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Home My WebLink AboutPreliminary Summary of Environmental Knowledge of the Bethel Area Power Plan Feasibility Assessment Project 1982ARLIS Alaska Resources Library & InfonnatlOD ScrvJce~ Anchorage, Alaska Preliminary Summary of Environmental Knowledge of the Bethel Area Power Plan Feasibility Assessment Project April 26, 1982 TK ILf2S ~K5'7 W55 I 'I ~2. Preliminary Summary of Environmental Knowledge of the Bethel Area Power Plan Feasibility Assessment Project Prepared by: William J. Wilson, Co-Principal Investigator, Fisheries Biologist Richard J. Hensel, Co-Principal. Investigator, 'inldlife Biologist Sal V. Cuccarese, Wildlife Biologist David L. Spencer, Wildlife Biologist Michael D. Kelly, Fisheries Biologist James G. Thiele, Fisheries Biologist Margaret S. Floyd, Botanist Joseph C. LaBelle, Geomorphologist Patricia O. McMillan, Anthropologist James L. Wise, Climatologist Albert L. Comiskey, Meteorologist Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center University of Alaska 707 A Street Anchorage, Alaska 99501 Interim Report Submitted to: IlARZA Engineering Company 203 West 15th Avenue Suite 204 Anchorage, Alaska 99501 April 26, 1982 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .....•....••...•....•••.......•...•••.....•...••.•.... 1 CLIHATE •••...•.•...•••••••.•••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••.••••• 2 Thermal and Other Generation •...•••.•••.•••.•.••.•.•••••..•.. 2 Hydropower Generation .••..•........•.•..•.•••.•..••••••••••. 11 GEOMORPHOLOGY •..•••••••••••.•••••.•••.••••••••.•••••.•••••••••••• 21 Regional Physiography .••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••.• 21 , Surficial Geology ••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••• 25 Soils ............ 1 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 27 Permafrost Distribution .....•.••••.••••••••••••••• ' ••••••••.. 56 Geomorphic History •••••••••.••••••..••.•..••••••.•.•.••..... 57 Erosion and Instability ..••.••.••••••••.••••••••.•..•••••••. 61 Flood ing .•...•.•..•.••.••••.••.•••.•••••••••...••••.••.•..•. 64 AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT •••.••.••• _. ::_: __ :,~ • ~ ••••• :.' •••••.•••••.•••.••••. 67 Introduction ..•.•..•...•••.•••..••.•..•.••••.•••••.•••.•.•.. 67 Water Quality ...•••••• .-•• ; ••••• ; ••• ~.·~ •••••.•..••..••••••••• 68 Aquatic Invertebrates .••.•••.•.••...•.•..••..•.•..•..•.•..•. 81 Fishery Resources ..•...•.•.....•.••••.•.•••••••.•••••.....•• 85 TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT •.•...•••.••..••...•••.•.••.•.••••••.•.•• 114 ~ - Vegeta tion ....•.......•..•.....•••...••.•..•..•..•••••.•..• 114 Avifauna .......................•••...•....•.•••....•..••... 117 Environmental Background-Mammals ...•••••... ~ ............... 143 HUMAN ENVIRONMENT •........••..•....•...•..•....••..•.•..••••.... 152 Cultural Resource Bibliography .•••.••.••.•.•..•••..•..•••.• 153 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION ..•.....••••.•.•..........••.•....•.•.•.••.. 158 MAJOR ISSUES CONFRONTING CONSTRUCTION .....••.....••••••.••••.•.• 160 BIBLIOGRAPHY .....•.•..•..•• " ••.•.•.••.•••.........••........•.• 163 APPENDIX .••......•..•••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••.••••••.• 172 INTRODUCTION The University of Alaska's Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center (AEIDC) is under contract to HARZA Engineering Company to compile regional, climatological, environmental, and archeological/historical knowledge and conduct reconnaissance level environmental field studies of the Kisaralik drainage relative to a proposed hydropower alternative. AEIDC's responsibility is to gather all relevant environmental and cultural information through literature review, personal interview, and field study to insure integration of physical resource values into the assessment of energy'supply alternatives. This report summarizes environmental information compiled to date by AEIDC. Approximately 60 to 70 percent of the literature has been reviewed, and many knowledgeable state and federal agency representatives and some local residents have been interviewed. Additional information will be compiled in the upcoming months, and by June 1982 the regional literature review will pe complete. Emphasis will then be placed on implementation of terrestrial and aquatic field surveys especially in regard to hydropower alternatives. A comprehensive final report will be delivered to f~RZA Engineering Company by October 1982. Information contained in this first interim report is catagorized as follows--climate, geomorphology, aquatic, terrestrial, and hwnan enVironments, public/agency participation, and issues that may complicate future permitting procedures. 1 CLIHATE Various climate data are provided in this interim report to support the efforts of various subcontractors to RARZA Engineering Company. AEIDC way charged with researching and assembling available climatic data for the lower Kuskok'vL~ study area. No specific analysis of these data are included since various other groups will be using these figures for various alternative power generation schemes, including solar, coal, other thermal, waste heat, cogenera-, tion, wind, and hydroelectric. Data presented are average and annual data for the most part. More detailed data are available if required. Thermal and Other Generation Solar Although no specific subcontractor to HARZA Engineering Company has been identified to conduct a solar energy assessment of the lower KuskokwhTI study area, AEIDC is providing applicable statistics for such an effort. Publisped data for Bethel have been assembled and are attached (Figures 1 through 5). The figures provide pertinent solar radiation data, temperature, and degree days data. Coal and Thermal, Waste Heat and Cogeneration Figures 3, 4, and 5 apply to these tasks. IE additional climatic data are needcti, we could assist in getting them. l.Jind Literature review: The following publications relate to wind as an energy source in Alaska and were revi.ewed: Robert Iv. Retherford Associates (RWR)/IECO 1979; Rutledge et a1. 1980; Wentink 1976a, 197Gb; Wise et a1. 1980. 2 LANGLEYS PER DAY '" f-+------t---------1~-...I.--'-''''''''---f---,----r-·tL.71 __ I+------+------+------+---.--.~-":--.J-+-r _r=I:=-·r-:~'r,..,...t·:·:c:-;~~;;~ .. ~'-G~:,~....,,~...,:~~. ~;::J, :,. "il:''<IL'<'';-.;, .. ,.:,.~ !-------\-------r-1+T-·-'-:------=r-f~~-'"""..,..,... Source: Alaska solar radiation analysis by James L. Wise, AEIDC, University of Alaska, 1979 010llth Jan Feb ~Iar Apr ~la \' Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Dec ~jonth ~!can Lr/Oy 67.0 168.8 3..tO.5 558.1 673.5 733.1 694.1 520.2 - 167.6 77 .1 33.9 1'-lcan Ly/Dy Figure 2. Bethel, Alaska No. 26615 insolation statistics. Cloudiness 0-1/10 St ~lax Dev L)'/Oy 29.2 128.8 43.5 286.8 63.0 46~). 3 -80.1 783.0 52.1 787,2 60.2 818.2 55.8 778.6 70.3 616.8 58.6 -- 56.4 287.6 170. ·1 14.2 80.5 Cloudiness 10/10 St Oev L)' I D)' ~l:l x Ly/n), ~1j J1 Ly/Dy 17.4 75.9 179.2 387.7 581. 2 643.3 609.2 '12/ .9 , - 6·1. S 14.6 11.6 ~·li n Ly/Dy I ~Ican Ly/Or 52.3 162.1 322.2 531.1 617.6 685.4 642.4 50'1.0 -.)28.7 1 /7.2 63.3 31.4 ~lcan L)· lOy ClouJincss 2-5/10 St Dev ~1ax Lr/Dy Ly/Dy 21.1 99.4 48.7 275.0 68.1 4 7~1 . 5 70.0 694.6 65.3 762.9 63.8 788.8 69.2 781.9 67.3 637.6 60.7 4..J4.9 48.8 276.4 30.3 153.3 13.9 63.2 All Clollds Hax Ly/Oy ~!i.n Ly/Dr 16.0 88.3 169.5 355.8 457.8 498. ,I 421.9 367.3 1..J6.9 65.7 3.3 10.8 ~!in Ly/D:- ClouJincss 6-9/10 ~ ~!e;1f1 St Dev ~1:lX ~Ii n Lr/O), Lr/Dy Lr/Or Ly/lly_ 32.4 19.1 108.4 2.2 109.6 41.1 233.2 38.7 27 '1.3 76.7 458.6 123.4 - 440.5 01. 9 649.8 208.4 495.1 116.7 754.7 169.5 .527.6 109.5 801. 2 21.).1 469.3 122.9 763.5 0.0 356.7 98.0 615.7 122.8 --74.0 457.5 45.8 126.4 48.8 277.0 18.6 44.3' 25.6 125. 1 O. I' 18.6 11.3 53.6 0.8 ~o of Possible Insolation -- ~Iciln St Dev ~!ax 1'-lin JilT1 19.9 11.6 65.8 0.0 39.2 26.4123.8 0.0 ·n.s 32.5 151.0 ll.O J-e b 00.0 32.3 161. .) 17 . 8 119. 0 --05'-,:--1 .-·1c---"2:--1)-' b-.-o~---Cl-=5-.-=7-1-~5--c8-. -c-l ---=-2-=-.)-. -=-5--=-11--=-1 -. (ec-) --"-1.-0 ;'!ZH 203.3 69.4 '130.3 S().1 272.8 92.6 ,174.5 39.4 62.-1 23.2 110.0 0.0 t\ Dr 328 . 9 96 . 0 6 S 3 . 6 () (). 1 'I:i b. 7 1 2l . :; 78:) . 0 S 6. 1 (, S . (i 1 8 . 0 lOb. 0 () . o· ----=~-_=_-~~~---=c__c__=_-----.::__ ~----' .,-~-c----c-----cc---+----=-=--c--c~-..,.- play 322.31()2.S SBO .. ) 111.2 4h:-i.G lS,~.3., 707.2 111.::? 5.).1 18.2 97.0 12.0 .lull 2%.0 11S.4 631.~) ()S.() ·IS().6 179.S SlS.2 6S.(i -,I;--(:-).--,2O------cl~Sc-.-:4--.",8--o,I-.-()-,--=I~.O .J 11 1 250 • 1 11 0 . U S 9:J . 3 U'.U -37(;-:-3 1 S.:' . ;1 7 S :-j -. ~cc-) --0. U .~ O. l----c--l-cc~)-. --=3--8~2 '-. 0,-:-----C-,,-1.--:-0 Aut; 177.1-76.1 ·IGO.I) lS,() 2()2.() 13.),7 ().)7.b 15.() 35.7 17.7 78.0 2.D Sell I:;J.,I b,I .. ) 31.).ll -l~~(T3.:; :):).5 '170.S U.S ,1-l-.-0----cI-c-:)-.-=S---cc-g ,l.ll n.o OCt-~-1-~3-20T:~-) --o-,-C) 1l)().:2 :i:l.] 207.() n.ll 40.Cl 21.11 153,0 O.ll :\o\' ),/.,1 l'I.() ("I.() O.() ---;-I~-.-()-~(~T7c-c()-.---c,I--().() ,1lJ.7 27.3 131.0 0.0 iJcc 9.7 (l.,1 3().<> ().ll .:':2 . 2 f5-.-()--~'-1.-5c---~()-.-(}-4--,-1 7-.-:)-' --3-::;-.-,I------c1-.I-l -.--0--'OC'·--;:. () -----------------_._----~------.----~-------------~----------------- 4 Figure 2 (Continued). Bethel, Alaska No. 26615 insolation statistics. ~lcan Total ~lean ~Iean ~!eJ.n ~lean ~Iean ~lean ~Icdian Cloudiness ~lean X Ly/Oy Ly/Oy Ly/Dy Ly/Oy Ly/Dy Ly/Oy ~lont h Ly/Oy 10ths # days .4 clds .5 clds .6 clds .7 clds .8 clds .9 clds , Jan 35.1 6.32 1215.2 54.3 40.9 35.0 49.8 29.9 28.4 feb 121.0 6.21 3361.8 160.2 166.0 125. :;; 135.6 109.9 95.1 0lal' 27S.2 6.15 8432.0 293.2 299.4 303.8 298.8 279.6 249.5 Apr 442.0 7.01 13101.0 530.0 519.0 518.2 457.4 438.2 403.4 01a v 455.0 7.59 14371. 6 633.6 579.4 582.8 566.9 506.3 424.5 Jun 455.7 8.15 13698.0 713.5 647.9 638.5 567.7 522.8 463.2 Ju1 360.:; 8.50 1166~.3 642.6 622.7 575.6 548.1 460.6 401.9 Aug 260.2 8.82 8122.0 478.6 465.3 495.9 393.9 378.2 313.6 Sen 206.0 8.06 6099.0 328.7 313.4 299.1 26·~. 0 243.1 208.4 Oct 106.7 7.99 3292.2 169.3 17.).0 152.2 142.0 131.1 10S.3 J\OV 40.8 7.c )S 1260.0 62.5 49.0 42.3 53.2 50.7 36.5 Dec 24.1 6 .. 13 688.2 32.0 26.2 20.8 23.3 19.9 14.1 5 Average TernperJture Year I Jan j feb) Mar j Ar"r ! May: June I July) Aug) SC'pt ! Oct Nov I Dec [Annual I .,. ;:: ~i -'. 'I z ~::I B-11 ·IO.Oj ,;: :1' -] .6 2.]\ o. ~ ••• OJ IfI.,!! -fl. ] 1 •• ! ,. C J.J '.e lid . 0.' 1'.110 ' .. -0 •• , .. '.' II ... '.I -Jl.1 -tIo.3 2. , -III. J .. , -1. 'j 0"1 .. \.1 19.:) 21.J O. , •• C 11.3 -1. JI I flo • b! 1 ~ ... \ ~~:~! !;:;\ I ~ • til q. J I ". 'I ,. '1' 1.1 -J" '"'' L~1 :: ;I! :!: ~II -1.} ~1. C 12.:' 0.7 '5." 11 ... 7._ 1.1 -•• ~ 16.0 0.1 13 •• 12.5 '.' .. , '.7 Ib," -I. OJ -C., O. C -2.1 8.1 b. C -1. I 15. C '.' 'c. 'I -1." •• 1 I ~ • 7 ... 1 1:.7 . J J.' ;~:~I ;;: :11 1.] 11.1 :~:~! 1;:~1 Precipitation Year! Jan I Feb I Mar I" , "," lh] o • c ~( D.HI ~: ~~Ii O. '1 !: ~;I 1.1" 1.01/ Hill 1.01 1-1 .. D.HI C.11 D. 'I o .,,~ 0,)2 l.n l.b I , '''1 a •• " O. Jl I. "I 1. c-. 0 ... J C.H l.l} 0.2 \ C. "I ~: ~~ I :: ::1 o. I" 1." 1 1. CQ c. "I' L:Jq f:Ej! 1.18 0.7J O. ~ " ;:: :1 0.01 0 .... .. O ... .. 1.5t. ,...... D.ll 0 HI. 0." , .. 5 0.'5' 0:"11 1.01 I.... Q.t:.b O.'1Il 0.11 ::~: ~:=: ~:~:! ~:~; !:~~ ~:;;I ~:~~I ~::!I I'" 0-1'> o.I~, 0.0\ 1'" 0.'" Q.(lJ! J ~'I ~'" 0.111 c.t."; O:~" ::;; ~:;;I g:~:11 ~:;;i I". 0.11, D •• \ O.h, ~;:; ~:!~\ ~::~l ~~~:: :;~~ ~:;=I,I ~::~+II ~:::'I' 1(c.:._:.1 • ( ... j 'J •• _I :J. J '>; \J.' ~ : 1 J.e I· ... 2').3 2 e. 9 20 ... '::: • l' 5 ~ ... ' ': , ~' ~ I • 3 ~ r:: • Q • ~! • .' I lo"j II." 1 ~ ... i ~:;;, II, -:. 1! ~ J. .:'i .::l. !, ~:. ~! !l.,: _Y.n !1.ll .... '\ ... ,1 II." 3 ... 1! ~ c . 1. :;::Ii ;::!j J'I." • 5" t.1 "1 .. : 5 I • ~ ~::~1 ~;'~I :~:~ ~~:; .. ,.) .. '.11 ;~:~ ;;:!I 11.' .!. b lJ.l H.8 "1.51 5 •• cj "1 '1 !I:. II : ~: ~I ;:::i ~~:;I !~::I 11j1 • ~ I .". ~ I ",'1 " • H.71 .. 0:",) ]1.J ,Q.~ l').",1 ", ... bl :::~! .. ~ . I .,. 'I ::: ;1' "'J. ~ I 'J. 1 • ~ .,. ',' 0:"1 11, b "1. ':. 5!. I ~], I ~ '>. 1 S 1.f' 57.- 51.} "'''.1 ":."'.,.. 5".7 bl.5 .. 1.01 O. "oj 1.71 I.I!! I.HI 0,:;', 1. ll' O. b::" ,L! 0: C" 'I' C.' ] C • I ~ , . ,., 0, ~ C" i " .•. I 1.010 1.01 g: !!I 1.11 0.17 "· .... 1 ~:! :! ~:: :1 0 • ."1' 0." III U. ~ .. 0 .... 0.1 , / . ., .. e. , .. 0.0 b a • ~ J :] 1 ... '1 ]. q~ 1.7t, o ... 1jI 1.1- I.J,> 1.1;- 1 • 0 ~ O. b-' I, I. 'I 1.1', I • I ~ I l!. '"I 1."'1 0."· I. _ t- O. , l' I. II C. y I G."" i 1.0 I 0 • ." !.'>', ,.'>1 1 I.n 0." 'i 1.10, I.Y' I.';I!" ~:~~i ~:~~I \,11 1 ,.0- ,.,' ~ iLl ';I J "" 1 ... ]", 1.77 J.IjI'> L11I ·"'1 J.'Ie. i. '0 L'!IJI "'.'11 1.71. ] .&0 ~ ,01 1.-1 I.:'> LG' ].11) o. ~';I ... n II ,.01 I' 1.J .. J.l1 I U" 2 )D.' I ZS 01 ".9 2" .z '. , 15 .1jI 17.8 11 .• 1 r.. b 1 a.1jI I!. a , .. II.' 12 •• 1:.t" ]1.0 -1jI. C; ':J. IjI 1." ZIjI." I!." b·"1 I C. fl, 1 ~. C: ... bl b.Io , lJ·1jI1 \0. 'I ,. , .. , ::: :1 1 -J.7 .. , ;;: ;1' -S.I , .. t1 ~.O I -: ::1 10.0 I O. ~ 1 11 ... , .' 1l.1j1 , .. '.0 -,. , !ol .. , 11.0 11 • ., -1 • ~ .,. B I •• D ~ ~: ~ i lb. a .3!'I.C H.7 )'J.6 ZIjI. ) llj1.0 ]6. 'J. 11." ~:~; !:~;II.z.,i ~:;;I ~~::~ ::;: ~'~!I i:~~! ~.~;; ~;:;~ 2,]'" l:C", 1.8al C: .. 1119.1C 1.1] ).1" D"!'i 1.17 It..'jl 1.",1 o.~'i' I.Jll 0.-]: 1~.~5 ;:~~ ~:;~I' ~:n ::~~I ;~:;~ l.105 1.t.1o 0.1jI1jI O'5~IIJ.oa 3." 7 1.81 I. 5C eo. 1 7 _,).7 b i:~r 7:~; L:~ ~:;~I' :~::! 1."''' 1.07 0.11 o.~'" lO.ZIt 1.11 I.n o.n 0.0" ,".8'i1 1'1'11 I.!)' I.O~ C.~I ILGII ;:~~ ~:;~ ::~~ Q'(~I I",S~ ,." :::: '.0' ::::~I" ::~:: :.11 o. ~., O. I fo O. ),10 11." J I.~'I 0.1jI} O.~~ ;'1) ... , ~::: ~::~I ~:~~ c,'~1 :~:~~ 0.~10 I.~O I.'>' ::::11.:'.11 a.lo] O.lQ 1 ..... O.~I I",~~ ~:;~I :~:: ~:~; ~:HI ~~:l~ 1. J'I 0." C ]. '>~ If-. '''' 1.11 1.~1 a.l~ (J '" Jl.'LJ ~:~~I ~:<~~I ~:~~l ~:~~Ii :~::~ l.lJ 1.0'1 O']~I 0.11 I!."O 1.11 0.'»1 0."'1 C.;-<I '.1'1 '.11 I,"'i O.bOI 1,~0; lSon 1.,,°11 ... ,11.111 I.<lbl 1', .. ' ;:;; ~::~I ~:;;I ~:;:i ::::; ,."1,.,,, c ... ; 0.'" "01' j 1 I I Heating Degree Days Season !~: Aug: Sept: Oct: Nov: Oec I Jan: Feb i Mar I Apr i Mat June Total 19":':·tltI 2~ol -.,,,1 bJLlI!C~II.~;! 1"1!IIPlj let'! 11jI'::113.o;[ t.,~1 '1~'lP'~ 19~I-tl;1 "~l 3<'01 ., .. :.1 1:"~lll;~121r"!lC!"II"fI15"~1 \;":;:i e. ... ~1 ~ .. ~Il":_ ,1jI61-e.'lltlf.,j 11.: 6~~ I:t> .. j \., .. I<:J' I~C"IICC1'IS~J! II,,!; 7'11 ".!!I"':~:" I ';I.,! -t.. ! J"1 .. 1;'1 • 'j I; III I a /:, el Ie .. II 1'" 01 I Q Z'" lljl\ '" II" II I:~ 11' j!," I". _'. \'H."-(',· :~"I .~ .. .,~ 1[.rll~i'''·1 ~lc~'12cnl P'C<'I'l~Ji II .. al ... 1jI7 "~fo 1 '7:0; I"b'!.·t.t .. C61 "'!.~I 'H 11~UI';t .. 1~"~ lr".:' I":'~ ;\'"<:' 12~31 c,."~ !'~ l!~"i' I'Hfo.t.7I'''1 .. Co "'''1ll''' 111"1 l"i'·ll'~~I'<""'lll~bl IC1<;1 eoCi'1 ~;-l I: .. ;] ::~;::: ;;~i !~ .. !;J !:~Sl !;:~! ::;;i ;~~~I ::~~! ::~;, ~;';; ~~;' ~~;I :~;;~ 197C-1I1 .. Ct! Ion 7C~ lZ1~lllle 11".1" 1:1:1 P(~ lCl:" 1-1(' "11 .... J I .. t.l' 1~11-7: n", !;. 6"'1! U.5~1 Jl~C HIli I"'''' l~l.; 1:~"1 na !!. ""fo '''!!C JIjI~O·7r .1 .. 11 '''1 51 <1 Q'I! 'bbcll!'1blllP!11E~11"11111Z H! ~~b Ill; .. C 1~7"'·J1i nill :''1! b~1 "ie'l JJQ~ Inl,ll";;IIO:;hl'31~Il!i;I" 7'~ l:i~:1 """"'.":1' B~I"~~ 5-1 Ir7; 13:" !1J"ll!11"'.lr;:!II~"" 1~7Q l':'~] !Ie lVI .. ~ 11"'llb1 9 liP ;'""t.t.. Jr.:.,. 169~ Ill,: no "~fo I"}::. 197"'-7", l~~ ]1" be IrJ' 17"1 1"1711"96 llC; I~ll 1"17 P-l 1o!,1jI l.bl1 ::~~:;: i~:I' [~: ~;~~ :'~;;!I ;::; ::~; :~:~ :~:!I !:~; t~~; ::~ ~~~ :;~;: 19H-H 31" ;:0<;' foe 1151 Illl tll~ Il"7 I~~;II""I ""liS bl .. 0;'-, 11 1 .. 0 1';I7<;'IC l~'" ~~I ~o 9~lII1IEtol1C1! lCCI l~!] IHl 1:J]1jI ~U 5'3011117CI l'1aC·!1 3)S IoH 5 Q 101' !!I'lllO .... Cooling Degree Days Year ) Jan , Feb i Mar I Apr IMay 'June' July! AugiSepti Oct! Nov! Oec! Total I ~H." , , , , ~ c c a , l'n.: c c C D C C C a r 1971 r c , 0 n c 0 0 D 1<;72 0 c , " I C C 0 " 19 7 ~ r D 0 C e c c a n 19h ~ C 0 0 1 C 0 C a , loon c , D C , " 0 0 0 I 19 1 b D " C , D ( C C c a 1'71 ~ ~ , r c c 0 • c C D B 1978 -0 , 0 c c r. D a 19H i D , D e 0 D C 0 a tHO c D C , . , , c c c , Snowfall SeJSon , July 1 Aug !Sept! Oct I Nov , Dec , Jan I Feb 10;'1-.. :;' I I 1jI .. 1 -~ ~ 19 .. ) -.... 1 q" ~ • II 5 1~" 'iI-.. eo 1" b -, 7 I Q .. J -~ ~ I qlo d -.. Q 1 q"q -,:>0 19'> n-", I 1 q '> I -~.' 1 q '> 1-'> ~ 1 <;I'>J-'>" 190,,, -5" 11jI~ ~ -", I- 19"'" -., 1 \ ';I~.1 -~ ~ • I "'~ 8 -S <I I ';I,>~ -b I 9'" o· 6 I 1';I,,\·t>. I 'l" l-~ 1 1"1'>\' e." I ~., .. -b" j'1b<"-fo \<.Itlo,-e.1 \ ~ '" I . I, I <.II,I',-b l'h~-1 ~ :. 1 _ o. t ... ;.~ l",~ •. 1, ... ) C::.::l d :;C'::l~ D;'.'~ ::;! ,;::1 ;:=1 :::1,;:: C.::I 'd.- r 0. ~ 6." ... .' 1. I 1 J.C 7. II 2." 1.1 •• 1 II ,III : ~ ~ i :::: ']. O. 2.'" '.J 12.' 10.2 1.' O':;j O.G '1.~ ::~ I;:; I~:: l~:~ ;:;: ~:;I', ~:~I 11.1 1].3 7.5 1.1 \., C.6/ C':I :::: -; l I . ~ ".0 J.C !.'" "'.1 ~ • .7 8.0 ]L! H.I r..) ,! ~'~I ~.~ I ~:~ I::~ '~:; 5~:: I::~ 2~:: ~:: ~;I ~:~l ~:l('~: ~:; I~:: I;:: ,;:: !:; ~~:a I~:: ~:~ ,., I ".' -:: :; ICC. 1 ~ • .; I I • 1 • ~ -';.0 :'.7 0.0 1 C.t-n. O. ~." lo.1 JJ.~ .',7 :.0 ... 7 V.O .:: ,{ :J • ~ •• ' ] • .. 0... I!. <.. ;:' ... 8. • 1 • , 1 • .:; J. 'J C.[~ 0., 0.. Q.! ].1 :.1 ].] J. I •• C.l 0.0 D j" a o.~ 1.'1 :.'!I 1-01 'iI. 7.0 1.1 ::l.J 0: 0:. I: 1.· ".J 7 .. lo 10.1 ." .. O. 1.1 Q •• 0.0 :::. ,J. :.~ 1'J..} I'." O.b 1." \. 10.;' D a ~ I;".: ljI.b ]., eool L" b •• 1.' 'J.b '.J 0: '1: r I oJ.· ]. I I"'. 11.7 ]. I l. ~ 'J. 1. r :.' 1.9 1.'1 ~.l ".1 Jr. II.' ~.7 0.0 ". ::." o. a.;: 1f'0I 7. 10.1 :.0 c.') c. , 0 .. c., , :.' .. , ;'.1 I] • .:' 1 • ~ 10. I .,' II. \ I]." >. '. , . I ~. 1 •• " o. } '-I B. , 0 •• a. C ,. C 0.0 1.7 0.::1 Ie'.", 1.7 D. a ~ ! •• ... ~ ,9. ~ : ~ • 1 • ~ • 7 "l." .. , . ., C,1.l 10_.7 \1.7 I 'n{J'1\ J. , . , . D. , I,.. •. ' 7.'" I!. I •• , 1. ..1 ,.;0 I \_.' '... I. '" I. I 'lb." 1'1' I -I. C. 1'1 '.'-' n. ( 1<.111-1 :J.t 191 .. ·1' I !;; ~:; ~ ~:: ::::::1, ::j ID[(JI/L .. ( ... a. o. , ~.1 'I.;' I 1. ~ ].. t".] 5. O. 2.' :.7 II.~ 9.\ , 1", '., O. 1 l. <.I II. C.' I.: 7. I 7.. .,. , O. 0.' I.' I ... .... "'. f> •• !1 ~ •. 1.° fl.' 10. • 7 • tI I!. ~, 1:.' 1.1 1';1. I 1 .' 10. I I l. ~ : .. .. ' ,. r '''I O. 10 • ~ 1. It. '" I •• 1 01 I... O. ." I.c" I. •• .) J. I 12. I. 8 '>. lo I r 0. C ..... 4> \".] l,., L'.C \.:'.1 , .. 10.1 ;. '> 10.7 '.2 1.1 0." ... T h.~ C • ~ S ~ • I C.O '1.0 a • a .. ~ • , O.C 0; 1 •• • I ! ~ ( ~. 'I,' ~ .• It'I'I ___ ~ 't· ~ [ .. p Figure 3. l\Ieteorological data for the current year. Flrl.ll'''! hut".""I.,., pet. VlI/"ld Normals, Means, And Extremes "'.al'l. anJ ~.trf'1"'1e' abo". lice from existing' and cOr:'.~4rable eX?OSUre5. Annual extremes have been cxceeded lit Other sites in the loc&l~t,. .. !ollo .. s: Hlqh~lt te:o;:-eriltt,;re 90 in JUr,e 1926; r:l1nirr.ulT. te~perdturp. -52 in Janu.!l["Y 190; m.:lXimllm mQnthly prccipita- tlur. ll.n 1n "U,Jst 19"",1, I!'lini:"','cl.lt': r:.c.:-.tt.~y pre:;i.r>it.et:.on T in (,eccr-J::.Er l~)~ and e"rlicr; mcl)(imur"L monthly snowfall 57.4 in Jan- UU'/ Ig'l.2; lI_oIXltt,UftI 'I,e.tall ir. 2' hours lB.' 1n Jdn'Jary 1952: r.-.axi~lO...'OI prt:clpitaticn in 24 hc..urs 2.40 in August 1951. (., lpn9t~ of ncord, fur". thf"OUll'" tl'tp c"rrp'It y",r .. ,,\PH ot~P,...lH· l'Io~"!1. tl,~ .. 1 CP'I .I.rJ'~f c~t •. ttl) 1v· ,r.1 .~,r: ... ," at ,a,\HI..n H.tlor.L • ll:'H tt"" onlP ~,.If. T -r r ~ ~ 11'. "IOp .... ),lS .. f8'S~d on r~(ord fo," the 1'Hl~1970 period. C.':"TE OF J..'l [lHl(tJE -TI'I~ ~H rtc-tnt In case'S of mult1pl~ OC(\J·T~nCt. ~?E";'lL1N~ .... :'.:1 DIR(CTI()'j -?~csrd tnr'ou!JI'I l!j(,), ,"';~·O u!ft,Er.:Tlv~1 -Ihl'!'pro!lh 1I'\d'c~te tpn'S of de'lr~e'S cloc~wht fro,., true ,,~rtl'l. 0:1 1r.dlCtt~s calm. FA!;':'(ST Mll[ WIND -SDed 11 futeH obH"r ... ~d '·n;inute vIJU~ .. l"1en the direction I'S 1n t .. n'S of dcqre~s. S Through 1979. f ,n , 0 to II .- 17 " JI It It 17 , . IJ 21 Yur "PIC I' . .r' '.::; .1-.... ' .. ~ .... t. ... ... ~ .