarily in the warmer portions of the interior. The range of the little brown bat is not well known, but it has been recorded as far west as Sleetmute and King Salmon (Parker et al. 1997); and specimens have been collected from Pedro Bay, Iliamna Lake, and King Salmon (Parker et al. 1997). It is suspected that bats are not common in southwestern Alaska, but it is likely that they do occur in the Naknek area in small numbers. The little brown bat would be present in the Naknek area only in summer, and would migrate to warmer climates (or possibly hibernate in the area in very small numbers) during winter. SUMMARY The impacts of habitat loss and disturbance on wildlife are unlikely to be of concern for the proposed windfarm development at Naknek. The proposed windfarm footprint is small and habitats are unlikely to be limiting to any wildlife in the region. Any additional displacement of wildlife attributable to the windfarm is likely to be minor given the location of the windfarm in proximity to an already existing road and town, the likely habituation of some resident wildlife to existing structures and activity, and the likely ongoing avoidance of the village area by non-resident wildlife. Nonetheless, noise and visual stimuli from construction and operation of the wind turbines is likely to disturb small numbers of birds and mammals in the immediate vicinity of the windfarm. It is likely that the disturbance zone would extend at most several hundred meters from the footprint of the development and the turbines. Over time, resident breeding birds such as passerines and waterfowl, and local mammals may habituate to the noise and visual disturbance. The primary impact of concern for wildlife populations in the vicinity of the proposed Naknek windfarm is avian collisions. Bats also will be susceptible to collisions, but bat numbers are likely to be extremely low in the area. Elevated structures in coastal Alaska create unexpected hazards to birds flying in tundra environments, particularly in reduced visibility conditions such as fog or darkness. Although collisions also would affect breeding birds, the periods of highest concern are spring and fall migration (May–early June and August–September, respectively) and winter, when there is a high potential for very large numbers of birds to be moving through the area, and frequently during periods of reduced visibility (i.e., fog or darkness). The construction of towers and powerlines in the coastal environment of Naknek also may result in increased use of the area by avian predator/scavengers, both for the artificial nest sites that are provided (i.e., for Common Ravens, gulls, and raptors) and because of the potential increased availability of carcasses/carrion resulting from collision mortality. Appropriate tower and powerline designs (that increase visibility [reducing collisions] and minimize the availability perches and nest sites for predators) will help to alleviate this impact. The windfarm development at Naknek will need to adhere to the Endangered Species Act (ESA), the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act (BGEPA), and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA). Although interactions of Steller ’s Eiders with the proposed windfarm are suspected to be low (most Steller ’s Eiders remain well south of Naknek during fall, winter, and spring movements), consultation with the USFWS will be required to further assess the potential for take of Steller ’s Eiders. The BGEPA protects eagles and their nests and young. Consultation with the USFWS will be needed to determine the potential for take of Bald Eagles, and the windfarm should be engineered to use towers and structures that prevent the building of stick nests and thereby minimize the attraction of eagles, and reducing the potential for collisions with turbines and powerlines. This effort also will prevent other raptors and ravens from nesting within the project area, further reducing impacts on these species and their prey. Literature Cited 13 Naknek Windfarm Study The MBTA prohibits the destruction of all breeding birds, their eggs, nests, and young during the breeding season. In general, the MBTA protects birds during the summer breeding season by prohibiting ground activities, such as clearing during or prior to project construction, during the nesting season. Construction of the proposed windfarm should avoid breeding periods of birds in the Naknek area (~May 1–July 15), as recommended by the USFWS (2006) to protect nesting birds in southwestern Alaska. Injury, mortality, or egg or nest loss will be of particular concern for those species considered to be of conservation concern because of the additional potential impact of windfarm development on already diminished populations of these species. Species of particular interest in the Naknek area would include King Eiders, Long-tailed Ducks, Black Scoters, Pacific golden-Plover, Dunlin, and Bar-tailed Godwits, all of which are known to, or potentially, move through the Naknek area in large numbers. Other shorebirds and large birds such as Tundra Swans, Sandhill Cranes, and geese also may be of concern because their flock sizes, migratory paths, flight movements, and (in large birds) inability to maneuver quickly also may make them highly susceptible to collision mortalities. Because of its location in coastal tundra habitat near several areas known to provide important avian habitats in the region, the Naknek windfarm may have potential for relatively high collision rates of birds moving between marine and terrestrial habitats or moving along the coast. Its placement in Kvichak Bay creates a high potential for avian collisions, as this area is a significant migration corridor and staging area for many seaducks, waterfowl, and shorebirds. It is unknown, however, how many of the birds using Kvichak Bay, the Kvichak and Naknek rivers, and other areas surrounding Naknek typically move through the proposed Naknek windfarm site or within range of the proposed wind turbines. 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