~ ... II .... ';.7 :"I ::::'.,1 I o ! '1:: '>. I ~ I,:::J I .• ;~ ~ n~;:: " 2" 'I:' I G. I!' ".\ ,,1 ,00 ',' " IJ '.1 " 12 II " " ,- It 2' ,. " " 1I 11 I tiez. 0 1 ~ 1 G::: C • ~ I' l~,O\.O I CJ2. 1 ,.. L,,02. S r 1)07.7 ~I';;;:: 1 <;. 'i 9. ° 1 7 ., 9 9. '!. I 7111002.2 Figure 4. Insolation and temperature data. 1\laximum Minimum Average Heating Cooling DJil)' DailYI Monthly Degree Days Degree Days Temp. cC Temp. °C Temp. °C Base 18.3 °C Base 18.3 °C Jan -109.1 -18.99 -14.94 1031 0 Feb -8.99 -17.49 -13.22 883 0 Mar -6 .... 9 -16.38 -11.44 923 0 A~H 0.38 -8.72 -4.16 675 0 MJY 9.16 -0.16 4.50 428 0 June 15. E.G 6.11 10.88 223 0 July 1 G.G 1 8.55 12.61 177 0 Aug 1-1.72 7.77 11.27 218 0 Sept 11.00 3.44 7.22 333 0 Oct 2.27 -1..27 -0.99 599 0 Nov -~.66 -11.77 -8.22 796 0 Dec -11.49 -19.16 -15.33 1043 0 Ann 2.27 -5.94 -1.83 7335 0 I Maximum Minimum Average Heating . Cooling I I' Daily Daily tVionthly Degree Days Degree Days Temp. OF Temp. OF Temp. OF Base 65 OF Base 65 OF Jan 12.3 -2.2 5.1 1856 0 Feb 15.8 0.5 8.2 1589 0 Mar 20.3 2.5 11.4 1661 0 Apr 32.7 16.3 24.5 1215 0 May 48.5 31.7 40.1 770 0 June 60.2 43.0 51.6 401 0 July 61.9 47.4 54.7 319 0 Aug 58.5 46.0 52.3 392 0 Sept 51.8 38.2 45.0 599 0 Oct 36.1 24.3 30.2 1078 0 Nov 23.6 10.8 17.2 1433 0 Dec 11.3 -2.5 4.4 1877 0 Ann 36.1 21.3 28.7 13203 0 STATION NO. 26615 Bethel, Alaska Source: Insobtion Data r.!anuaJ by Knapp ct aI., Solar Energy Research Institute, 1980 Total Global Global KT Radiation Cloudiness kJ/rn2 Index 1099.0 0.351 3594.0 0.442 8381.0 0.497 13623.0 0.496 16492.0 0.450 17232.0 0.418 1463.7.0 0.374 10441.0 0.332 7952.0 0.375 4203.0 0.367 1534.0 0.330 553.0 0.276 8312.0 0.409 Total Global Total Global Radiation Radiation Btu/fF Langleys 96.8 26.3 316.7 85.9 738.5 200,3 1200.4 325.6 1453.2 394,2 1518.4 411.9 1289.7 349.8 920.0 249.6 700.7 190.1 370.3 100.5 135.2 36.7 48.7 13.2 732.4 198.7 LATITUDE: 60° 47' N LONGITUDE: 161 0 48' W ELEVATION: 46 meters (150.9 feet) Figure 5. Insolation and temperature data. ********************************************~********************************** STATION: BETHELl :::TATIClt·! ~!Ut1l?EF:: :e:!:.,~.15 LATITUDE: I'JOFiM?iL lEt'lFTRATI.lFiE ([lEG F) * DAILY [rAlLY MONTH t'lAX 1111._lt1 t'lJtJrr11_'~1 f'10NTHLY ,JAr'J FE'_8 11AF: {iF'R r1r-.V 1I,Ir J 1I.1!_ AUCi ::::f_cF Cn-:T r·j,:") r:r:c At'i"1 .1::. :~: 1 ':'"" ,-: 20. ::: :;:::-: 7 4:::.5 (-.1) •• ~ (,1 ~, r7 ,., r:' _ .. 1.:·, •. ~, ~,1 :=: :::: (-.• J :-~ "::. t. 1 I ::: 3!;.. t 2. 4~. o.~ .-, t= ... ::.. I j '::" -::: :::: 1 7 4::::.0 4 -:.·1 41: .• (' ;:::: ... ~~. :--::41 -, 1 (I. -: _:. L_-, :~: 1 :: 5 . .1 :::. :: 11 4 24 ~.: 4e). 1 I /-. 5-1 7 '~5 A') ::::(1. - 1"7 -. 'I 'I ;,::: "7 6047N LONGITUDE: NOF:MAL_ [lEGF:E-~E-: D(~Y::::-;s- BA:;::E ,I:,~; [IEI:i F HEAT1~JI-:; COCILII-II.-i 1 :.::~5 I' i) j c, ,10 (I ._' 1 (c.«?' () 1 -1 c-O ./-- , 772 ( ) 4(i:~: 0 -: t ~i <) - ::::":4 (I (c. I )( , (> 1 ( )?',;' (> 1 '1 ::::.1 [ i 1 ::::/.:-: ( 1 1 -.->:::: (I -c:.: ( Source; Input J:,l:1 for ~()Jar SySll'llh ily Cin<jul'lIlani et ai., for LJSDOE/ Diyisiuu ur ~)()I:ir 'I't.'clln(dc,~:y ;: 8 16148W ELEVATION: TOTAL HEMISPHERIC MEAN DAllY SOLAR RADIATION" BTU/F'T2 -y.-,,-, t.;;:'" , -":"_:'. -. .1 1~~:c)(J.4 1 4'~:3. :: 1 ':': j ::::. iJ. 1 ;,::::'--'. 7 ',/20. (I 700.7 3-;C).::: 1-:::'·:~. -:, 4::::.7 7.:::'. 'j 1 o·::y:-,. (I :::~j·;:4 .. \) ::: ::;: ::,: 1 . (i 1 ::::«:::::. (I 1 t~.4 ·.~/~?. I) 1 T2:-::2. I) 14!':.::::7. (; 10441.0 i' '~'~5 .::~ .. (1 420:::. i) 1 ~C,>l • (! ::::94.::" 411 .. ::- ::::4'.:;. ::: 1 ,.~,,). t 10:). ' ... , :~:6. 7 1::::.2 1 '.'::::. " RHR/IECO (1979) assessed wind po\.;rer potential from an analysis of mean monthly wind speeds for Be.thel and detennined the mean monthly and annual kilowatt hours of electricity. However, the analysis is incomplete in that no consideration was given to the persistence of power-producing winds. Rutledge et al. (1980) presented a discussion of wind in Alaska generally. 2 It included an estimate of annual wind power density of 172 watts/m taken from a study of national wind power by Reed in 1976. This document gave an overview of the entire state of Alaska but is not specific enough to be much use for the present study. Wentink (1976a, b) also considered Alaska as a whole·and made predictions of energy production from 6-kw, 15-kw and 100-kw machines. His study used actual mean monthly wind speed data which had been computed for particular distributions of wind speed. Bethel data appeared in his computations, but lacked details about persistence of power-producing winds. Wise et al. (1980) mapped seasonal and annual power density at 10 and 50 meters aboveground for all of Alaska. Power classes one through seven (Figure 6) were used in the mapping effort. Resulting seasonal and annual maps (Figures 14, 15, and 16) of power classes for the area appear at the end of this section. This study produced a data set not shown in the published document dlat presented a more detailed characterization of winds, such as persistence of wind speeds and power densities hy month, season, and year. Wind data sllmmaries for nethel, Quinhagak, Toksook, Kalskag, and platinum (Figures 7 throllgh 11) are attached. If necessary, AEIDC's Climate Center can provide more detailed information on wind by month for Bethel, Quinhagak and Toksook. 9 Figure 6. Classes of wind pO,wer density at 10 m and 50 m(a). 10 JT1 (33 ft) 50 m (lG~ ft) Wind \\,ind PO\~ cr Wind Power rO\~ l'r Dcnlity. Speed,(b) D(I1Sily. Speed,(ll) CJ.h~ W.llh/1l1~ mjs (mph) w,llh!m 2 Ill/I (n1ril) ----0 0 0 0 1_~-IOO--·\.4 ( 9.S)---cLlO--5G (12.5) 2_--150--5.1 (11.5)---JOO--G.~ (I-U) )---200--5.6 (12.5)---.100--7.0 (15.7) 4_--250--6.0 (LH)---SOO--7.5 (IGS) 5_--300--6 .4 (14.3~---600--8.0 (179) 6_--400--7.0 (IS.7)---SOO----S.S (1'1.7) 7 __ -IQ ()0--'lA (1l.1)--:W()O--II.'J (2G.(,) !h}'.kJIl ~'I/ld ~""l't'd i~ bJ)l'J on RJ}:ri.:h '>I"'l'd di-.(rill('I;()11 of l'quiv.l- )rll! JJH'.lrl .... inJ power ilL'rl<,il),. \\;lld :'r'L't'-! i~ tnr )l.III,IJrd )l'J-lnl'l l'H~I~111')ll<;. To !lIJ;nt.lin (Ill: \J!1ll' ril\''''l'r dL·II~ilY. '>rl'cd ;Illrl",hl''> :i':~l~I::(J~) It (.l'·,!l(JOIJ 11\) 1.11 o.;!o.:V,\IIIJrl Source: I'NL·;ll D:> WI·:It:\-J () 10 Hydropower Generation AEIDC has inventoried available data pertainent to the study area. During the past 40 years mean annual precipitation at Bethel has varied from a low of 7.29 inches to a high of 40.76 inches. Analysis of 1980 precipitation data for the Bethel area (Figure 12) indicated the area received 1.02 inches more than the 30-year (1941-1970) normal of 15.84 inches, an increase of 6.4%. On the other hand, 1981 precipitation was 2.82 inches below normal, a decrease of 17.8%. In the first three months of 1982 Bethel precipitation was 1.80 inches above normal. Although unkno~.m precipitation in the Kisaralik River drainage has been estimated by various sources to average 40 to 60 inches annually (Lamile 1979; Kilday 1974; m~S/NOfu\ 1973) with the greatest amount occurring during August to October. 11 ..... N G f. ;:, i ' :, : J (: C S:, 1 ;,; u D I v lSI IJ: ~ L1 :, C, LJ :. ,:" F , ... \ I ' ',r ILL t, t i. C. 2 8 !3 0 1 SURFAC~ WINDS Figure 7. Percentage frequency of wind direction and speed (from hourly observations). .~/I::r: STATION 1210 VIS FORM .JUt.. 64 STATlO~ NAME ,'; L L \'; i~ .', T H ;: i '. CLASS CON DIT ION 0-8-5 (De! 50) PREVIOUS ~OITIONS OF TH J. L I. ---~~---- YEARS ~o"'rH IILL HOURS (L ST.) TOTAL NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS t 7 ::. 6:: 6 ------ .... w Figure 8. Percentage frequency of wind direction and speed: Quinhagak. TOTALS I, :: ~~ Ij"~ L ~~~) '-: ~; ~ R Y n::!sP[t:~)1-3 ;.;: ~-5 ~t 7-10 kt 11-16 kt 17-21 kt 22-27 kt 28-33 5' kt 34-40 kt 41-47 kt 48-55 kt >55 kt Total JJ~tl.J~'y F 'C l ~ " :, r y ," ~)' .. 11J ~ y ~-(~~'~'.'-.~'l':'" 3 12 51 Q 33 2 1~ 3q 11 25 5 i5 36 11 13 2 36 38 26 (, : :.. ;): '} ,"" , 2 4 20 53 5G :.J-.l<'~':~ 6 ~Q ,~ :'". n T ~ : :. 1 1 5 ~ ~ U ~~rl ! 1.315729 11.9333C 430 31.43275 36 22 113 36 23 26 33 33 1 1 3W 75 51 11 ~ 3 32.383::14 Source-: Arctic Envjronmental Info~mltion and Data Center, L'niYl'rsity of Abska, Clim3te Center I' ., 30 16 7 12 8 8 'r ' 7 6 3 ') 15 128 9.356725 2 9 10' 1 I' 1 3 3 8 43 3,143275 .-.. ~ 2 .. '3 .... ,-.... --... -----.. 157 o 0 1 1 1 . 1 ? 1 10 .7309942 . 11 --. _ .. --.. --.. .--.-- .2923977 -_.----_._._. ----------I- 83 126 1 1 I 108 103 10!j 93 33 34 179 137 13G3 % Cal m 9.356725 Figure 9. Percentage frequency of wind direction and speed: Toksook. ;,:: :;:J AL SU~i:·\'\RY TOBLS KtiOTS :C:/:::PEED 1-3 11-6 7-10 11-16 J d:l U,lr y 3 13 9 12 Fel·ruary 6 8 11 3 t";Z!t-ch 1 6 15 4 t,rril 12 11 11 ~'.Jy 13 1 1 1 Jilne 13 11 1 July' :1 11l 1 1 f.usust 8 15 9 Septer.ber 3 1 1 22 14 October' 2 21 22 ~Jcvember 8 12 10 1>2 e:71ber 7 7 2 A'1'1 Tetal i 5 110 ,5') 100 An:1 ,< 2.419355 17.7419 4 25.64516 16.12903 .' Source: Arctic Environmental Information and bata. Center, University of Alaska, Climate Center 17-21 1 1 6 1 10 10 10 2 3 1 1 8 7 1 80 12.90323 22-27 28-33 34-IW 41 -47 48-55 1 2 5 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 3 2 2 3 1 15 12 6 2.419355 1.935484 .9677419 CALI1 Total 16 65 25 61 16 ~5 4 56 14 39 6 lj3 7 li5 4 lI1 10 74 10 70 15 56 7 24 134 620 .-Calm " 19.83871 ftJ £I};J 7.29 l'p 1-;;; /°, ~ 8 h i'/// Figure 10. Wind summary, Kalskag. , 11390 JBJproxirr.n tcly 5 to 13 Obo. uo.t 1y. ' fJl:.RIOD SUMMARY BY COMBINED VELOCI TY GROU P S .\ I I 1.::,n CH 1909 - STATION IVUSI:AC, AL .... SJCt\ , ~ , lJl: :1j:.I. . PERIOD 12UL 19t.cl i ~ NNE \ TOT. N NE ENE E ESE SE SSE S SSN SW WS'1 W wt-M NW NNW 08S. 0/0 PAP . .. , ~4::i~ , , , . \. . i I 1~Z ([y .. flsl JU' I~O~ 1(./ ,V$ It, };:J.? .32 :.;st /1 i{lo -;3 j(,s ~:~ k37'37 t( '. 'III.· , " \ t~lI .. !jj JS 1611 16 38" J~3 Ii. b -1/ II J?l 7' /J, I ,I) "'( , I) / j:"'f.t' . --_. . , , Z-47 I . ~'" "-~. ~.; 3 \ 'L'S' -4 I , --:+: ;1" " , OVER , . '. " I 'J .. 47 { '1 . T'· -" .. -~ ...... ,CALM , : ) ;·~Y'. .. . , /~-. ~,~, : .... Ij 7I.J :27 , I : TOT. I ODS, ~b1f I3S /,,~ /3'1 i71 .J.f'll. .2&.1 J,6 /3)., 3:<-3(' , II I'/l( /3 It. '1 b S-S'/f/. I I % CALM .If ' ) ,~o -3 !7 )! ~ if-;I-I 7 ./1.-~ Jt .3 J ;)) ICO l •. 7 -------_._--.. .. ~--.. ~ Figure 11. Wind summary, Platinum. 15 Year 1941-70 1980 ANT DEP 1981 >-' 0\ ~T DEP 1982 AMT DEP Source: Jan Feb 0.54 0.74 0.86 0.74 +0.31 +0.00 0.63 1.00 +0.09 +0.26 1. 71 0.63 +1.17 -0.11 Figure 12. Bethel precipitation record by amount (AMT) and departure from the norm (DEP). Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct 0.79 0.43 0.83 1. 24 1. 98 3.97 2.42 1. 32 1.15 0.39 0.84 3.33 4.00 2.72 0.95 0.90 +0.36 -0.04 +0.01 +2.09 +2.02 -1. 25 -1. 47 -0.42 0.41 0.59 0.16 1. 79 1. 51 1. 84 0.95 1. 62 -0.38 +0.16 -0.67 +0.55 -0.47 -2.13 -1.47 +0.30 1. 53 +0.74 Climate Center, AEIDC (National Climate Center). Annual Measurements Nov Dec AMT DEP 0.96 0.62 0.20 0.24 16.82 +1.02 -0.76 -0.38 2.12 0.40 13.02 -2.82 +1.16 -0.22 r-~; __ I""i -- r I I I -, \ \ \ ) 160· ~ -100-___ ~ Figure 13" 150· 140" ---. ·tation-inches. 1 P reClpl Mean annua 130_" __ _ ---~~;;--INSET ALASI(A INSET _. 56~~:· .~ •••• ~ _ ._~ •• __ .. _ 17.3 --.-35_7 All AVAILABlE BAS(O ON'HAOUGH 1972 OAU IN CO-OPIIATION W~~:II('t' G!OlOGICAl THI U.S. PUBLISHED BY WEATHER SlAvIC( THI NATIONAL SPRING PNl 319S WERA-10 c:=1 FI:OGECREST ESTIMATES so 100 150 MILES o 50 ,fl) 150 KllOME TERS 6'· 59" (, !!2 AUTUMN 60· Figure 14. Seasonal average wind power in South central Alaska (Spring, Autumn). 18 . Q) !£ c:=:=J I'IIOGf CREST ESTIMAf(S o r,n HI1 14:1 ,\mrs ____ """ __ i~_==:> o "if1 l(Tl 1;t) KH()'\.'[HR~ =~='--= . CD ~ 7 WINTER SUMMER Figure 15. Seasonal average wind power in Southcentral Alaska (Winter, Summer). 19 G2' GO' 62 0 N 0 6/0 7 60 0 0 co !E 0 <0 <0 1 • .. ~ ... o (\J 164"/ ....... !:f! I MILES o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS c::::::::=::::---::~---= f'~1 )l!lS '('i1 RA 10 Figure 16. Southcentral Alaska annual average wind power. GEOMORPHOLOGY Regional Physiography The region under consideration for the Bethel Area Power Plan falls within the Southwest Region of .~aska (Figure 17) (Selkregg et al. 1976). The physiographic divisions within the Southwest Region and our study area include the Kilbuck Mountains, the western slope of the Ahklun Mountains, and the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. There has previously been considerable confusion in the literature about the divisions of the Kilbuck and Ahklun Mountains. For the purposes of this report, the physiographic divisions of Wahrhaftig (1965), which are generally accepted, are used (Figure 18). Kilbuck Hountains The Kilbuck Mountains are a rugged group of mountains rising 3,000 to 4,000 ft in a northeast-southwest trending group 95 miles long and 25 miles wide. The group is bounded on the south by Kwethluk Creek and Canyon Creek, on the east by Kipchuk River, and north and west by the Kuskokwim River lowlands (Orth 1967). Although parts of the range were glaciated in earlier times, and glacial deposits are found in those areas, no modern glaciers exist. Drainage is by shallow, clearwater streams, some incised into bedrock gorges. Ahklun Hountains This range consists of groups of very rugged, steep-walled mountains rising 2,000 to 5,000 ft, with sharp summits. The range is drained directly to the Bering Sea on the south and west, to the Nushagak River via the Nuyakuk River on the northeast, and to the Kuskokwim River on the northwest. The mountains are separated by broad, flat valleys and lowlands. A few small 21 Figure 17. The Southwest Region of Alaska. Source: Selkregg et aL 1976. 22 Figure 18. PhysiO!l'aV hic divisions of the southwest }legion of Naska. SOL'SD Source: rcwe 1975. 23 cirque glaciers exist in the higher mountains, but older glacial deposits mantle most of the range, evidence reflect earlier, more intense glaciation. Clear streams drain the mountains, many of which have incised gorges 20 to 50 feet deep in bedrock. Several streams in the northwest part of the range have cut canyons directly across structurally controlled ridges, and some rivers, like the Kisaralik, cut right across the structural grain of the Kilbuck Mountains. Several large, deep glacial lakes lie in U-shaped canyons, the largest lying on the eastern and southern slopes of the range. The largest is Lake Nerka, which is 29 miles long. At least 40 lakes are more than 2 miles long. Some lakes are as deep as 900 ft. Several of the smaller glacial lakes, including Kisaralik Lake, lie on the western slope of the range (Wahrhaftig 1965). Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta The Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta is a fan-shaped, marshy lowland rising from sea level to about 100 to 300 ft at its eastern end. The deltaic lowland covers about 21,000 sq mi, most of which lies less than 10 ft above sea level. The Yukon River, the largest in Alaska, empties into a modern delta at the northern end of the deltaic plain, while the Kuskokwim River, the second largest in Alaska draining an area of about 55,000 sq mi with a total length of about 600 mi, drains through a mariue estuary about 60 mi long at the southern end of the deltaic plain. The delta terminates in the north where the Yukon River flows against the Nulato Hills, and on the east gradually merges with the foothills of the Kilbuck Mountains. The delta is crossed by many meandering streams of very low gradient. ~le characteristic feature of the deltaic plain is its numerous lakes and ponds, which vary in size from less than an acre to several thousand acres. 24 Many are 10 or more miles in length. Perhaps 30 to 50 percent of the lowland is lake surface. Here and there throughout the plain are small mountains, such as the Askinuk Mountains, Kusilvak Mountain, and the mountains of Nelson Island. These rise as high as 2,300 to 2,450 ft. North of Baird Inlet rise several volcanic peaks, the Ingakslugwat Hills, many of which contain summit crater lakes (Selkregg et al. 1976; Wahrhaftig 1965). Other, smaller volcanic domes rising 200-300 ft occur near Kipnuk and along the Kashunuk River. The city of Bethel is located about 85 miles upstream from the mouth of the Kuskokwim River on the north bank. The terrain in the Bethel area is 1m." almost flat, with thousands of lakes and small ponds. The elevation of land in the Bethel area is in the range of a to 25 ft, causing the area to be highly flood prone. The city is located on alluvial deposits within the modern floodplain of the Kuskokwim River (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1981). Surficial Geology Figure 1 in the Appendix shows the distribution of surficial deposits within the study area. Kilbuck and Ahklun Mountains The upper, steep mountain slopes of the Kilbuck and Ahklun Mountains primarily are covered with coarse rock rubble, formed thFough the riving action of seasonal frost on the underlying hedrock. These rubble deposits consist of the same rock types as bedrock lying either at, or upslope from, the deposits. Old glacial moraines and till, comprised of a complex, unsorted mixture of boulders, gravel, sand, silt, and clay, mantle most highland valleys and lower slopes. The moraines are usually expressed as low, arcuate hills that 25 were originally deposited at the edges of glaciers; these hills are generally more modified by erosion with increasing distance from the center of the mountain range. Till is a general ground cover of these unsorted glacial deposits laid down more-or-less uniformly as the glaciers retreated. In many valleys glaciofluvial sediments of layered gravel, sand, and silt were laid down in ancient times by fluvial meltwater streams and are often found today as old outwash or terrace deposits above modern ,I1a tercourses. Alluvial sediments of gravel, sand, and silt deposited by modern streams are found in valley bottoms extending from the mountains through the adjoining highlands to the coastal plain. These occur as floodplain, alluvial fan, and terrace deposits underlying and bordering modern streams and rivers (Selkregg et al. 1976; Karlstrom et al. 1964; Hoare and Coonrad 1959). The thickness of the surficial deposits is highly variable but probably not as thick as the great width some valleys might indicate. The deposits in the mountains are probably generally less than 100 ft thick (Hoare 1961). Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta The composite delta of the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers is principally an area of fluvial sedimentation that apparently derives from a complex history of al terna ting freshwa ter and marine deposition. The plain is underlain by Quaternary sand and silt to uncertain depths. Local hills and mountains rising above the deltaic plain are canposed either of local basement bedrock or are volcanic cones of Tertiary and Quaternary age. These rise out of, and are partly buried by, the immense lowland of fluvial deposits. Water wells near Bethel penetrated as much as 600 ft of silt and fine sand, with occasional sparse gravel layers. Wood chips and bark found in the sediments suggest that they were laid down in a freshwater or estuarine 26 environment. An oil well drilled near Napatuk Creek penetrated 760 ft of Quaternary sediments, below which lay Tertiary and Cretaceous sedimentary sections. The Quaternary sediments have not been studied in great detail, but many appeared to have been of marine origin, probably deposited during periods of marine transgression (Pewe 1975; Shepard and Wanless 1971; Patricelli, Timmcke, and Abbott 1982; Coonrad 1957). Deposits beneath the city of Bethel consist of modern floodplain alluvium and silt. Reworked silt occurs northeast of Hanger Lake. Floodplain alluvium consists of recent deposits of mud, silt, sand, gravel, boulders and inter- mixed wood, peat, and other vegetal material. Deposits of silt consist of organic "mulch," which becomes sandier with depth and, in some areas, contains gravel pebbles and wood fragments. Silty sediments may be due to river action but may contain some areas of wind or marine deposited silt (Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc. 1982). Soils Large portions of the study area, both in the mountains and in the coastal plains and deltas, are covered with poorly drained soils with discontinuous permafrost and a thick overlying peat mantle. In the coastal plain and deltas the soils are principally stratified sandy, silty, loamy materials associated wiTh peats and supporting wet tundra vegetation. Shallow, rocky soils with a thin organiC mat occupy steeper mountain slopes. At lower elevations these soils support low brush vegetation, but at higher elevations alpine tundra predominates (Michaelson 1974). Figure 2 in the Appendix shows the distribution of soils in the study area. The following soils descriptions. excerpted from Soil Conservation Service (I 979), gives details of soil units within the study area. Figure 19 shows soils lbnitations ratings, and Figure 20 indicates soil erosion potential. 27 Figure 19. Soil limitation ratings. Limitation Ratings* Soil Units Road Location Low Buildings Off-road Trafficability ENTISOLS Typic Cryofluvents; loamy, nearly level to rolling: (a) Kuskokwim Highlands Moderate: FLD Severe: FLD Slight (b) Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta Moderate: FLD Severe: FLD Slight Typic Cryofluvents, very gravelly, nearly level Moderate: FLD Moderate: FLD Slight Typic Cryorthents; very gravelly, nearly level to rolling: (a) Kuskokwim Highlands Slight Slight Slight N (b) Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta Slight Slight Slight OJ Lithic Cryorthents; very gravelly, hilly to steep Severe: SLP, BDR Severe: SLP, BDR Moderate to severe: SLP Pergelic Cryorthents; very gravelly, hilly to steep Severe: SLP Severe: SLP Moderate to severe: SLP Typic Cryopsamments; sandy, nearly level to rolling Severe: SLP, BLO Severe: SLP Severe: SLP, LSE HISTOSOLS Pergelic Cryofibrists; nearly level Very severe: WET, HUM Very severe: WET, HUM Very severe: WET, HUM INSEPTISOLS Typic Cryandepts; loamy, hilly to steep Severe: SLP, LSC Severe: SLP, LSC Severe: SLP, DSL Histic Perelic Cryaquepts; loamy, nearly level to rolling (a) Kuskokwim Highlands Very severe: WET, PFT Very severe: WET, PFT Severe: WET (b) Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta Very severe: WET, PFT Very severe: WET, PFT Severe: 'V ET Figure 19 (Continued). Soil limitation ratings. Limitation Ratings* Soil Units Road Location Low Buildings Off'road Trafficabili ty lEstie Pcrgclic Cryaquepts; very gravelly, nearly level to lolling Severe: WET, PFT Severe: WET, PFT Severe: WET IIistic Pergclic Cryaquepts; very 6'Ta velly, hilly to steep Severe: WET, SLP Severe: WET, SLP Severe: WET, SLP Pergclie Cryaquepts; loamy, nearly level to rolling Severe: WET, PFT Severe: WET, PFT Severe: WET Pergelic Cryaquepts; very gravelly, nearly level to rolling Severe: WET, PFT Severe: WET, PFT Severe: WET Pergelie Cryaquepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep Severe: SLP, WET Severe: SLP, WET Severe: SLP, WET Pergelie Ruptie . Histic Cryaquepts; N loamy, nearly level to rolling Very severe: WET, PFT Very severe: WET, PFT Very severe: WET "" Pergelic Cryoehrepts; very gravelly, hilly to steep Severe: SLP Severe: SLP Severe. SLP Typic Cryumbrepts; very gravelly, hilly to steep Severe: SLP Severe:SLP Severe: SLP Entie Cryumbrepts; very gravelly, hIlly to steep Severe: SLP Severe: SLP Severe: SLP Lithic Cryumbrepts; very gravelly, hilly to steep Severe: SLP, BDR Severe: SLP, BDR Severe: SLP Lithic Ruptic·Entic Cryumbrepts; very gravelly, hilly to steep Severe: SLP, BDR Severe: SLP, BDR Severe: SLP Pergelic Cryumbrepts; very gravelly, nearly level to rolling Moderate: PFT .Moderate: PFT Slight Pergelic Cryumbrepts; very gravelly, hilly to steep Severe: SLP Severe: SLP Severe: SLP Figure 19 (Continued). Soil limitation ratings. w Soil Units MOLLISOLS Pcrgelic Cryaquolls; loamy, nearly level to rolling Pergelic Cryoborolls; very gravelly, nearly level to rolling SPODOSOLS Pergelic Sideric Cryaquods; loamy, nearly level to rolling Typic Cryorthods; very gravelly, hilly to steep Pergelic Cryorthods; very gravelly, hilly to steep Road Location Severe: PFT, WET Moderate: PFT Severe: WET, PFT Severe: SLP Severe: SLP o MISCELLANEOUS Lava flows Very severe: BDR Rough mountainous land Very severe: SLP *Explanation of symbols BDR -Shallow bedrock. BLO -Soil is susceptible to blowing. DSL -Soil is dusty when dry and soft or slippery when wet. FLD -Soil is susceptible to flooding. HUM -Organic soil; peat. Source: Soil Convervation Service 1979. Limitation Ratings* Low Buildings Severe:.PFT, WET Moderate: PFT Severe: WET, PFT Severe: SLP Severe: SLP Very severe: BDR Very severe: SLP LSC -Soil has low load-supporting capability. LSE -Loose, unstable sand. PFT -Soil has perenially frozen substratum. SLP -Steep slopes or rough terrain. Off-road Trafficability Severe: WET Slight Severe: WET Severe: SLP Severe: SLP Very severe: SLP Very severe: SLP WET -Soils are wet; high water table or seepage during most or all of the frost-free season. Figure 20. Soil erosion potential. Soil Unit Erosion Potential IQ 2 Medium IQ 3 Medium IQ 6 Medium IQ 11 High IQ 16 High IU 1 Medium IU 2 Medium IU 3 Medium RMI ... --.... - S06 Medium Source: Selkregg, et aL 1976. 31 IQ2--Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, Loamy, Nearly Level to Rolling Association This association is extensive and widespread in all regions of Alaska within the permafrost zone. Although the dominant soils have similar characteristics, there are some differences in associated soils of relatively minor extent, soil patterns, landforms, and landscape features. Largely because of ice-rich permafrost, the dominant soils in all areas of the association have severe limitations for any inten- sive use and development. They are not potentially suitable for common agricultural crops and are not forested. In the western Alaska coastal plains and deltas the association occupies extensive plains that border the Bering Sea. Elevations on these nearly level plains seldom exceed 100 feet above sea level. Many meandering streams and shallow lakes are a part of the landscape. Nearly all of the soils formed in silty alluvial sediment and have a shallow permafrost table. The vegetation is a tundra type dominated by sedges, mosses, and low shrubs. Principal components in the western tUaska coastal plains and del tas Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, loamy, nearly level to rolling, (70 percent) are poorly drained soils on broad low plains. They formed in deep silty alluvial sediment and are shallow over permafrost. The vegetation is a tundra type consisting chiefly of sedges, mosses, 32 lichens. and low shrubs. Beneath a thick peaty surface mat, the soils have a mottled. dark gray silt loam horizon that is commonly streaked with frost-churned organic material. A few soils have a polygonal surface pattern. Pergelic Cryofibrists. nearly level, (15 percent) are very poorly drained organic soils in nearly level shallow basins and slight depressions. Permafrost is shallow, and the peat above the permafrost is wet and spongy in the SUMner. The vegetation is mainly sedges and mosses. Beneath a thick mat of living moss. sedges. and toots, the peat consists of dark brown sedge and moss fibers that are perennially frozen below a depth of 10 to 20 inches. Pergelic Cryaquepts, loamy, nearly level. (10 percent) are poorly drained soils with permafrost on low terraces near major streams. They support willows. sedges, mosses, and low shrubs. Beneath a thin peaty surface mat, the soils have a mottled, dark gray horizon formed in stratified silt and fine sand. Depth to permafrost ranges from 20 to 40 inches. Other components (5 percent): Typic Cryofluvents, loamy, nearly level, occur on a few narrow natural levees. They are well drained, stratified silt and fine sand. The vegetation is mainly willow, alder, and grasses. Typic Cryopsamments, sandy, hilly to steep, occur on low sand dunes along the coast. The vegetation is mainly grasses and forbs. 33 IQ3--Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts-Typic Cryofluvents, Loamy, Nearly Level Association This association occurs on flood plains of many major streams in western Alaska. The largest of these border the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers and the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Others border tributary rivers in the Kuskokwim Highlands area. Soils are of two basic kinds. On the lower parts of the flood plains are poorly drained soils with permafrost. On slightly higher natural levees are well drained soils in which permafrost is deep or absent. Because the rivers, over long periods, have shifted their channels in the flood plain, some levees are not adjacent to streams and in many places are miles away. Conversely, the present channels of the rivers are in places bordered by poorly drained soils which were fonnerly separated from them by natural levees. Most areas of well drained soils are interrupted by narrow meander scars, but in many places these channels are neither numerous nor conspicuous. Most areas of this association are flooded occasionally. Flooding usually takes place in the spring, but in some years flooding ensues after prolonged midsummer rains. Vegetation on the well drained soils is dominantly a forest of white spruce, paper birch, quaking aspen, cottonwood, and willows. In the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, however, willows and alder are the principal plants. The poorly dr.ained soils are covered either by a black spruce forest or by sedge tussocks and associated low shrubs. These soils support stands of white spruce suitable for commercial use, The poorly drained soils with permafrost have little potential for either agriculture or forestry. Because of low summer temperatures only grasses and vegetables can be grown. 34 There are severe limitations for construction in all areas because of flooding and, in the poorly drained soils, permafrost. The associa- tion provides habitat for a large variety of wildlife, especially migratory waterfowl that use the wet areas for nesting. Principal components: Histic Perge1ic Cryaquepts, loamy, nearly level, (45 percent) are poorly drained soils in low areas, including many meander scars, on the flood plains. They have thick surface organic horizons, derived principally from either sedges or sphagnum moss. Texture ranges from silt loam to sandy loam. Many of the soils are stratified. The soils are usually saturated above a shallow permafrost table, but some are dry in the upper horizons in midsummer. Both acid and nonacid soils are included. Along parts of the Yukon River and in a few other places the soils are calcareous Typic Cryof1uvents, loamy, nearly level, (35 percent) are well drained soils on natural levees along existing and former river channels. In many places the levees have coalesced into broad, gently undulating plains interrupted by meander scars containing poorly drained soils. The soils generally consist of stratified silt loam and fine sand, but some have uniform texture to great depth. In most cases, thin seams of organic material occur throughout the soil. Permafrost may occur at depths greater than 5 feet under some of these soils in areas where mean annual soil temperatures are below freezing. Such soils are properly classified as Pergelic Cryorthents, but because no information on soil temperatures is available they are included with the Typic Cryofluvents in this survey. 35 Pergelic Cryofibrists, nearly level, (15 percent) are organic soils on slightly lower areas on the flood plains than the poorly drained mineral soils. They consist of thick deposits of very strongly acid moss peat, commonly ~Yith layers of fibrous sedge peat in the lower part. In places the organic soil is made up primarily of sedge peat with sphagnum moss only in the upper layer. The soils are underlain by permafrost at depths of 5 to 30 inches. Vegetation on these soils include mosses, sedges, low shrubs, black spruce, and tamarack. Areas of organic soils commonly include small lakes or areas of freshwater marsh. Typic Cryorthents, very gravelly, nearly level, (5 percent) are on natural levees along some of the larger tributaries to the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers. They consist of stratified sandy and silty material underlain at a very shallow depth by a thick deposit of very gravelly sand. In other respects these soils are like the Typic Cryofluvents with which they are associated. IQ6--Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, J~amy, Nearly Level to Rolling Pergelic Cyrofibrists, Nearly Level Association This association is widespread in permafrost areas. It occurs in broad valley bottoms, interior basins, deltas, and coastal plains. With few exceptions, the soils of the association are shallow over permafrost and are constantly wet. In the Kuskokwim highlands, the association occupies broad valleys of major rivers and large basins. Meandering sloughs, small rivers, and undrained depressions are common here. 36 Most of the poorly drained loamy soils developed in nonacid or calcarous alluvium. Black spruce, shrubs, sedges, mosses, and lichens cover most nearly level to gentle slopes. Mosses, sedges, and scattered stunted black spruce occupy depressions. White spruce and cottonwood grow on the narrow levees bordering rivers. These soils are too cold and wet for cultivation and commercial forestry. They have severe limitations for construction of roads, buildings, and other structures because of wetness and permafrost. Many areas provide excellent habitat for nesting waterfowl. Principal components in the Kuskokwim Highlands: Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, loamy, nearly level to rolling, (55 percent) are poorly drained soils on nearly level to moderate slopes in broad valleys and large basins. They support either a thick growth of sedge tussocks, mosses, and shrubs or a black spruce forest with a dense understory of shrubs, forbs, mosses, and lichens. The soils developed in nonacid alluvium. Below a thick mat of partly decomposed organic matter, the soils have a mottled gray silt loam horizon that is shallow over permafrost. In a few places on terraces and ground moraines they have a gravelly substratum. Pergelic Cryofibrists, nearly level, (40 percent) are poorly drained organic soils in broad depressions, in meander scars, and on the_ borders of shallow lakes. They support, for the most part, a dense cover of mosses, sedges, shrubs, and forbs. The soils consist of stratified layers of fibrous moss and sedge peat that is usually very strongly acid. The permafrost table is shallow. Some areas include low mounds covered with clumps of black spruce. Included with the fibrous peat are areas of partially decomposed sedge peat. 37 Typic Cryofluvents, loamy, nearly level, (5 percent) are deep, well drained silty soils on nearly level natural levees bordering rivers. The dominant vegetation is a forest of white spruce, cottonwood, and willows, with grasses and horsetail in the understory. The soils consist of nonacid to calcareous stratified silty and fine sandy alluvium. In most places they are underlain by very gravelly sand. Permafrost is either deep or absent. In the western Alaska coastal plains and deltas, the association occupies nearly level to rolling coastal plains and deltas bordering the Bering Sea. Maximum elevations within the association are about 200 feet. Mineral soils formed mostly in stratified silty and sandy alluvial deposits, but in many places layers of volcanic ash and loess have also been deposited. A few areas are underlain by glacial drift. Organic soils occupy many shallow depressions, along with many small lakes and meandering streams. Thick permafrost underlies the entire area. The dominant vegetation is sedge tussocks and low shrubs, forbs, and moss. A few patches of stunted trees grow on narrow levees bordering rivers and streams. These so Us are too cold and wet for agricul ture and forestry. They have severe limitations for most types of construction. Many migratory water birds use the areas for summer nesting. The vegetation also provides habitat for caribou and some small mammals. Principal components in the western Alaska coastal plains and deltas: Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, loamy, nearly level to rolling, (55 percent) are poorly drained soils in nearly level to rolling 38 coastal plains, deltas, and inland basins. They support a thick cover of sedge tussocks, low shrubs, forbs, mosses, and lichens. Mostly they formed in nonacid silty and sandy alluvium. Typically, under a thick mat of partly decomposed organic matter, the soils have a layer of mottled gray silt loam with permafrost at shallow depth. In some places the permafrost is in sandy or gravelly material. Water is perched above the permafrost in summer. Pergelic Cryofibrists, nearly level, (40 percent) are very poorly drained peat soils in broad depressions, lake borders, and shallow drainageways. They support a dense vegetation that includes mosses, sedges, low shrubs, and forbs. The soils consist of layered fibrous moss and sedge peat that is usually very strongly acid. In places a few thin lenses of volcanic ash occur in the upper 2 feet of the peat. Small areas of partially decomposed peat are included. These soils are always \vet, and permafrost is normally close to the surface. Ice-core mounds, or pingos, occur in some areas. Areas subject to inundation by high tides or spring flooding contain thin layers of silty material. Other components (5 percent): Pergelic Cryaquepts, loamy, nearly level to rolling, are poorly drained soils in beds of naturally drained thaw lakes and the narrow drainageways connecting lakes and ponds. They formed in stratified silty and sandy lacustrine deposits or in alluvial sed~nent. The permafrost table is at 16 to 30 inches. Vegetation includes willows, grasses, sedges, horsetail, and other tundra plants. 39 Pergelic Sideric Cryaquods, loamy, nearly level to rolling, are somewhat poorly drained soils at the edges of slopes bordering lakes and drainageways. They have thin albic and spodic horizons and a mottled stratified substratum. The vegetation includes mosses, sedges, and low shrubs. IQII--Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, Loamy, Nearly Level to Rolling Pergelic Cryumbrepts, Very Gravelly, Hilly to Steep Association This association occupies maturely dissected uplands separated by broad sloping valleys in several areas of western Alaska. Elevations range from sea level in a few places that border the coast of Norton Sound, to about 1,500 feet on hills and ridges. All of the areas have continuous permafrost. The vegetation is mostly tundra, but a few small stands of stunted white spruce occupy several valleys that are protected from strong winds. A few black spruce grow on low foot slopes. Solifluction lobes are common on long slopes, and a few frost-scarred areas occur on ridges. The dominant soils in valleys and on foot slopes formed in thick deposits of loamy colluvium, but a few of the soils on river terraces consist of very gravelly alluvial material. On ridges and hills most of the soils formed in very gravelly residual material over weathered bedrock. The dominant soils have severe limitations for mo~t types of intensive use or development, They are not suitable for cuI tiva tion, but the natural vege ta tion in some areas is slli table for reindeer grazing. 40 Principal components: Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, loamy, nearly level to rolling, (30 percent) are poorly drained soils with a shallow permafrost table that occupy broad valleys and long foot slopes. They formed in thick deposits of loamy colluvial sediment. The dominant vegetation is sedges, mosses, low shrubs, and, in a few places, stunted black spruce. Beneath a thick peaty surface mat. the soils consist of mottled. dark gray silt loam that contains black streaks of frost-churned organic matter. Depth to ice-rich perennially frozen material is about 10 to 20 inches. Pergelic Cryumbrepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep. (25 percent) are well drained soils with permafrost on rounded hills and ridges. They formed in very gravelly and stony residual material that is moderately deep over weathered bedrock. The vegetation is tundra made up of grasses. patches of alder and willow brush, mosses, lichens, dwarf birch, and other shrubs and forbs. Beneath a thin mat of organic matter, the soils have a very dark grayish brown to dark brown very gravelly silt loam layer that is about 8 to 16 inches thick and is acid in reaction. The subsoil and substratum generally consist of olive gray very gravelly and stony silt loam or loam. Although the soils have a mean annual temperature below freezing, the very gravelly material seldom retains enough moisture in the upper 40 inches to form ice-rich pennafrost. Pergelic Ruptic-lIistic Cryaquepts, loamy, nearly level to rolling, (15 percent) are poorly drained soils with permafrost on low knolls and foot slopes. They formed in silt loam or gravelly silt loam material. The vegetation is mainly mosses, sedges, and low shrubs. TIlere are many closely spaced, nearly barren frost scars. Between 41 the frost scars, the soils have a thick peaty surface mat over mottled dark gray frost-churned gravelly silt loam or silt loam that is perennially frozen below depths of 10 to 20 inches. In the frost scars, the soils have no organic mat and are deeper over permafrost. In other characteristics they are similar. Perge1ic Cryaquepts, very gravelly, nearly level, (10 percent) are poorly drained soils with permafrost on stream terraces. They formed in very gravelly alluvial sediment. The vegetation is mainly sedges, mosses, willows, and low shrubs. Typically, the soils have a thin peaty surface mat over very gravelly silt loam or sandy loam that is perenia11y frozen below a depth of 20 to 40 inches. Histic Perge1ic Cryaquepts, very gravelly, nearly level or rolling, (10 percent) are poorly drained soils with shallow permafrost that occur on short foot slopes. They formed in very gravelly and stony colluvial material and support a thick vegetative cover of mosses, sedges, willows, dwarf birch, and low shrubs. The soils have a thick peaty surface mat over mottled, dark gray very gravelly and stony silt loam that is perennially frozen below 10 to 20 inches. Other components (10 percent): Perge1ic Cryorthents, very gravelly, hilly to steep, are well drained soils on a few hilltops. They support a sparse vegetative cover of grasses, low shrubs, lichens, mosses, and_ forbs. Perge1ic Cryochrepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, are well drained soils on a few slopes near the crests of hills and ridges. They have a brown cambic horizon developed in very gravelly material over weathered bedrock. The vegetation is mainly grasses, shrubs, and forbs. 42 Perge1 ic Cryoboro11s, very gravelly, hilly to steep, are ,,,ell drained soils on a few hills underlain by basaltic rock. They have a dark, nonacid to calcareous upper horizon rich in organic matter. The vegetation is mainly grasses. shrubs, and forbs. Perge1ic Cryaquo11s, loamy, nearly level to rolling, are poorly drained soils on lower foot slopes of basaltic hills. They have dark, nonacid upper layers rich in organic matter and are shallow over permafrost. The vegetation includes sedges, mosses, and low shrubs. Perge1ic Cryofibrists are very poorly drained, fibrous organic soils in valley bottoms and depressions. They are shallow over perma- frost. IQ16--Histic Perge1ic Cryaquepts, Very Gravelly, Nearly Level to Ro11ing--Perge1ic Cryoboro11s, Very Gravelly, Hilly to Steep Association This association occupies low plains and basaltic hills. Small crater lakes and low volcanic cones are common in many areas. The vegetation is tundra dominated by sedges, mosses, grasses, lichens, and low shrubs. Patches of tall alder and willow are common near lakes and along streams. Most soils of the association formed in very gravelly and stony material derived chiefly from ancient beds of basaltic rock. Deposits of silty and sandy volcanic ash in a few areas and alluvial sediment near the mouths of streams are included. Except for a few sandy hills and dunes along the coast, the entire association is underlain by permafrost. 43 Vegetation on most of the soils provides habitat for wildlife and, in several places, is suitable for reindeer grazing. The soils are not suitable for cultivation or forestry, and most of them have severe limitations for all intensive uses. The better sites for construction are on well drained soils on gently sloping and rolling hills. Principal components: Histic Perge1ic Cryaquepts, very gravelly, nearly level, (45 percent) are poorly drained soils with permafrost that occupy nearly level plains underlain by basaltic rock. The vegetation is tundra dominated by sertges, mosses, and low shrubs. The soils have a thick peaty surface mat over mottled dark gray very gravelly and stony silt loam or sandy loam. The permafrost table is generally 10 to 20 inches. Perge1ic Cryoboro1ls, very gravelly, hilly to steep, (20 percent) are well drained, very gravelly and stony soils that occupy low hills and volcanic cones. Although the mean annual soil temperature is below freezing, there is seldom enough moisture retained in the very gravelly material to form thick ice lenses. The vegetation is tundra dominated by grasses, lichens, and a variety of forbs and shrubs. Beneath the thin surface mat of organic material, soils have a black or very dark brown upper horizon about 8 to 12 inches thick developed in gravelly or very gravelly and stony loam to sandy loam. The. underlying material is generally dark grayish brown or olive brown very gravelly loam or sandy loam. Histic Perge1ic Cryaquepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, (15 per- cent) are poorly drained very gravelly and stony soils with permafrost on lower hillsides. The vegetation is tundra dominated by sedges, 44 mosses, and low shrubs. Beneath a thick peaty surface mat, the soils consist of mottled gray very gravelly and stony loam. Depth to perma- frost ranges from about 10 to 30 inches. Pergelic Cryoborolls, very gravelly, nearly level to rolling (10 percent) are well drained very gravelly and stony soils on low hills. The vegetation is tundra consisting mainly of grasses, lichens, forbs, and shrubs. The soils have a thin organic surface mat and a black or very dark brown upper horizon about 8 to 12 inches thick over dark grayish brown to olive very gravelly and stony loam or sandy loam. The mean annual soil temperature is below freezing, but the perennially frozen substratum does not retain enough moisture for the formation of large ice lenses. Other components 00 percent): Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, loamy, nearly level, are poorly drained silty soils with a shallow permafrost table. They occupy low plains near the mouths of streams. Typic Cryandepts, loamy, hilly to steep, are well drained soils formed in silty and sandy volcanic ash deposited on a few hills south of Norton Sound. Lava flows consist of nearly barren lava rock. IUI--Pergelic Cryumbrepts, Very Gravelly, Nearly Level to Rolling-- His-tic Cryaquepts, Loamy, Nearly Level to Rolling Association Very gravelly, nearly level to rolling-Htstic Cryaquepts, loamy, nearly level to rolling association. This association occupies broad valleys in areas east of Kuskokwim Bay. Elevations range from sea level along the coast to about 1,500 feet in high valleys. A few 4S mountain peaks higher than 3,300 feet are included. The region exhibits features typical of recently glaciated valleys, including moraines, gravelly outwash terraces, and many small lakes and streams. Low mounds, frost scars, solifluction lobes, and other frost features are common. Dwarf birch and other shrubs, forbs, grasses, and lichens cover rolling moraines and high terraces. Sedge tussocks, mosses, and low shrubs and forbs are dominant in depressions in the moraines, on toe slopes, and in drainageways. \U110w and grasses are the principal plants on broad flood plains and low terraces. Most soils formed in a thin layer of loess or volcanic ash over very gravelly glacial tillar outwash. Organic soils occupy the depressions. Permafrost underlies most of the arrea. This association is too cold for cultivated crops. Well drained soils on the rolling moraines and terraces are suitable for most construc tion, but poorly drained soils with permafrost have severe limitations for this purpose. The vegetation provides wildlife habitat for caribou, moose, bear, some small mammals, and migratory birds. It is suitable as reindeer range. Principal components: Pergelic Cryumbrepts, very gravelly, nearly level to rolling, (50 percent) are well drained soils on rolling mor_aines and high terraces of broad valleys. The vegetation is low shrubs, forbs, and lichens. Under a thin mat of well decomposed organic matter, the soils consist of dark brown very gravelly loam that grades with depth to brown or grayish brown. In most places they have a thin layer of loess or volcanic ash at the surface. 46 They are typically extremely acid. Areas with frost boils and low mounds commonly have a loamy upper horizon with slightly thixotropic properties. Mean annual soil temperatures are below freezing, but ice-rich permafrost, if present, is many feet deep. Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, loamy, nearly level to rolling, (30 percent) are poorly drained soils that occupy nearly level valley bottoms, low terraces, and gently sloping valley sides. They support a cover of sedge tussocks, mosses, and low shrubs and forbs. The soils consist of a surface mat of peaty organic matter over very dark gray mucky silt loam underlain by mottled dark gray silt loam. The permafrost table is usually just under the organic mat but may be as deep as 24 inches. Perge1ic Cyrofibrists, nearly level, (10 percent) are very poorly drained organic soils in depressions in moraines and in drainageways. They support a dense cover that consists dominantly of sedges and mosses. The soils are made up of fibrous mosS peat and intervening layers of partly decomposed sedge peat. Permafrost is generally at a depth of less than 16 inches. The soils are strongly acid. Other components (10 percent): Typic Cryofluvents, very gravelly, nearly level, are well drained soils developed in stratified sand and silt loam over a shallow substratum of very gravelly sand. They occ~py natural levees on flood plains. They support willows, shrubs, and grasses. pergelic Cryaquepts, very gravelly, nearly level to rolling, are poorly drained soils formed in glacial till on foot slopes of moraine hills and valley sides. The vegetation is dominated by shrubs and sedges. 47 Pergelic Cryumbrepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, are well drained soils formed in glacial till on hilly moraines. They support low shrubs, forbs, and lichens. IU2--Pergelic Cryumbrepts-Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, Very Gravelly, Hilly-to Steep Association This association occupies unglaciated hills and low mountains with long smooth ridges separated by narrow valleys. Soils in these areas formed in material derived from the underlying bedrock. On the steep upper slopes the mantle of weathered material is commonly shallow and there are local outcrops of bedrock. Shallow ice-rich permafrost underlies most soils in the deeper residual and colluvial material of north-facing slopes, toe slopes, and valley bottoms, but permafrost is deep or absent on south facing slopes. In places, the toe slopes and valley bottoms have a thin silty mantle. High ridges and peaks above 1,000 feet have a cover of low shrubs and forbs. Lower southerly side slopes in most places support white spruce, shrubs, and, in a few places, paper birch, alder, and grasses. Toe slopes, north-facing slopes and valley bottoms have black spruce, sedges, mosses, and other water-tolerant plants. Areas bordering -the Bering Sea have no trees, but otherwise have the same sequence of vegetation. Frost scars, stone stripes, solifluction lobes, and other frost features are common in those areas. Soils of this association cannot be used for agriculture or co~nercial forestry. The vegetation provides habitat for caribou, moose, and other wildlife and is suitable for reindeer range. Steep slopes and permafrost are severe limitations for most kinds of construction. 48 Principal components of western Alaska: Pergelic Cryumbrepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, (30 percent) are well drained soils on slopes and ridges above tree line. They formed in shattered residual and colluvial material that is 20 to 30 inches thick over bedrock near the tops of ridges, but more than 4 feet thick close to the tree line. The vegetation is principally low shrubs and forbs. Typically, the soils have an upper layer of dark reddish brown silt loam or gravelly silt loam over dark grayish brown very gravelly silt loam or loam. Ice-rich permafrost, if present, is many feet deep. Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, (30 per- cent) are poorly drained soils on steep, north-facing slopes, toe slopes of all aspects, and nearly level to rolling valley bottoms. The soils formed mostly in colluvial material but also in residual material at high elevations. The vegetation is either black spruce forest or sedge tussocks, mosses, and low shrubs and forbs. Typically, under a thick peaty surface mat, the soils consist of mottled gray very gravelly loam or silt loam over shallow, ice-rich permafrost. Lithic Ruptic-Entic Cryumbrepts. very gravelly, hilly to steep, (10 percent) are well drained soils on high ridgetops, in association with outcrops of bedrock. They formed in stony residual material less than 20 inches thick over consolidated bedrock. The vegetation is a sparse cover of low shrubs and forbs. There are many barren patches. The soils under vegetation have a very dark gray to dark reddish brown surface horizon over dark brown or gray very stony loam. Soils in barren areas are dark gray or gray throughout. Pergelic Cryaquepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, (10 percent) are poorly drained soils that occupy some foot slopes and valley 49 bottoms. They formed mostly in colluvial material. The vegetation is shrubs, mosses, and sedges. The soils have a thin mat of peaty material over mottled dark gray very gravelly loam. The permafrost table is at a depth of 3 to 5 feet. Typic Cryumbrepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, (10 percent) are well drained soils on southerly slopes below the tree line. They forlued principally in very gravelly colluvium, in places with a thin mantle of silty windlaid material. They support an open forest of white spruce, paper birch, and alder. The forest floor has a dense cover of grasses and ferns. Typically, these soils have a black or very dark gray, thick upper horizon over a dark yellowish brown subsoil and a substratum of dark grayish brown very gravelly silt loam. There is no permafrost. Other components (10 percent): Lithic Cryorthents, very gravelly, hilly to steep, are well drained, gray soils on parts of high ridges under a sparse cover of low shrubs and forbs. Bedrock outcrop is common. Pergelic Cryochrepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, are well drained brown soils on steep slopes of high ridges under a cover of low shrubs and forbs. Small areas of Lithic Cryochrepts are included. Pergelic Cryorthods, very gravelly, hilly to steep, are well drained soils with thin albic and spodic horizons on steep slopes directly above the tree line. The vegetation is shrubs, grasses, and other forbs. Rough mountainous land includes mostly unvegetated peaks and sharp ridge tops. 50 IU3--Pergelic Cryumbrepts, Very Gravelly, Hilly to Steep, Rough Hountainous Land Association This association occupies mountainous areas throughout western Alaska. The landscape is made up largely of hilly alpine plateaus, rocky peaks, sharp ridges, steep mountain valleys, and foot slopes. The dominant soils in most areas formed in very stony and gravelly colluvial material of variable thickness over bedrock, but some of the soils in valleys and on foot slopes in glaciated areas formed in deposits of till. The vegetation is low shrubs, mosses, lichens, and a wide variety of short grasses and associated forbs. Soils of the association are not suitable for cultivation or forestry, and because of the rugged terrain they have severe limita- tions for construction and engineering uses. Primarily, the association provides wildlife habitat for birds and mammals that frequent alpine areas. Principal components: Pergelic Cryumbrepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, (40 percent) are the dominant soils on high alpine slopes and r~dges close to mountain peaks. The vegetation, commonly interrupted by frost scars, is alpine tundra consisting of low shrubs, -short grasses, forbs, lichens, and mosses. Beneath a thin surface mat of partially decomposed organic ma terial, the soils have a Vl'lry dark brown or dark reddish brown horizon, commonly 8 to 12 inches thick, formed in very gravelly and stony loam. They mayor may not have a brown suhsoil horizon. In most places the gravelly and stony material is about 20 to 40 inches thick over bedrock, but 10 others the soils may overlie thick deposits of glacial till. The soils are 51 strongly acid. Mean annual soil temperatures are below freezing, but most soils are so coarse that no ice-rich permafrost is present. Rough mountainous land (30 percent) consists of areas of bare rock and stony rubble on mountain peaks and sharp ridges. There is little vegetation other than lichens. Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, (15 percent) are poorly drained soils with a shallow permafrost table in swales and on slopes affected by seepage. The vegetation is dominantly sedges, mosses, and low shrubs. Beneath a thick peaty surface mat the soils have mottled, dark gray horizons formed in very stony and gravelly loam. Depth to permafrost is usually less than 20 inches. Other components (15 percent): Lithic Ruptic-Entic Cryumbrepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, are well drained soils that are less than 20 inches thick over bedrock. They occur on very steep slopes and ridgetops. The vegetation is alpine tundra. The mean annual soil temperature is below freezing. Pergelic Cryaquepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, are poorly drained soils with permafrost on steep slopes affected by seepage. The vegetation is dominantly sedges, mosses, and low shrubs, but the peaty accumulation on the surface is less than 8 inches thick. The soil surface is commonly frost scarred. Pergelic Cryochrepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, are very well drained soils with no dark surface horizon on high slopes and ridges. The vegetation is alpine tundra. The mean annual soil tempera- ture is below freezing. Bedrock is commonly 20 to 40 inches below the surface. 52 Pergelic Cryorthods, very gravelly, hilly to steep, are well drained soils with thin albic and spodic horizons on the alpine mountainsides of central and southcentral Alaska; the vegetation is alpine tundra. The mean annual soil temperature is below freezing. RMI--Rough Mountainous Land Rough mountainous land is made up of steep rocky slopes. Some slopes in the mountains support a sparse shrubby vegetation, but most are barren. Thin soils occur in the vegetated areas on lower slopes and in valleys, but almost all are stony and shallow over bedrock or bouldery deposits. In most cases, these soils can be classified into the same subgroups as those of hilly areas adjacent to the mountains. The major mountain ranges in Alaska are mapped predominantly as rough mountainous land. Rough mountainous land also occurs on the highest peaks surrounded by low rolling or level areas, and on steep, rocky islands. Rough mountainous land is unsuitable for agriculture or forestry. Roads are feasible only in major valleys through the mountains. Steep slopes and problems of water supply and sewage disposal severely -limit the choice of building sites and commonly increase the cost of construction. Mountainous areas generally have great esthetic value and provide many recreational opportunities. They are the favored habitat of several species of birds and mammals. 53 S06--Typic Cryorthods-Lithic Cryumbrepts Very gravelly, hilly to steep association. In the Kuskokwim highlands the association occupies foot slopes, hills, and broad valleys near mountains in southwestern Alaska. Elevations range from about 1,000 to 2,500 feet above sea level. Most of the soils in valleys and on low hills formed in very gravelly and stony deposits of glacial drift or colluvial material. The well drained soils in these areas have no permafrost and support forests dominated by white spruce and paper birch. Poorly drained soils with permafrost occupy the lower foot slopes and valley bottoms. The plant cover is mosses, sedges, low shrubs, and patches of black spruce. the principal soils on hills and slopes above tree line formed in very gravelly and stony material commonly 10 to 40 inches thick over bedrock. These soils support alpine tundra shrubs, mosses, lichens, and grasses. In general, soils of the association in the highlands are not potentially suitable for cultivation, and largely because of steep slopes they have severe limitations for construction. Primarily, they support vegetation which provides habitat suitable for caribou, moose, bear, birds, and many small mammals. Principal components in the Kuskok,,,im Highlands: Typic Cryorthods, very gravelly, hilly to steep, (30 percent) are well drained soils without penna frost on low hills and in sloping valleys under open forests of white spruce, paper birch, and tall brush. Beneath a mat of forest litter, the soils have a thin, gray silt loam albic horizon and a reddish brown to yellowish brown gravelly silt loam spodic horizon 8 to 12 inches thick. The underlying material consists of olive brown to olive gray very gravelly and stony sandy loam. 54 Lithic Cryumbrepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, (25 percent) are shallow, well drained soils on high hills and ridges above tree line. They formed in very gravelly and stony material less than 20 inches thick over bedrock. Beneath a cover of shrubs, grasses, mosses, and forbs, the soils have a dark brown gravelly silt loam upper layer about 60 to 10 inches thick over grayish brown or olive gray very gravelly and stony sandy loam. Entic Cryumbrepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, (15 percent) are well drained soils on slopes directly above tree line under a cover of tall shrubs, grasses, and forbs. Typically, they have a dark brown gravelly silt loam upper layer 8 to 12 inches thick over grayish brown to olive gray very gravelly and stony sandy loam. Bedrock is commonly 20 to 40 inches below the surface, but in places it is deeper. Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, loamy, nearly level to rolling, (15 percent) are poorly drained soils with a shallow pennafrost table on low foot slopes and gently sloping valley bottoms. The vegetation is a forest of black spruce or a cover of sedges, mosses, and low shrubs. Beneath a thick peaty surface mat, the soils consist of mottled gray silt loam or gravelly silt loam that is perenially frozen at depths of 12 to 24 inches below the mineral surface. During the summer the soils are usually wet. Pergelic Cryaquepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep, (15 percent) are poorly drained soils with permafrost in steep drainageways and in swales on high ridges under a cover of sedges, mosses, and low 55 shrubs. Typically, they have a thin peaty surface layer over mottled dark gray very gravelly and stony silt loam or sandy loam. The perma- frost table is generally 20 to 30 inches below the surface. Permafrost Distribution Kilbuck and Ahklun Mountains Permafrost occurs sporadically in these mountains, generally as isolated masses of frozen ground. In areas with little surficial sediment cover over bedrock, the frozen ground occurs as dry masses with no ground ice. In valleys, coarse, gravelly sediments usually contain little ground ice, whereas fine-grained silty soils may contain a high percentage of ground ice, often as segregated ice masses or lenses. These usually occur at shallow depths on alluvial plains or slopes that have an insulating peat cover a foot or more thick. Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta Discontinuous permafrost underlies the surface throughout the deltaic plain and the lower slopes of the highlands west of the Kilbuck Mountains. Permafrost is absent beneath or near large water bodies, such as lakes and rivers, but is pr-esent in the vegetated bog flats at the mouth of the Kuskokwim River (Se1kregg et a1, 1976). The active layer above permafrost is usually 12 to 40 inches thick. The permafrost layer in the deltaic plain averages about 400 feet in thickness, with a maximum thickness of 600 feet. Permafrost tempera- tures below the depth of seasonal variation range from 23 0 F to 30 0 F (Ferrians 1965) • Figure 3 in the Appendix shows the distribution of permafrost in the project area. The city of Bethel is underlain by pennafr-ost to a depth of about 350 feet, 56 but beneath and adjacent to the Kuskokwim River there is unfrozen ground to an unknO~l depth (U.S. Corps of Engineers 1981). Figure 21 gives permafrost and related characteristics for certain soil types in the Bethel area (Hinton and Girdner 1968). Geomorphic History Kilbuck and Ahklun Nountains All of the Ahklun Mountains and parts of the Kilbuck Mountains experienced periods of glaciation during the pleistocene Epoch (Figure 22). Apparently, most of the Kilbuck Mountains remained free from ice during the last major glacial stage--the Wisconsinan--while the Ahklun Mountains were intensely glaciated at that time. Parts of the Kilbuck Mountains were glaciated during the earlier Illinoian stage. The intense glaciation of the Ahk1uns created a very rugged, steep landscape with many sharp horn peaks, steep glacial cirques, and sharp, knife-edged ridges. The larger valleys were carved into broad, U-shaped forms with wide, flat floors and steep sidewalls. It is in these broad valleys, some of which were overdeepened at their upper ends by glacial erosion, that the spectacular glacial lakes of the range lie. The larger glacial lakes, such as the Wood River lakes, Tikchik lakes, and Togiak lakes, lie on the eastern and southern flanks of the range. Smaller glacial lakes lie-on the western slope. The Ki1buck Mountains, which experienced less intense glaciation, are generally less rugged and steep. Although small, local glaciers did create a few cirques, most valleys are gentler, V-shaped, water-cut valleys with narrow floors and reliHively gentler sides1opes. Ridges are more rounded, and summits usually more rolling and gentle than in the Ahk1uns. 57 Figure 21. Soil permafrost characteristics, Bethel area. Depth to Subject Subject Slope Permafrost Internal to to Range (%) (inches) Drainage Ponding Flooding Principal silt-loam soil 0-3 <12 poor yes yes of tundra. 3-7 <12 poor yes yes Soil of upland tundra, on low 0-7 <12 poor-mod yes yes knolls, slopes boarding 3-7 >40 var ? yes drainage ways and drained 7-12 >40 var thaw lakes. 12-20 >40 var Loamy, fine sand beds of drained thaw lakes. 0-3 <12 poor yes yes Alluvial plains of fine sandy loam bordering rivers. 0-3 ? mod-good ? yes Fine, sandy loam slopes bordering lakes, drainageways. 0-3 20 mod-poor yes yes Silt loam floodplains of rivers and secondary streams. 0-3 30-40 poor yes yes Freshwater marshes on alluvial plains bordering rivers. 0 <12 poor yes yes Source: Hinton and Girdner 1968. 58 Figure 22. Areas of Alaska glaciated during the Pleistocene Epoch. PACIFIC Source: Pewe 1975. 59 EXTENT OF GLACIERS Present glaciers 6,000 years ago Wisconsinan Illinoian Prc-lllinoian Undifferentiated, mostly of Wisconsinan or Illinoian age 150 300 MILES 150 300 KH .. OMETRES Some river systems in the mountains cut across structurally controlled ridges. The Kisaralik River, arising in glacial Kisaralik Lake in the Ahklun }fountains, cuts almost directly across the Kilbuck Mountain system, indicating that the river's course probably predates the rise of the Kilbuck Mountains. Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta The Kuskokwim River, which traverses the southeastern side of the composite Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, empties into Kuskokwim Bay through a marine estuary about 60 miles long. The estuary appears to be a drowned river mouth. Some low gradient channels leaving the Yukon River in the middle of the deltaic plain join the Kuskokwim River, evidence that the Yukon River once discharged into the Kuskokwim River long before it formed its own delta further northwest (Shepard and Wanless 1971). Elongate sand bars extend almost 100 miles into and beyond the Kuskokwim estuary. These were probably formed by the ancient Yukon River at a tL~e of much lower sea level, but may possibly be due to the present large tidal action in the area. On the estuary's east side there is a former shoreline indicated by the presence of a beach ridge. This is adjoin ted by a prograding beach zone with two more beach ridges. A scarp a few feet high separates these from the modern sediments of the estuary. On the estuary's west side there is a plain of older alluvial deposits at an elevation of about 13 feet. The plain has numerous thaw lakes and is separated from the modern estuarine deposits by a scarp about 10 feet high. These older beach ridges were probably formed when sea level was a few feet higher than at present. Probably part of the lowland plain is caused by beach progradation rather than being entirely deltaic in origin. Elsewhere on the plain there are hummocks of wind-blown silt deposits adjoined by basins probably blown free of sil t by the wind (Shapard and Wanlass 1971). 60 Discontinuous permafrost, present throughout much of the area, is responsible for the origin of the lakes that cover 40 to 50 percent of the plain. Layers of segregated ice, often several feet thick, occur at various depths below the plain. During the summer, ice in the near-surface layers melts and the ground settles. The degree of melting and settling varies over the vast plain due to local differences in soil conditions, causing small depressions to develop on the plain. \.Jater from thawing permafrost and surface drainage collects in the depressions. Often these newly formed ponds are tiny, but increased heat flow within the water-filled depressions slowly expands them until they become larger lakes, some of which have become several miles long. Some of the lakes on the delta have surfaces as low as 4 feet below sea level; these are separated from the river channels by natural levees formed by impermeable materials (Shapard and Wanless 1971). Erosion and Instability In the mountains and hills of the region, soil creep, or solifluction, often causes erosion and instability problems on slopes as gentle as three degrees. Permafrost, present throughout much of the area, prevents absorption of water into the subsurface, and the topsoil becomes saturated. This causes a slow downslope movement of water-saturated sediments that often creates such forms as lobes, sheets, and terracelike features. Rockslides are a hazard on steep mountain faces, especially during rainy periods and during spring breakup. Snow avalanches threaten moderate slopes in winter. In the region's lowlands, discontinuous permafrost causes thermal erosion to be a serious problem, especially where soils contain significant proportions of ground ice. Fine-grained soils, such as silty soils, usually contain the 61 highest percentages of ground ice and are the most seriously prone to erosion and slumping. Along stream and coastal banks cut through fine-grained soils containing ground ice, thermal undercutting of the banks is common. Heat transfer from lapping waters coming in contact with the ice-rich sediments causes accelerated rates of thaw. As the ice-cemented sediments thaw they lose their coherence and either drop into the water or are easily carried away by lapping waters, waves, or currents. Cavities below overhanging peat mats are formed, termed "thermo-erosional niches. II As undercutting proceeds, the overhanging mats become undermined, collapse of their own weight into the water, and are broken up and carried away by waves and currents. This exposes fresh portions of the ice-cemented banks to thermal action, and the process continues. In areas with no permafrost, the normal action of waves and currents slowly erodes the banks of streams and rivers. Though often crea ting a serious problem, erosion is usually slower than in permafrost-rich banks, because thawing ice-rich soils releases a considerable quantity of water causing the thawed soils to slump or flow. Erosion is normally most severe during spring river breakup. At that time river discharge and velocities increase dramatically due to melting regional snow and ice. Overflow flooding of river ice often occurs before the ice itself finally breaks up. ~len the ice breaks up, large ice blocks carried by the sworlen river cause severe mechanical scourlng of banks and channel bottoms. Ice jams often occur in the river, causing ,.rater to back up behind the ice dam and rise high on riverbanks. At other times of the year, erosion related to flooding caused by major storms with high precipitation is a problem (Selkregg et a1. 1976). At the city of Bethel on the Kuskokwim River, riverbank erosion is especially severe and could become such a great threat that the city would 62 have to be moved. Erosion problems became especially severe beginning in 1959. At present, erosion rates along the town front on the Kuskokwim River average about 8 feet per year; in front of the old Public Health Service hospital and the Chevron tank farm, erosion averages 25 feet per year. Natural erosion processes are aggravated by waves driven by the continual boat traffic on the river in front of the city. A gravel island in the river at Bethel divides two river channels. Predominant river discharge used to flow down the western channel on the near side of the island but is now changing to the eastern channel on the far side. As the eastern channel becomes the principal river channel, erosion at the city should subside somewhat (Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc. 1982). Slumping of soils in permafrost areas causes instability problems throughout the region. Because ice expands as it freezes, it contracts and settles when thawed. Therefore, whenever ice-rich soils are thawed, they settle or slump, often creating a water-saturated, muddy ooze that easily flows downhill on the slighest slope or forms the bottom of a depression on flat land. Permafrost is usually prevented from thawing naturally by the layer of peat and vegetation that acts as an insulating layer over the ice-rich sediments below. Hhenever this insulating layer is removed or damaged during construction, or a heated structure is placed over the land without a layer of adequate ins,ulation beneath it, -heat flow into the ground causes thaw and slumping. Any structure above the slumped ground buckles, tilts, and cracks. Roads and runways built without sufficiently thick insulating gravel pads draw heat into the ground and slwnp, buckle, and break, only to freeze and heave upward again in winter when seasonal frost invades the thawed, saturated soils. Areas stripped of vegetation, or in which vegetation is destroyed or damaged by off-road vehicular traffic, slump and form depressions that usually fill with meltwater or precipitation, 63 forming ever-expanding thaw lakes or bogs. If an expanding thaw depression happens to intersect a natural drainage system, such as a local stream or creek, that system may become diverted and alter local natural drainage patterns. Accelerated or altered erosion patterns often release fine-grained sediments into local drainage systems. Since all of these systems eventually feed into streams and rivers, increased siltation of fish streams is inevitable, which presents a threat to the health and viability of fish populations. Flooding Flash flooding can occur in mountain valleys whenever heavy precipitation occurs in the mountains. When heavy precipitation follows periods of relatively dry weather, rivers can rise several feet in a few hours. During spring snowmelt, overflow flooding of river ice can occur for a period of several days to more than a week before the river ice itself melts and the rivers begin to flow normally. During this period, sometimes followed for a few days by a period of ice jamming at narrow points in rivers, flooding can inundate extensive areas of floodplains. After the ice breaks up and disappears, rivers drop somewhat but continue to flow at high levels for several weeks as mountain snows melt and disappe8r. On the Kuskokwim River summer flooding can occur any time that unusually high rainfall occurs in a short time period. Flooding during wann periods is exacerbated by melting ice from glaciers in the river's headwater regions. During spring breakup regional snowmelt causes the river to rise. The severity of spring flooding varies with ice thickness, snowpack depth, air temperatures, and amount of sun and precipitation. The principal cause of dangerous floods is ice jams in narrow parts of the river that form dams, 64 restricting flows in the river and causing rapid impoundment and rise of the river's waters (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1968). Tides also affect the stage of the Kuskokwim River in the delta and can contribute to the threat of flooding when high tides occur at the same time as a wind set over the delta during periods of high runoff. The Kuskokwim River at Bethel has a tide range of approximately 5 feet (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1968, 1981). The average discharge of the Kuskokwim River, measured over a 26-year period, was 60,000 cubic feet per second (cfs), but discharge has risen rapidly to nearly 580,000 cfs during severe spring flooding (Figure 23). River velocities on the floodplain vary widely, depending on location, but generally average less than 2 feet per second (fps). During periods of high water and flooding, however, velocities can range up to 10 fps, to greatly increases the river's erosion potential and can cause temporary or permanent channel shifting. Ice jams often cause velocity changes as they temporarily alter channel shape and direction. Sometimes this results in main-channel velocities in flooded overbank areas. The Kuskokwim River is generally frozen from about late October to mid-Xay. At the city of Bethel, flood stage is 27 feet and the floodplain is several miles wide. Xost recorded floods here have been caused by ice jams tha t formed downstream from the city. Local residents report that most of the damage resulting from these floods was due to the action of floating ice cakes rather than from the flood waters themselves (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1968, 1981; Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc. 1982). 65 Order No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Figure 23. Highest flood stages, Kuskokwim River at Bethel, 1941 to 1967, in order of magnitude. (Elevation of water surface based on FAA Station B.M.) Date of Crest Spring 41 Spring 63 5 June 64 9 June 64 13 May 67 1 September 63 11 May 57 5 June 52 5 September 51 4 September 53 27 May 62 3 October 65 23 August 67 5 October 65' 31 August 59 19 September 61 25 September 54 3 September 55 31 May 60 22 August 56 16 June 66 Elevation of Water Surface feet 30.961 30.171 30.021 28.84 28.171 27.00 25.94 25.94 25.69 24.80 24.40 23.58 23.32 22.93 22.75 22.63 22.62 21.99 21.91 19.98 19.89 1 Affected by ice jam, floating ice, and/or tide. Source: U.S. Corps of Engineers 1968. 66 Estimated Peak Discharge cfs 579,200 446,200 384,200 384,200 373,800 330,400 310,300 279,200 269,900 254,100 251,200 246,700 246,700 227,500 223,100 174,300 171,400 AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT Introduction Human settlements in the region are located along the Kuskokwim River and its tributaries and around Kuskokwim Bay. About 3 percent of Alaska's population resides in this area, and slightly more than 25 percent of these live in Bethel (ADF&G 1978a). Because of the area's remoteness, residents depend on charter and scheduled commercial air service and boats for transportation. Shipping on the navigable rivers is only possible about five months of the year when waters are ice free. Much of the subsistence economy and all commercial fisheries are based on water resources. The Kuskokwim River and Bay area falls within two of the four Alaska climate zones. The Kuskokwim River below Bethel and the lower few miles of Kuskokwim Bay are in the Transitional Zone. The Kuskokwim River above Bethel and the upper portions of all streams of Kuskokwim Bay are in the Continental Zone (Se1kregg et a1. 1976). The eastern section is generally colder and drier than the western portion. Precipitation is low to moderate, averaging 19 inches a year at McGrath and 30 inches a year at Cape Newenham (Se1kregg et a1. 1976), most of which occurs in late summer and early fall as rain. The delta area is 30 to 50 percent covered with thaw lakes. The majority of the lakes in the lowland region are fairly shallow and either freeze to the bottom or suffer from low dissolved oxygen levels in winter. Water supply for community usage is generally adequate. The amount of water in the numerous lakes and annual snowpack is the most important variable affecting water storage and streamflow. The Kuskokwim region includes all waters of the Kuskokwim River and its tribu taries and all coastal wa ters between Cape Newenham, including Nunivak Island and St. Matthew Island, northward to Cape Romanzoff. The 67 Kuskokwim River and its tributaries comprise the second largest drainage basin in the state. The main river originates in central interior Alaska near Medfra, flows southwest for approximately 600 miles through the Kuskokwim Mountains to the marshy, lake-dotted delta, and empties into the Bering Sea. Most major tributaries enter from the south and east. Much of the river carries a heavy load of silt. Water Quality: General Description of Water Quality: The mean average annual runoff throughout the entire region is probably about 1 cfs per square mile. Mean annual peak runoff probably averages about 10 cfs per square mile or less in the lowlands and increases to about 25 cfs per square mile on the uplands. Annual peak runoff results from snowmelt in early SUffilner or rainfall in late summer or early fall. Mean annual low monthly runoff averages about 0.3 cfs per square mile. Lowest flows usually occur in late winter (Se1kregg et a1. 1976). The Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation administers state water quality standards, which provide for the protection of identified uses of Alaska's waters, through .tUaska Sta tutes Title 46, Chapter 3. Wa ters of the state are classified as follows: 1. Marine waters -classes (2) (A), (2) (B), (2) (C), and (2) (D); 2. Ground waters -classes (l)(A) and (2) (A) (1ii); 3. _Fresh waters -classes (l)(A) , (l)(B), and (l)(C). Definitions of the classes are found in Figure 24. The sta te established water quality criteria to protect the following uses of fresh water. A. Water supply (i) drinking, culinary, and food processing; (ii) agriculture, including irrigation and stock watering; (iii) aquacul ture; 68 (iv) individual, including any water supply used in association with a manufacturing or production enterprise (other than food processing), such as mining, placer mining, energy production, or development. B. Water Recreation (i) contact recreation; (ii) secondary recreation. C. Growth and propagation of fish, shellfish, other aquatic life, and wildlife including waterfowl and furbearers. The Chena River near Fairbanks is presently the only freshwater body in the state that has been completely classified. Water quality criteria, when used in combination with the water use designation, constitute the water quality standard for a particular water body. Water quality standards regulate man-made alterations to the waters of the state. Figure 24 gives water quality criteria for each protected water use. Very few limnological and water quality data have been collected from the Kuskokwim River area to da teo Streams of the area are of the calcium bicarbonate type and are of acceptable quality for nearly all general uses. The dissolved solids content of ,surface waters in the region ranges from about 40 to 200 mg/l along the Kuskokwim from Bethel to HcGrath (Selkregg et a1. 1976). The Kuskokwim River at Crooked Creek is the only station in the region where suspended sediment data have been gathered. During a three year study the suspended sediment dis~harge rate averaged 300 tons per square mile. This figure, multiplied by the size of the drainage area in square miles, gives an average annual sediment load of about nine million tons of sediment per year (Selkregg et al. 1976). The lower Kuskohlim River (the power projec t area) is fed by six major tributaries--the Johnson, Tuluksak, Kisaralik, Kasigluk, Kwethluk and Eek rivers. Of these, the Kisaralik appears to have the greatest potential for hydroelectric development. It originates in the Kilbuck Hountains at the Bristol Bay divide and flows 110 miles northwest to empty into the Kuskokwim 69 Figure 24. Alaska state water quality criteria. I. WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS ~~~~~ USES 1 ClI,} W.tef Suppl¥,; 10 dnnkmg. cuI!· nary and rood proce'U ,n9 {Al Water Supply: ill) .gficullure. in eluding lrn4ltlOn, and "tock wal.flng (Ai WaIn Supply: Ilid ilQU.lCU!tU'''' tA~ WiH~r Supply; (IV) lI"IdUHnal, In cludlOy.tl'\y wat!!f sup pHe, used in anoci atmn wilh a manu factuffnog Ot pn:>;:luc, tlOn pn!{'rpfl~e loihe, thao food proceulOql, includlfl9 m!nmg, piKer mlOln9 energy produc. tion or deHiopment, (8) W"ter f1e.:reatlQn: til contact re:crea· hon o! (21 FECAL COLIFORM BACTE;RIA (Fe! DISSOLVED GAS iSee Note 1.1 B.ued on <1 mtnlffium of S umv/n uk!!n In a pet Dluolved oxygen 10.0.1 1hall be gH!,j(i!f lod 01 30 dayl, mun shall not eJ;;ce'l!d 20 Fe/100 than Of equ<1' 10 4 mg/l IthlJ doe~ not mI •• nd not more Ihan 10"<. of the ~ampln 11'1 .. 11 apply to fdke~ or fU!!'\;'OH! In which lupphes excf'ed 40 fC/100 ml for qroundw'lH~f fhe Fe 'He uken hom be!o~ ,ile thermocline Of to concen!fatlOn ShdJi be len than 1 Fe/100 ml wl',,:n ground wateft). USlnJ} the fecal coliform Wltrmbr",ne FIlter T~chnlQue Of lu~ than 3 fCIlOO ml. when u~l.In9 the fecal coliform MPN techn'Que. For products normally cooked and for dairY $anl' D. O ... hall be gr!!.aler than 3 mg!1 In 1urlaCl'" tatlon of p,uteunled product1 the mean, ba\ed wa(en. on a ITlImmUm of 5 ump'f!\ {,lken in a peltod of 30 diiY1, 1hall nor exceed 200 fe/l00 mL and not mote than 10~';" 01 the .. amples 1hall exceed 400 FC/100 ml. Faf ptoducu nol nOfmally cooked and tor d.my Janltatlon 01 unp,l\leunted produca, Ihe cnfena '0' drmklng Willer 1upply l!Alll; ihall apply For products normally cooked the mean, boned on 0 0 shall be greiner than 7 mD!! in wrfacp a mlmmum of 5 1,;mples tdken ,n .. period of 30 .vaten. The concentratIOn of total dlssolYed days, shall n01 exceed 200 f-CflOO ml and not mOl!!' og.lS $h.lH not ucep.d 110'Y~ of nturatlon ill than 10% of the silmples Ihall exceed 400 fC/l00 any point nf sMnpl" collecth.::.n. ml. Fot ptodVCH nf""lt nOlmaOy. cuoked the entefl..t for drlflklng water supply HAlh) 1haH apply. Whete worker CQnlJct IS flr~seot the mt>an Fe ShJI! not CdUl~ d{,[rlMental efft!cts. hact~fla concentration. b;ued vpon it mlnlmuln of t'stdbluhed waler supply treatment l-e .... l<.i. ~ 1.lmpl('~ taken HI a JO day I1I!'Hod, ~~1iI11 not exceed 200 fe/100 f"T\1. not more th4rt 10':'~ of lh~ sample$ shall e)(ceed 400 Fe/lOO ml Based on a mlfHmUiIl (If 5 UIOP~~' I.lken Ifl of 30 D. 0 ~l"h$11 be 9FeJler tholn or equal to 4 d"y p(,flod, the me.Hl 1hall nOI nCo!t!tl 70 Fe/laO mgiL ml , and not mOl e thall 10': .. 01 the Iota I ul"\lplt's 1hall e~c~ed 40 fC/100 ml. 131 pH (V,mallon ot pH fot waters f~illu,aljv outside the tpeclfll,·rl fange \hall be: towards th~ (.Hule,) Shatl not be Il'"U th'ln 6 0 or yreater than 8.5. Shall not vary mote than 05 pH unIt from n<'tural condlvon. Shall not be le!.1 than 5.0 or g,eater than 9.0; tor daHY tamtofllOn pH ~hall not be len Ihan 6.8 or ogfeillef than 8.5. Shall not be len than 6.5 Of gleat!!', than 8.5. Shall no! vary more than 05 I1H unl! hom n.llural coodltlOn Shall not he I(m thart 5.0 or greitler Ih.Jn 9.0 Shall nof be le<$ thiUl (;5 or greater th,m B.5. Sh,lll Ilot vary mOHo Ih .. n u.~ pH uru( hom n .. lIut,.1 condlllDn, 11 till' natu".! cOlldlllon pH IS oulSlfje thIS r,Hl.(IC lub\t .. nc(!~ 5h .. 11 nor bt' added thaI c .. use .lO mcre.He In hIlUt'IIIHJ POIClty of till;' wat("L Hi! W,Hef l1.~ernt'o,,: {hsed on .a mU'lImum of 5 "mple, (.lk<'ll III a 30 D. 0 shaH h~ qn:,lter th,1O or equ"j to 4 Sh,11! not h~ If"H th.10 50 {O!~ ,ecor"ld.ty f. d.dV pt>u()d. the rlll:dll \h.M not nCf'e-d 200 FCt100 mt)fl or u1f'dlcr th.ln 9.0. cre<thon nil, anti I'\C)I l~lr"lfl' Ir..ln 10~" 'II thE' to(,\1 1,lIl1p!e\ shall ell.cet'd 400 rCflOO r"l11. (Cl Growth and PIO~J.' *jJrjon of f nh. ShpU 11lh ofhf't Afluilhc ldp. ... "d W,ldill .. In clu(ilnq Wall"ffowl .00 FtHW.r.r. o. 0 ,hill! tw qn>aje'f rhan 7 rmJ/1 In .... aten 11\'~d hy .11dtifnIlII)U\ Jnd ft-llthmt !.\n III no Cd'" 111.)11 00 hI!' 10:'11 ,han 5 rnqfl Iu d d":llth {II 20 elf'l .n the 1II'.-nhtr.Ji WillPf1 of qra ... el otll'led h". an4dromous Of f\"Hdpnl 'I,h fOl ~p4 .... nlnq (Sce Nnte 2) for walen nol u~t'd hy .madr()m!)u, or (e,1(l{'ot IHft. 0.0 \hJII be gfl".lle, thAn or e4ud' hi 'J mqt! In no c.ne ShdJI U 0 "hove 1] mqfl ht< tl!!'Hmt1ed. TnfO coneen l',,\'on of 101,,1 dnH)lved 9aS ,h",11 nol 110"", ()f utur.ltlon at .an.,. po,fH .... mple coilee l.on 70 Sh,lri nOI he leu lh.1!1 6 ~ or 9r~atf'f to:!n 90 Sh.,1! not V<tfy nluttl' 1h,:In 0 5 pH unit hom nJtu,,,1 Condlhon '" TURBIQITY tnot applicable for ground .... ntu) Shall nOf e.cted 5 NTU i:lbo'll' natural con. dltlons .... "en thl" natural turb.d,!". 1\ 50 NTU Of jen, and no! haH' mo,e 1h"n10'" IncreaSe In turbidity wh~n the n.\UI." cond",on 1\ more Than 50 NTU, nor to lH;ce"d iI mo3'.,mum mere.He Of 25 NT U. S".,II not cauJt~ detnmental eff~eu on 1n(1tcaled Shit II not .. )tceed 2S NTU abo .. \! natuf.1 con· dillon I .... pi. For all lake wtlters. ,n,;;J ceed 5 NTU over nalural condlhom Shi-lll 00\ cause d~ttimenl.ll effect' on eUoll>- II~huJ v,alet 1UIJply lteJ(menl !evel~. I Sh.l!1 not exceed 5 NTU itl:xne natural Cnl""l dll,on .. when flw o;ttur')l lurhld\!y 15 50 NTU Of leu and not ha"e more (han lO~,;' Inet ....... e m IUfbltlltv wheo th-e natural cond.t;on 11 more Ih.!fl 50 NTU. n,~t to C'lI.cc('d .. Ol,hlmUOl' In· cn:,ue of 15 NTU_ Shall not e~celfd 5 NTU >;)11;." n"lUral CO(ld,tlon$ lot all lake w,)ten. Sh.all nnt e .. ceed 10 NTU OVP.f n,)lur:,j con- rlthont when 1'.1hHa' ,,,dJ,d'l), IS 50 NfU Uf Len and nOl have 010'''' t"'.ln 20",," meredte In 1',J1tndll)' "..h,·n .he nJtufJ! conrhl.on Ii mOre than !.O NTU, not 10 c:<Ieel:!d II m.)lIllTIunl to CH'a\e oj 50 N TU. r or .III loI .... e w,ner" lurh1l1lty ~hall nol excl'l.'d 5 N TU ov;>r n.lcuul cono\ Sft;)!! nol e.cecO 25 NTU "hove na(uf,,1 COil (1011nn !evl~1 for 0111 Like ..... diPH. Ih.lll not ~":h'd ~ NTU u ... e. nolturill cond.t.on1 151 TEMPERATURE Shall not ucnd 30° C, Shali n01 uce!!d 20llC at anv time. Th@ followlOg muimum l@mperafur@ shad not be ell;' ceeded, whe~ .pphca~e: ~~:::~i.~; :~:;;. ;;:~ Reimng areal: lSoC Egg & frv ineubatio(\: 13°C For .11 other wate,.,. the wt:ek· Iy average tempera1Ufe slutH not exceed Sll~ spl!'clfu; re· Quirementt nel!'d~d to pre· $~rye normal ,pedes dl'fu· 'ltV or to p1e.ent apptar· .. ncl!' of nUlun(.1!' Of1}<lmsms, $h.U not f'.Cf't'd '1r! C-.t any time. The loilowmg m •• lmum temperltlUe ItUI! n01 boe ceeded. w"!'t •• pphc.ahle: Mlqtatlon flXltl'S lS" C SPlwfllnq .'ffl· 13· C AU,lOq .r.... 15· C ~~d~I~~. U" C F Of" .11 other Wit.", tbe .... ek- tv tvefilfl!t tl'mpuatute ,h .. 11 nof .lI.ui~d .'u 1p+cII.c fer Qulf.ttanu ".eded to pt. Ie"'" no,m" tD't'(:,.. Ot .. .,· l_ty 0' to. pr.unt .aPPf.tt· .t'l!Ct' of nt,HU"'" Ofiam,,,,,,, Figure 24 (Continued). Alaska state water quality criteria. 16) DISSOLvED INORGANIC SUBSTANCES Total d",ohed 101l(h !TDSI from all louren ,han not exceed 500 m9/1. Neither chloride, not lut htC1 thall uceed 200 mg/l. ros 'hall not exceed 1,00.0 mg/1. SodIUm abso,p- li(ln ratio Icu than 2_5 .• odlum percentage 'eH than 60%, relldual carbona Ie leu than 1.25 mg/I, and boron Ie" than 0.3 mg/1. {See Note 71. Total dUJolycd lol~dl ,han not exceed a mono· mum 01 1,500 mg'l Including na1utal condItions. (ncreate in TOS )hall not exceed one·thud oj the conc~ntratlon of the natulai eondUlon of lhe body of water. No amounu above natu, .. 1 cnndltions which can caule corrO\'on. 1c,)hng. Of procen pfoblt'm$. Not .pplicable TOldl dinolved .ohd. ,h ... 1i not ell.cud a mil!l(lmum of 1. SOO mqJI Inciudlng nalurid condihotlt in· crtate Irt T OS th.all nof excl'ed one·lhl1d (it lhe concenlrlt",m 01 the n.-Iur.j Coodlilun of the boo.,. of Wiler. 171 SEDIMENT lNOT APPLICABLE TO GROUNDWATER SUPPllESf No me.nurable Increale to concentU!IQnl of ,edt- ment above natllral condition,. for sip1inklef irrIgation. water lhall be fr~e of parhcies of 0.074 mm or coaner. for IrrigatIOn Of wate, 1f)feadmq, 'hall n01 exceed 200 mg!1 for an e.ll.1ended period of time, No impOted loadt that will Interfere with eltab· Ii shed water supply treatmenl levels. No impmed loads that WIll interfere With !Hub· lis.hed water 1Upply treatmMt level) No Incre.)se In concentrations abolte natural con" dI1Iom., Shj,1I nOI pose huard, to inCldemai human can- l.H:l or CoiiU,t' IIltt!"rf~renee wllh the tHe, The pefcent accumulation at fHle u!dimen1 In Ihe tange of 0.' mm to 4,0 mm in the grayel bed ul w.-ten utIlized by ,madromous or resident i.lh lot Irawnmq may not be lOere4ied MlOte thao 5')(, by INi!iqht oyer ",nural conrhtlon Ltl shown frVnl gram \Ile accumul"tlon graph!. In no <alt! mdY lhe 01 mm to 4 {} "1m jAne u-dlment ragi.' tn the qrave! tmd of Wilten u1JIILed by I'In3dfomov. (It ru.dent tuh fOf JpltWnloq exceed. m.xllnum of 30% bv welqht i'-I shown hom gram tue .:cum ubhnn qraphL (See not", J and 4; In "II other lurface walen no .",d,mel'lt luadl {,u\pit'nded or dpP0111e: .. H whIch ca:n cau*, ao.-er.\! t/fecu on CIIqu.hc .nlm.1 Of pl,1nt lite, thtll reproduction or t);1lb.tal. 71 IBI TOXIC A~JO OTH!: R DE LETE R IOUS ORGANIC ANO INORGANIC SUBSTANCES $ubuance, shall not uceed AJ.?ska D~~~!." S.l.amLudl !S~e Note 5) Ot !~~~~Y~!'!J.~ i~ (See Note ollH applICable ~o lubuan<.iL Same at t1HAl!d where COruKt WIth a product destined for $UbSequf!o1 hum"n consumptIon n pre'Ien~. Same as {'He} Or Fedeta! Wat!!r Po~ lut.on Control Adm,nll'ratlon, lY~.1~~QQ~!.:!.t. Cnt~rla (WOC/fWPCAI al apphcahle to subnance'l lOi"~O'Ck'Wiiin:conc';ii1r,ulOm for iHlqahon watt!'n !haH nOI exceed 't1PC/FWPCA or ~ ISee Note! 1 and 61. S\Jbltam:el shall not todl¥lduaHy Of 1M comblna· tion f)(ceed {} 01 times the fowest measured 96 hour LCsO tSee Note 91 fOJ hIe ~ta~l of SF.lt'Clet Identified by the depilfl~"!r:t a~ being thl!' ~mt !oemUi'fe. blOloljlcally Important 10 the Iltvnlon. or el(ceed crllena Cited In EPA. Oua!Jty Crl!~ni) for Watt" or Aj.1~ka Onnklng W;Ji~~ rs:;;-'NOt[!~ 6 and !1i. whlchl!'ltet concentration ;1 len. Subitance~ Jh¢lI not be present or exceed concentrations which ~ndr"jdvally or m cornblnatlon ;mpaff undeSHdble odor or taHe 10 fflih at other atjUJlIc Ofqanl$ms at dctermint'd by elthef b.oass3V or organoleptiC te1ti is-ftc NOles 6 and 91. SubHam::ei ~h;lll not be present whieh po~e harardl to wor.kl't conlaeL Subnancel Ihall not be pre.ent which po$1!' hollardl to IOCldentai human COntact. 5ub,t.-nces ,hall not IndlyiduaU.,. or m combi· n"llon e.ceed 001 tlmt'\ the low(·tf meawred 96 hnUf LCSOISee Note 9; hn life st<l<,l" ot ipec!e' Ideoldled by Ihe derartment "' bt:wq the mOit Ii!ntltive. bJoloq.cally ImpOfun1 tn lh~ location, or e..cped crltefla ntl!d In EPA, Uu..W.1.L..tu.l.fUL!.u.J Wlttt Of AljJY-D!ll.1.b..truLYile.L~ (See Note' 6 and !:I) wh..chellef conceolr'!lor, " leu Svbu.tnce, ,hall 1'101 ~ p(et~nt Of n:ceed concen1fdhons whIch mdlvldu"lIy Of IrI combln ,lhOn Impart unde!uable odor or tatte to f,sh or Olhet /M.tu.it,c orqamlm, al dete,mmed bv either bloauav Of Ofljanc.Wep(IC ttUI (See Notes 6 and 9). Figure 24 (Continued). Alaska state water quality criteria. lSI COLOR {Sei Note 12l Sh"U not ui;eed 75 color Unll1 where watcr supply is or ""In!! be {re-,ued, Shall not .xcud 5 coto, Units where' wltu supply IS not treated. Not appli<:abl: •. (101 PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS. OILS AND GREASE (See Note 16) Shall not eaU1e a vi\Ible sheen upon the surface of the water. ShaH not e:..ceed concentratlon1 which indl~lduallv or in combination lmp,ut odOr or tau. at determined by organoleptic Urnl. Shan not c.unt!. ¥i5ible sheen upon the surface of the water. Shall not e)(cted 50 colof Shall not exceed 0.01 time1 the continuou1 flow 95 hour LCsO units, or If not ara,lablt the ,tahc tut 96 hour lCsO for the ~pecle, involved. (See Note 9 and 10)' ShaH not C-.lute detnmentill Shall not m;,k"!" the walet unfit or un,afe fot the use. effecu on elfabhthed water tUpply trUlmtnt l~ ... eu. Ill) RADIOACTIVITY (121 TOTAL RESIDUAL CHlORlNE Shall ~ot exceed. th~ con-! Not appl1canle. eentratlom· specified In tht' ~~W!lg Wat!!-Stan- d.lli.ll. (See Not! 51 and Sf1il1 not a)(ceed limits speclhe<i in Title 10. CQdt:l or ~de~ Re gulati,n1, Part 20 1See Note :n or National 6!.1reau of Standards. Hand· book 69. (See Note 14,. Same as (1)(AHiL Not applicable. 1131 RESIDUES, Floating Solidi Debris, Sludge, De-POtlts, foam. Scum (not applicable to ground· water tuppliesl. ShaH not alone or fn combination with othn sub$lance1 Of wastes make water unfit or unsafe for use; CaU'le a film, sheen, or di ... coloratIon on the surlace of the water or adjoining !horeline; caute ieacr'l!ng of toxic or deleteriou~ ~ub$tanCes; or <:aU1e a !fudge, 'olid Of emulsion to be dl"posited beneath or upon the ,urface 01 the water, within the water column, on the bottom, or upon adioinin 9,horeline,. fRESH WATER USES IAJ iii Shi!!I not be present in quantttiel to causs fA) soil plugqing. reduced crop yield. or cause (il) thf! watef to be unfit or unsaff! for the ute. Same 011 (1H4JW except Shall not exceed Shall not aione Ot in combinatIon with (A) concentration factors fOI 2.0 u9/1 for sal· other substances Of' wastes ClUY the htil orqam'Sm$ in¥011ed shaft n(lt monoid fish Of wat!"' to be unfit or unsafe for the u1e. exceed mlt/limUm perml1sible 10,0 ug/1 10r hmiti for 1pecific radlols, othel organislTls. otopes and unidentifIed mill." (See Not!" 6), lures a~ established by Title ~~d~3rtf ;?I~t!-~;i; 13) and .tU1i..2.D1L9ureau o! Standatd~, H(lndbook 69, {S~oTe 14}. Not applicable. Sh.lll not alone of in combination with orher sub1tance'S or waHe$ cause the Wi!tt!r to be unht or unsafe for the u$e. IAI (ivj Sh<lll oo~ elCceed 15 color Shall flot Ca~He.1 film, ~het'n. 0' rincruoutmr\ nn 111(' 5urface S.Hne;n (1l(A)(iI. Not appl!c .. ble. Sh,JH not alone or In co.mWnalion ¥'Itlll o(het (a) unitt or flour 01 the w,Jte1 b, ... Jy (H .HIIOHlJlHj \hordlr'l~'i. SUd.ICC waten thaI! bl YHtU';U., free trom flo.mug olh, 5h.1I nllt i~f'l"r "'llh m,;k, the \NJlel unf,t unuf. 'ot ttl, "'te Sh,11I not C.hae .. t.t,T'l, ,h,. .. n. or ri'f<olol"tlon on th. lutbce $,lIIl1e at (lHAlhl. COIOI Of 'PI"'"nt t:f}I!" ,h .. H F>ul t<l.lv,. thl" tl .. pltt ut Ih. OIfl,!"""I'hrHl IIfJHlt fUI phO(OlY'nlh .. !,c <It:tt .. l .. by mOf. Ih,;" 10' fft}m tt\. n,IHI'\<llly 'l'u .. !.ti"hul no'm tot '!JU."C ItI.. ~ 01 <Ill ..... It~f1 'hl1 h<l"nq • 'f'non.ally t'iI<lbt.thf'd nOH'1l fOf <I'IU<lto(; IIf' (ul!),. or <lIJP"''tnl CO_Of Ih"l( not • I!c«.d ~O (OlOf unlH Ot 1101')( I)l Ihl w,;I!H hooy or adlOllllnq lIWldmcl, Sud.u:e ..... Jt!!'t. \Iull hft .. utu,.Uy fr~\' ilO('ll tlO.0'19 odt. r"uj 'lydrc)O;·JliJt!Ht If) Ito, ..... Iet Cf)fumn ,h .. 11 not e.ce!!'d l rJ uq.-1, tit I) 01 of Ihe luw"lt meJl,uft"d COOllnUOI.n !low 96 hour tC'"" Inf hI. t!a'I"" of HH!t:IlP:1 uJentltH'd hv Itl"! dl"p<lrtm'!nf dt PI" mot. lIHHIl'"f'. hn)fol.j:'c,Oy nlltx>'t<lnt ,peot'1 If\ <II P.lltlcul<l1 I ,,(.UorH'I .... 'm:h"" cnnc.HIH.tllon 's leu {Sae NtHe 9 olltd lOI l .. ".1 II'O"'UII(: il'JIdfOc,utmnt .n the w,Het culUOln lh .. 11 not e .. r,,1-rl 10 lJ(ji! t,lf 001 1.1' ,,,. h.wflH me.nured cont.nUUUJ IIuw 'ib "01.11 LC<AJ 1m l)if' tU~t of H*<lel III~nht.,"d hy ,he dep"rt· <fI,nl .tl Ih. moil ,,,,,.t,lI .. hHlfQ'9U':.-Ily pnpU1Unt I ..... C.et In a p,ut'CU'.f \'IO(;"I,OT'l .... 1"11(.11 ... «, com,,,tt.ttlon " len ISet Nol. 10 <lod 111 to.\o(,.H'.'lonl of hyd(oc.trbQnl. <10101.1 ht$. or 'tI'I".t!JIa odl 'n ,h, l.,..(;'m .. /'l' ihd!l nut c ..... 'i. uotl,terJ01.lI #tlecU Tt} "'14 ... II'C Ill. 5h<lll not C"Ut ... flim, ,h#t'o, Of tj.sCo!QI"If",n 00 the tI. .. rf«e Qr fI"'of of It" .. atlt bt)dy Of ,U110Hlllhl ihol, 1011.t_ s",dK' W<lI'filtoMI be "ftu~ly tr«. hOM flo~t.n9 o.h. Source: Alaska Dept. of Environmental Conservation 1979. 72 Not appltcabl •• Sh .. lI ,'ot ellCt~LI :1 0 U4/1 10f HI rnooOld "th Ot 100 u<jll 'or othllf 0(11"(\1\01'" (Se. Nute 6L substancC'! make water unfit Of un!afl;! for Iii me; or cause a film, sheen. or dlScololatlon on the U.utdCO of 'he water ot adlolnln9 shorell"!", C,lOse leach;ng of tOl(TC Of Ce· Ic-tt'flout tUb".1rICet or came i! sludQe, solid Ot emu hi on 10 ~ til!pollced ~neJth or u~o the ,urtace of th~ water wlth,n the w.ller colUm", on the bottom, 01 upon adjoimnil ,hOfl'llne,. Sh"U 'Hlt alOllt Of -in conlblllatlon With other IS) hlbllancn make w.lef unllt or unuf~ for II!) Uh', Of t:au\I a film. sheen. Of discoloration ().\ the lurf.lCe of thfl watel Ot .ltiJom.nq ~h()Hojl"'. caute lorach,ng of tmoc or de- h!terlOul JUbHanCeJ or a lludylt .. solid or .. muhlon to b. deputlted heneath 0' upon the !urfdCfI of the w.He, wlthm Ill+: Wolter colulIln, on \hll bottom, Of upoo adJolfl1ll9 thOJ~llOel. Sh):l1 nol :tlone Of tn combinehO(1 with ath/If wl.nt.tnces 01 witHe, cause th' ....... ,1!f to bll unfIt. uniafe Ot cau,e flCu'e ot dlloOic p,Oblf'1U levell 41 dlttermlrted by b',ldU,;y or other appropnatl method1. Shllll not 11011' or In (:ombtn.ttlon wnh olh,f" tobltaocet C'USl I fIlm. '''een, Of dlJcoloratll)o on Ihe ,udace of tht Wolter Of 4fi,01Olnq thorehne; or c~se lea.:hmQ of IOloc or dltl.h!llluuS tublbnc.t; Of cau .. a "ud~. ~oi11 Of amulllOn to be d'~OIlled bene"fh Of vpon th. lurf.ce of th. watet, ."..!thln th. W<lhl ,oj.umn, on the bottom, Of upon th. adl0fninq ,ho,e"n". lei River 30 miles above Bethel near Akiak. The Kisara1ik has two major headwater lakes and seven tributaries. The drainage area encompasses 1,070 square miles. It is a swift, rapidly dropping river over most of its course. The upper section mostly consists of rapids. The lower section (in the Kuskokwim Flats), however, is poorly defined with many meanderings and sloughs. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) installed a stream gage on the Kisaralik River 1.2 miles upstream from Upper Falls in May 1980. Mean monthly and annual precipitation records were the only source available for annual mean runoff calculations. Figures 25 and 26 give average daily and average monthly discharge values for this location. Daily streamf10ws are only for the actual period gaged in 1980 (May through September), while monthly data are averages of both measured and synthesized values. Data for Water Year 1981 are preliminary and will be available soon from USGS (S. Lipscomb pers comm 1982). These data indicate that the streamflow pattern exhibited by the Kisaralik River is typical of non-glacial systems, having high runoff June through August, reduced flows in fall during freezeup, and lowest flows during mid to late winter. River breakup appears to occur in the period April to June. Limited limnologica1 and water quality data have been compiled in the Kuskokwim region--by the USGS and ADF&G (Alt 1977; Still 1980; USGS 1958; USGS 1960; USGS 1972). The object of most of these investigations has been to ga ther background data and to determine the relationship of physical, chemical, and biological characteristics to water quality and fish habitat and production. USGS has collected and analyzed \.;rater samples from surface waters of Alaska since 1949. Figure 27 lists sites and the type of water quality data collected near the project area. Figure 28 shows the location of these sites. Figure 29 provides a summary of the physical-chemical characterlstics of these waters collected by USGS in previous years. 73 Figure 25. Average daily streamflow in the Kisaralik River above Quicksilver Creek.! KISARALIK RIVER AVRG. DAILY STREAMFLOW AT USGS GJ\GE-MAY TffiU SEPTElm. 19aJ cr5 1500 MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER 1 Daily stream now data prior to May 21 are synthesized. Source: USGS 1981. Figure 26. Average monthly streamflow in the Kisaralik River above QuicksiIv~r Creek'! KISARALIK RIVER MEAN MONTHLY STREAMFLOW AT USGS GAGE-OCT. 1979 THRU SEPT. 1900 CFS OCT mv DEC FEB APR Jlt AUG Sf? OCT 1Streamllow data from October 1979 through April 1980 MONTH are synthesized. Source: USGS 1981. Figure 27. Index of surface water quality records for streams in the project area. USGS Station No. Station Name 601318162013000 Eek River at Eek Village 613415159302000 Aniak River at Aniak 15304300 Kuskokwim River at Bethel Source: Still 1980. 76 Location Latitude Longitude Period of Record (Chemical Data Only) 1956 1956-57 1955-71 Cape Romanzof ( .. I I I I I \ I ~ . \(~i~ Cape Newenham o? Go?dnews , ...... ~ ........ Riuer Figure 28. Location of water quality stations in the project area. Chemical--f.B--Temperature Biological-U:j--Sediment Scale 1: 2,500,000 !\lilcs Figure 29. Water quality analyses for streams in the project area. .-. (\I trJ ..., U '2 ; ;:s .-. ....., ...., ,-. ffl ~ U ";; ,-. M :g ;:s -,-.. ,-.. (\Ib1) "0_ ..0 C'J 0 M "0 0 ---~u ..;< 0 ~ ....., S ::: '" 0 -C.I ~ s'= -0 w b1) 2-0 0 U C';l U5 ~ :E ;:s~ s~ ;:3::t: w U Z "'0 '" S o '" u..o S Z '" rJ) S trJ .... '" ;:s '" ... <I'l ffl <I.) '" <I.) '" '" <I.) fflb1) ..0 '" U S ;:s S ~ :-;: C';l ;:s C';l ;g C';l 'U) ~ ..8 C';l <I.) ~ :9~ :9 ~ <I.) ~ ..:::-<1.)-1=3 ~ <;:: 0 ~.S ~c::. -.~::::.. a:::: '" ...... @~ ....,-~-~ -~~ 0-:::~ U"'O '13 ~ ;:s-:::'t:t ~t£ ~'t:t 0--0--~t;ij 'E ~ U E~ .... --.~ :.c U'::J) c;lb1) _b1) ;:s 1:10 ~b1) J:::: lot <1.) .... "'O'::J) ~ s: e E :::s ~g -0 S .::: S :; s ..os -s .... S .... S (':j ~ o ~ o.S ::r: 0-o S Station :t\ame Date w..::.. --u"-'" >l..-t:Q-w_ u_ ~-z_ 0_ ::r:~ Z::r: w-0. u8 w_ Aniak River 6/28/56 8.2 0 7.5 2,4 0.3 32 6.2 0.5 0.1 0.1 43 29 2 68 7.6 8 2.0 at Aniak 4/4/57 10 0.4 9.9 3.1 0.6 44 8.0 1.0 0.1 0.6 61 37 1 97 6.9 5 4.9 -....J ex> Eek River at 6/20/56 16.8 0 09.9 1.2 0.6 33 8.2 1.2 0 0.4 47 3.0 Eek Village Kuskokwim River 6/14/55 8.6 0 15 3.1 0.6 40 23 0 0 0 72 50 17 117 6.9 1.5 Ilt Bethel 11/28/55 11 0.36 31 5.2 0.7 112 18 1.0 0.1 0.7 126 99 7 205 7.3 2;9 12/17/55 13 0 33 6.9 0.8 120 17 1.0 0.1 0.4 135 111 12 229 7.1 4.0 11/11/71 12 0.02 7.4 1.8 0.5 30 3.9 1.2 0.1 0 44 26 1 62 7.5 2.3 . Source: USGS 1958, 1960, 1972. A limited limnological survey by ADF&G (1977) was conducted in 1976 and 1977 on those lakes and streams draining the Kilbuck and Ahklun Inountains and waters flowing generally north and west into the lower Kuskokwim River. The tributaries sampled were the Aniak, Tuluksak, Kisaralik, Kasigluk, Kwethluk and Eek rivers. Figure 30 provides the water chemistry data obtained from these sites. Most of the streams emptying into the lower Kuskokwim from the south are chemically similar. Small differences may reflect variations in geology of the drainage basin and morphometry of the streams. 79 Figure 30. Water quality analysis (surface) of selected project area streams, 1976. Temperature Alkalinity Hardness Streamflow Water Body Date (OC) pH (mg/l as CaC03) (mg/l as CaC03) (cfs) Eek River July 20 11 7.5 43 43 Kwethluk June 10 10 7.7 34 51 River July 22 14 7.5 43 51 Kasigluk River August 11 6 7.5 34 51 120 Kisaralik Lake July 9 4 7.5 34 34 Kisaralik River July 30 14 7.5 43 51 1,079 Tuluksak River 9 7.5 34 43 386 Source: Alt 1977. 80 Aquatic Invertebrates General Description of Known Resources Macroinvertebrates are a major consumer group of the aquatic ecosystem. Included are organisms that dwell in or on the lake or flowing water substratum, mainly immature or larval insects. This group constitutes an important level in the aquatic food chain and provides a food forage base for most fish and other aquatic vertebrates. They feed on detritus, other insects, bacteria, plankton, and larval fish and in turn are consumed by larger organisms. An important habitat component for juvenile fish is food production areas. Density of fish may be regulated by the abundance of food which may come from the substrate, the surrounding land, or the plankton in a lake. Plankton contribute an important component in the aquatic food chain and provide a food storage base for fish and other aquatic organisms. Aquatic invertebrates are an important index of the productivity and quality of an aquatic environment. Hynes (1970) stated that the benthic fauna of streams is remarkably similar the world over and that coldwater streams are occupied by a definite, although limited, coldwater macroinvertebrate fauna, which is adapted to specific conditions sharply defined by consistently low temperatures and (often) the unique characteristics of glacial meltwater. Bottom fauna have been collected throughout Alaska by various groups. The most abundant benthic organisms found in Alaska are chironomids. Ephemeroptera, P1ecoptera, and Trichoptera are generally abundant in streams, and 01igochaeta and Pe1ecypoda are often common in lakes. Data concerning aquatic invertebrate populations for the lower Kuskokwim River drainage area are extremely scarce. The only available data are from fishery surveys conducted by ADF&G (Alt 1977). Figures 31, 32, and 33 give stomach content data for Arctic grayling, rainbow trout, and Arctic char, in 81 Figure 31. Frequency of occurrence of diet components from stomachs of Arctic grayling collected by ADF&G in project area waters, 1976. Tuluksak Kisaralik Kisaralik Kasigluk Kwethluk Stomach River River Lake River River Contents *n = 20 n = 52 n = 14 n = 38 n = 32 Fish Salmon eggs 4 1 3 1 1 Sculpins 1 Fish remains 2 2 1 Insects Diptera 11 24 13 9 19 Trichoptera 13 35 7 16 20 Plecoptera 2 3 2 3 6 Ephemeroptera 2 9 9 1 5 Coleoptera 1 8 12 9 10 Homoptera 2 5 Hymenoptera 12 Other Snails 1 2 1 Vole *n = sample size Source: Alt 1977. 82 Eek River n = 16 2 16 7 2 5 7 5 1 Figure 32. Frequency of occurrence of diet components from stomachs of rainbow trout collected by ADF&G in project area waters, 1976. Kisaralik Kasigluk Kwethluk Stomach River River River Contents *n = 17 n = 7 n = 28 Fish Salmon fry 4 2 4 Salmon eggs 10 4 11 Salmon flesh 2 6 Insects Diptera 1 2 Trichoptera 6 2 10 Plecoptera 2 1 1 Ephemeroptera 1 1 Other Voles and shrews 2 3 3 *n = sample size Source: Alt 1977 . 83 Figure 33. Frequency of occurrence of diet components from stomachs of Arctic char collected by ADF~G in project area waters, 1976. Tuluksak Kisaralik Kisaralik Kasigluk Kwethluk Stomach River Lake River River River Contents *n = 21 n = 20 n = 22 n = 4 n = 13 Fish Salmon fry 1 Salmon eggs 10 10 3 9 Salmon flesh 1 1 2 Fish remains 2 4 Insects Diptera 10 9 10 Trichoptera 2 7 2 1 Plecoptera 1 2 Ephemeroptera 3 4 3 Coleoptera 2 1 Homoptera 1 1 Other Snails 15 Vole 1 *n = sample size Source: Alt 1977 . 84 several project area water bodies. Fishes of the study area are opportunistic feeders. and a wide variety of organisms were found in stomachs examined by ADF&G (Alt 1977). According to these data the stream's resident fish feed mainly on insects. especially Diptera and Trichoptera larvae. Fish, voles, snails, and clams are being eaten. Arctic char. Arctic grayling, and rainbow <trout feed heavily on salmon eggs and flesh in late summer. Lake resident fish feed mainly on insects, snails, and clams and occasionally on fish. Fishery Resources Introduction The Kuskokwim area, as defined by ADF&G for management purposes, includes all waters of the Kuskokwim River drainage and all coastal waters between Cape Newenham, including Nunivak Island and St. Matthew, northward to Cape Romanzoff. The Kuskokwim River is one of the largest rivers in the state, second only to the Yukon River in size and length. The fresh and salt waters of this area support a number of valuable fish species, which provide the basis for major commercial, subsistence. and sport fisheries. These fisheries are the economic mainstay of this area. The Kuskokwim River contains 25 species of freshwater fish, including all five species of Pacific salmon (Figure 34). Fish populations of this area are characterized by fairly slow growth, late age at maturity, and a long life span. The largest population of chinook, chum, and coho salmon in the Kuskokwim area are found in the Kuskokwim River drainage. Sockeye and pink salmon are more numerous in the Kanektok and Goodnews River systems of Kuskokwim Bay. Other important species common to the area include inconnu, several species of whitefish, rainbow trout, Arctic char, lake trout, Arctic grayling, northern pike, and burbot. Figure 35 summarizes some life histories of the five species of salmon in the Kuskokwim River. The next section provides generalized life histories for the more important fish species. 85 Figure 34. List of common and scientific names of fish found in the project area waters. Arctic lamprey Lampetra japonica (Martens) Chinook (king) salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (lvalbaum) Sockeye (red) salmon Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum) Coho (silver) salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum) Chum (dog) salmon Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum) Pink (humpback) salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum) Rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri Richardson Lake trout Salvelinus namaycush (Walbaum) Arctic char Salvelinus alpinus (Linnaeus) Inconnu (sheefish) Stenodus leucichthys (Guldenstadt) Round whitefish Prosopium cylindraceum (Pallas) Least cisco Coregonus sardinella Valenciennes Bering cisco Coregonus laurettae Bean Humpback whitefish Coregonus pidschian (Gmelin) Broad whitefish Coregonus nasus (Pallas) Arctic grayling Thymallus arcticus (Pallas) Boreal smelt Osmerus mordax (Mitchill) Pond smelt Hypomesus olidus (Pallas) Northern pike Esox lucius Linnaeus Blackfish Dallis pectoralis Bean Longnose sucker Catostomus catostomus (Forester) Burbot Lota Iota (Linnaeus) Threesprine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus Linnaeus Ninespine stickleback Pungitius pungitius (Linnaeus) Slimy sculpin Cottus cognatus Richardson Source: Alt 1977. 86 co --..J Figure 35. Generalized life history informytion for Pacific salmon in the Kuskokwim River • Time spent in fresh water after Species of emergence from Time spent Age at Time of salmon gravel at sea spawning spawning Chinook (king) salmon 12 months 1-5 years 3-6 late June-July Sockeye (red) salmon 12-36 months 1-4 years 3-7 Aug-Sept Coho (silver) salmon 12-36 months 1-3 years 3-5 Sept-Oct Chum (dog) salmon 1 month or less 1-4 years 3-5 July Pink (humpback) salmon 1 day or less 14-16 months 2 July 1. Exceptions to these general characteristics occur frequently. 2. Data obtained from processor weights (ADF&G 1981). Average weight ~f adults 13 lbs 6.6 lbs 6.4 lbs 6.4 lbs 3.9 lbs Life Histories Because of the area's large size, turbid water conditions, varying weather conditions, and expense, it has been difficult for ADF&G to obtain accurate salmon escapement data. Escapement indices have been made by aerial survey estimates of a few selected streams since 1954. The mainstem of the Kuskokwim River serves as a migratory corridor for salmon bound for spawning tributaries along its course; no spawning has been observed in the main river itself. Although aerial surveys will be continued for some streams, emphasis in the future will be placed on using counting towers or weirs to obtain accurate escapement figures (ADF&G 1981). Figure 36 gives peak counts of salmon in streams of the lower Kuskokwim. Escapements of chinook, chum, and sockeye salmon in 1980 were about average as documented by limited aerial surveys. Survey efforts in 1980 were hampered by high and turbid stream conditions. As a group, the Pacific salmon are the most abundant fish and the most important to area residents in terms of subsistence and commercial value. Figure 37 shows major salmon streams in the study area. Figure 4 in the Appendix gives fishery resource information for the Kuskokwim River. Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) are usually the first salmon species to enter tributary streams of the lower Kuskokwim River, usually from late May to early July. The run is later in streams flowing into Kuskokwim Bay, where the fish usually do not enter streams until early July. Spa~ling generally takes place from mid-to late July in the main channels of larger streams. The important chinook salmon spawning tributaries of the Kuskowim River include the Kwethluk, Kisaralik, Tuluksak, Aniak, Salmon, Kipchuk, Holitna, Kogrukluk, Hoholitna, and Chukowan rivers. 88 Figure 36. Peak counts of salmon in streams of the project area by the Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game 1954-1981. Salmon species 1 Drainage/Year Chinook Chum Coho Pink Eek River 1960 2 1976 618 1,084 5 285 1977 258 1978 741 164 1980 2,378 9,563 310 2,412 Eek River, Middle Fork 1975 73 6,050 1978 3,000 10,000 Kwethluk River 1960 1,320 1,300 1962 248 1,140 1966 2 516 1,300 1967 1968 800 3,900 1972 68 1974 2 88 1,211 1975 1976 997 7,576 1977 1,999 19,621 1978 1,722 3,220 100 1979 822 4,739 1981 2,034 5,496 Canyon Creek (Kwethluk) 1972 6 1976 198 167 1977 57 Kasi!,?iluk River 1974 11 1,830 1975 20 1,350 1976 5,860 1977 155 14,349 1978 3 130 4,097 1979 398 11,301 89 Sockeye 292 527 79 Figure 36 (Continued). Peak counts of salmon in streams of the project area by the Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game 1954-1981. Drainage/Year Chinook Little Kasigluk 1977 Kisaralik River 1959 1960 1961 1962 1965 1966 2 1967 1968 1970 1973 1974 1975 1976 1978 1979 1981 Kisaralik Lake 1960; 1965 2 1966 2 1976 1977 River Gold Lake (Kisaralik) 1979 2 11 1,104 327 194 204 487 531 152 4 129 873 2,417 38 940 Quicksilver Creek (Kisaralik) 1977 2 Salmon species 1 Chum Coho Pink 100 4,800 28 1,695 20 12,000 5,800 4,410 861 120 10,606 10,921 2,100 7,508 82 Quicksilver Lakes (Kisaralik-North Fork Lakes) 90 Sockeye Figure 36 (Continued). Peak counts of salmon in streams of the project area by the Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game 1954-1981. Salmon species 1 Drainage/Year Chinook Chum Coho Pink Tuluksak River 19652 96 100 1966 1968 110 1,100 1976 139 5,463 1977 439 2,071 1978 403 2,007 1979 64 198°4 1,035 56,035 2,300 1981 12 Bear Creek (Tuluksak) 1977 4 1 Sockeye 1. Aerial, boat, and foot survey counts include live and dead fish. Survey conditions vary greatly from year to year and stream to stream. Counts are not absolute and probably underestimate abundance due to frequent muddy or high water and poor weather conditions. 2. Stream was surveyed but no fish observed. 3. Sonar count. 4. Mining activity on stream. Source: ADF&G 1954-81. Kuskokwim River Stream Survey File (computer printout). 91 N I C~pe norn~nzor Kane/I/o}, flit'cr Quinhaga\< 6,,",",7 G~ Goo.dpcws Cape Newcnham McGralh~ Figure 37. Average peak counts of pacific salmon in major rivers of project area (ADF&G 1954-1981). Average No. Years Species Peak Count Surveyed 1. Tuluksak River KS 218 9 CS 7,420 9 SS 7 9 PS 256 9 2. Kisaralik River KS 463 16 CS 3,804 16 SS 6 ,16 RS 1 16 3. Kasigluk River KS 119 6 CS 6,,165 6 4. Little Kasigluk Rivcr KS 11 5. Canyon Creek (Kwethluk) KS 87 3 CS 56 3 6. Kwethluk River KS 817 13 CS 3,808 13 PS 0 13 , 7. Eek River (r,lidrlle Fork) KS 1,537 2 CS 8,025 2 8. Eek Hiver KS CS S3 1'8 HS KS .. Kin~ sa)nlon CS • Chum salmon SS Silver salmon 799 ::, 2,162 5 63 ::, 53·! 5 16·1 ::, PS ~ Pink salmon ns· !ted salmon Scale 1 :2,(iOO,OOO ~1iks The spawning act is essentially the same for all five species of Pacific salmon. Chinook salmon, however, prefer to spawn in deeper water (4 to 8 ft) and will utilize substrate of larger-size particles for redd·s than other species of salmon. Both males and females are aggressive on the spawning grounds. The female digs the redd. Each female may be attended by several males, but attempts to spawn only with the dominant male. Smaller males may dart into the redd and deposit sperm as the eggs are released. After spawning the female digs at the upstream end of the nest and covers the eggs with gravel. Females may dig more than one redd and spawn with more than one male. Fecundity varies with the size of the female and can vary from 3,000 to 14,000 eggs. Depending on water temperatures, the fertilized eggs hatch the following spring. The alevins spend two to three weeks in the gravel before emerging as free-swimming fry. Juvenile chinook ,rill generally spend one year in fresh water before migrating to sea in late June. Adults return to natal streams after two to six years at sea. Chum salmon (Q. keta) are the most abundant salmon in the Kuskokwim River system, which contains at least 16 known spawning tributaries. Chum salmon appear in the Kuskokwim around the first week in June, peaking in late June and early July, and continue to run until mid-August. Fry emerge from the gravel in late April or May to begin their seaward migration. They often develop for a month in fresh water, then spend several months in nearshore ocean waters prior to migrating to the open ocean. Adults return to natal streams for spawning after spending two to four years in the marine environment. Coho salmon (Q. kisutch) are the second most abundant salmon in the Kuskokwim system. Coho salmon are the latest running fish, usually entering tributary streams in August and continue to run until September with spawning 93 taking place in September and October. Little is known about specific coho salmon spawning areas. They utilize many of the same systems as chinook salmon for spawning. Shallow tributaries and narrow side channels are the preferred spawning areas. The fry usually emerge from the gravel in Mayor June, and the smolts migrate to sea in the spring of their second or third year. Juvenile coho overwinter in the deeper river pools, spring-fed ponds, or along lakeshores. Marine residence is from one to three years. In the Kuskokwim area pink salmon (Q. gorbuscha) exhibit an even-odd year cycle, with the largest runs occurring during even years. Limited numbers of pink salmon spawn in tributaries of the Kuskokwim River but are abundant in Kuskokwim Bay streams. They are usually distributed in the lower sections of rivers, where spawning occurs in July. Emergence from the gravel usually occurs in April or May, and the fry immediately migrate downstream to estuaries. Pink salmon have the shortest life cycle of any Pacific salmon, maturing in about 16 months and returning to natal streams as two year old fish. Limited numbers of sockeye salmon (Q. nerka) spawn in tributaries of the Kuskokwim River. The most significant sockeye salmon streams in the area are the Goodnews River system and the Kanektok River in Kuskokwim Bay. Sockeye spawning occurs from mid-August to early ~eptember. Rivers in which they spawn usually have lakes in their systems. After emergence in April or May, fry generally move into a lake, where they remain for a period of one to four years before migrating to sea. They spend from one to four years in the marine environment before returning to spawn. The rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) is probably the most important sport fish in the area. Rainbows are found in all major streams in the lower Kuskokwim River drainage except the Tuluksak and Eek rivers. Population levels are probably not high. The majority of the fish caught by sport fishennen 94 range between 2 to 3 lbs with a few up to 6 lbs (Alt 1977). They are not found in the tributary streams that enter the Kuskokwlin from the north. The Aniak River marks the furthest upstream location in the Kuskokwim River of a naturally producing population of rainbow trout. The Kuskokwim River represents the most northerly and westerly distribution of natural populations of rainbow trout in North America. Rainbow trout populations in the Kuskokwim area are all stream dwellers. No anadromous populations exist, and they very seldom enter lakes. They tend to inhabit a narrow band from the edge of the zone of tundra ponds to the mountains. These trout congregate in deep holes of the rivers during the winter and are usually distributed farther downstream than in the summer. They are more vulnerable at this time due to their concentrating in lower reaches of the streams. Little information exists on the spawning behavior of rainbow trout in this area, but they are believed to spawn in late Mayor early June in side channels and small tributaries to the main streams. In late summer they congregate near spawning salmon, feeding on salmon eggs and flesh. The Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) is one of the most widely distributed fish in the Kuskokwlln area and is found in nearly all lakes and streams. There are three forms of this char in waters of the area: (1) resident lake char, (2) anadromous stream char, and (3) resident stream char. Resident lake char are not very abundant in the area. Anadromous char are found only in streams of Kuskohlim Bay and appear to be abundant. Stream char are apparently more " abundant than rainbow trout in the Kuskokwim River tributaries, where they seldom exceed 3 lbs (Alt 1977). The stream residents of the tributaries of the Kuskokwim are believed to spend all of their lives in these tributary rivers and seldom venture into the main Kuskokwim River. Stream char concen- trate in areas of salmon spawning during late summer to feed on salmon eggs. 95 Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) are distributed throughout higher elevation lakes in the area. Competition between adult lake trout and other lake-resident fish is severe, and the lakes are therefore unable to support large numbers of juvenile fish. Large size fish in area waters are uncommon as few fish exceed 10 Ibs (Alt 1977). Lake trout generally spawn along lake shorelines during the fall and are often nonconsecutive year spawners. Lake trout seldom stray from their natal lake. Arctic grayling (Thymallus arcticus) are present and usually abundant in most lakes and all streams entering the lower Kuskokwim River from the south. Few grayling from Kuskokwim River streams exceed 18 inches in length (Alt 1977). Grayling are thought to overwinter in the Kuskokwim River and the lower sections of the larger tributaries. These fish move upstream after breakup and distribute themselves throughout the river and into most of the tributaries. Spawning usually takes place in late May. In late summer grayling congregate near spawning salmon and feed heavily on salmon eggs. The northern pike (Esox lucius) is abundant in the Kuskokwim Delta through the entire drainage of the Kuskokwim River and is an important sport and subsis- tence fish. Pike are found in slow-moving water of the sloughs, interconnected lakes, and the lower reaches of larger rivers. Northern pike in the lower Kuskokwim do not reach as large a size as those from the upper river and rarely exceed 7 lbs (Alt 1977). Little is ~10wn about seasonal movement of pike, but they probably move out of tributary rivers and into the main Kuskokwim in late fall. Northern pike are spring spawners and generally spawn soon after breakup in river sloughs. Inconnu (Stenodus leucichthys) occasionally enter lower reaches of tributary rivers of the lower Kuskokwim but are absent from Kuskokwim Bay streams. Two to three weeks after breakup, in late Mayor early June, inconnu 96 ---- migrate upstream in the Kuskokwim River. It appears that almost the entire Kuskokwim River inconnu population spawns at Highpower Creek in the upper Kuskokwim River (Alt 1977). Spawning occurs in fall evenings with the peak of spawning occurring in early October. Postspawning downstream migrations are under the ice to the lower Kuskokwim River. Whitefish and ciscoes (Coregonus sp.) are abundant in the Kuskokwim River and Delta and at least one species can be found in most streams and lakes of the area. The most common whitefish found in the Kuskokwim area include round whitefish (prosopium cylindraceum), humpback whitefish (Coregonus pidschian), broad whitefish (Coregonus masus), least cisco (Coregonus sardinella), and Bering cisco (Coregonus laurettae). Whitefish in this area are migratory to semianadromous. The round whitefish is found in both lakes and streams of the area, while the humpback whitefish is restricted to the lower reaches of all Kuskokwim River tributaries excluding Kuskoblim Bay. Broad whitefish are abundant in the Kuskokwim River and Delta but seldom enter tributary streams of the lower Kuskokwim River and are absent from the Kuskokwim Bay area. The least cisco is widely distributed in the delta and throughout the entire Kuskokwim River. They are abundant in lakes of the delta but are absent from the higher elevation lakes. The Bering cisco is abundant in slower-moving water of the lower Kuskokwim River and in estuarine situations. Whitefish are all fall spawners and spawning is thought to occur in the Kuskokwim, although exact spawning areas are unknown (ADF&G 1977a). Overwintering generally takes place in the estuaries and mainstem Kuskokwim. Burbot (Lota Iota) are abundant in the lowland area of the lower Kuskokwim, where they are utilized as subsistence food. They are scavengers and predators of other fish and, in turn, their young provide food for other fish. Burbot seldom exceed 25 lbs and average around 2 lbs (Morrow 1980). Burbot are winter spawners. 97 Commercial Fishery The Kuskokwim commercial salmon fishery is the oldest in the Arctic- Yukon-Kuskokwim (AYK) region, with catches reported as early as 1913. During the first half of the century small commercial mild-cure operations in or near Kuskokwim Bay dominated the commercial fishery. Commercial fishing, however, did not develop significantly until after statehood. The fishery prior to 1961 was often poorly documented, sporadic in nature. and generally small (ADF&G 1976b). Fishing vessels have remained virtually unchanged, but increased utiliza- tion of highly mobile nylon drift nets have greatly improved the efficiency of the fleet. The expansion of the commercial fishery was made possible through increased marketing potential and improvements in tendering facilities. Processing methods have shifted from mild curing to a fresh-frozen product (ADF&G 1976b). Pacific salmon are of primary commercial significance in the Kuskokwim area. In addition to the salmon catch, inconnu and whitefish are incidentally harvested, and a limited fall and winter whitefish fishery is conducted for local markets (ADF&G 1976b). There has existed a limited sale or barter of freshwater species in the area for years. ADF&G's Kuskokwim fishery management area includes all waters of the Kuskokwim River drainage and all waters between Cape Newenham and the Naskonat Peninsula. The commercial salmon fishing area is divided into five districts: District 1 (335-10) lower Kuskokwim River from Eek Island to Mishevik Slough below Tuluksak; District 2 (335-20) middle Kuskokwim River from Mishevik Slough to Kolmakof River near Aniak; District 4 (335-40) approximately 5 miles of shoreline adjacent to the village of Quinhagak located at the mouth of the Kanektok River; and District 5 (335-50) Goodnews Bay. District 3, upper Kuskokwim River above the Kolmakof River, has been closed to commercial fishing since 1966 (Figure 38). 98 If I N I Cape Romanzof \ \. ~/.{'O ............. __ 'Z St. Marys --, ., Cape Newenham / / "./ / I / /~lCGrath Fi6rure 38. Commercial fishing districts in the Kuskokwim area. - -Boundary of Kuskokwim area District 1 2 3 4 Corresponding Statistical An:a 335 -10 335 -20 335 -30 335 --10 335 -50 Scale 1:2.500,000 hliles Commercial fishering effort in the Kuskokwim area has been steadily increasing since 1960. The lower Kuskokwim River (District 1) and the Quinhagak area (District 4) have become the centers for most Kuskokwim district fishermen. Ninety-nine percent of all Kuskokwim entry permit holders are residents of the area (ADF&G 1981). These fishermen move freely between each district. Legal salmon gear in the area presently includes set and drift gill nets. The gill nets cannot exceed 50 fathoms in length. Most commercial fisherman operate highly mobile drift gill nets. This type of fishing is conducted by laying out a length of net from a skiff and then drifting with the river current. Set gill nets are not utilized to a great extent by commercial fisherman and are used mainly for subsistence fishing. Al though the annual commercial harvest in the Kuskokwim area is small in comparison to harvests in other areas of the state, the area's commercial fisheries are extremely important to the local economy. Commercial fishermen received approximately $2,725,134 for their 1980 catch (Figure 39). The 1980 commercial salmon catch of 1,010,152 was the largest ever recorded and was 31 percent above the previous record 1978 harvest (ADF&G 1981). This catch far exceeded the previous five-yea~ average of 693,093 fish (Figure 40). The chum, coho, and sockeye salmon catch was the largest on record. The greatest amount of fishing effort and the largest commercial salmon catches occur within District 1 (335-10). There are 12 villages and at least 15 temporary fish camps located within the boundaries of this lower Kuskokwim district. A majority of the district residents utilize the fishery resources for both commercial and subsistence purposes. Figure 41 shows the commercial and subsistence salmon harvest in the Kuskokwim River for 1980. 100 Year 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 -1979 1980 Figure 39. Dollar value estimates of thy Kuskokwim area commercial fishery, 1964-80 • Gross value of catch to Wages 2 Total income fishermen earned to district $ 83,030 $ $ 90,950 87,466 138,647 20,000 158,647 290,370 40,000 330,370+ 297,233 60,435 357,668 362,470 127,327 489,797 371,220 80,510 451,730 360,727 85,895 447,622 827,735 150,000 977,735 1,056,042 150,000 1,206,042 899,178 165,000 1,064,178 1,380,229 175,000 1,555,229 3,891,950 200,000 4,091,950 2,337,470 250,000 2,587,470 3,678,000 275,000 3,953,000+ 2,725,134 300,000 3,025, l34 l. Information not available for wages earned during 1964-1966. 2. Includes wages paid to tenderboat operators, processing plant employees in district. Source: ADF&G 1981. 101 Figure 40. Commercial and subsistence harvest of salmon in the Kuskokwim area (all districts), 1913·1980. Commercial Catch Subsistence Catch1 Other Year Chinook Chum Coho Pink Sockeye Total Chinook Salmon2 Total 1913 7,800 7,800 1914 2,667 2,667 1915 1916 949 949 1917 7,878 7,878 1918 3,055 3,055 1919 4,836 4,836 1920 34,853 34,853 1921 9,854 9,854 1922 8,944 6,120 15,064 180,000 1923 7,254 7,254 1924 19,253 7,167 7,167 900 34,487 14,700 203,148 217,848 1925 1,664 5,800 7,514 10,800 230,850 241,650 1926 738,576 738,576 1927 286,254 286,254 1928 481,090 481,090 1929 560,196 560,196 1930 7,515 2,448 9,963 538,650 538,650 1931 8,541 8,541 389,367 389,367 1932 9,339 9,339 746,415 746,415 1933 6,290 433,998 440,288 1934 20,800 597,132 617,932 1935 6,448 8,296 14,744 22,930 554,040 576,970 1936 624 624 33,500 549,423 582,923 1937 480 480 537,111 537,111 1938 624 828 1,452 10,153 400,242 410,395 1939 134 828 134 14,000 125,425 139,425 1940 247 500 747 8,000 415,523 423,523 1941 187 674 861 8,000 415,523 423,523 1942 6,400 325,339 331,739 1943 6,400 325,800 332,200 1946 2,288 674 2,962 1947 5,356 5,356 1951 4,210 4,210 1954 57 57 1959 3,760 3,760 1960 5,969 3 5,498 5,649 17,119 20,361 327,297 347,658 1961 23,246 18,864 5,090 91 2,308 49,599 30,910 185,447 216,357 1962 20,867 45,707 12,598 4,340 10,313 93,831 14,642 165,626 180,268 1963 18,571 15,660 34,231 37,246 141,550 178,796 1964 21,230 707 28,992 939 13,422 65,290 30,853 214,942 245,795 1965 24,965 4,242 12,191 1,886 43,284 31,143 323,002 354,145 1966 25,823 2,610 22,985 268 1,030 52,716 53,606 201,002 254,608 1967 29,986 8,235 58,239 652 97,112 61,224 252,447 313,671 1968 43,157 19,694 154,302 75,818 5,884 298,845 34,986 301,531 336,517 1969 64,777 50,377 110,473 1,251 10,362 237,240 43,732 245,299 289,031 102 Figure 40 (Continued). Commercial and subsistence harvest of salmon in the Kuskokwim area (all districts), 1913-1980. Commercial Catch Subsistence Catch1 Other Year Chinook Chum Coho Pink Sockeye Total Chinook Salmon2 Total 1970 65,082 60,566 62,245 27,422 12,654 227,979 71,376 263,746 335,112 1971 44,936 99,423 10,006 13 6,054 160,432 45,465 130,329 175,794 1972 55,482 97,197 23,880 1,952 4,312 182,823 43,335 131,514 174,849 1973 51,374 184,207 152,408 634 5,224 393,847 41,697 211,468 253,165 1974 30,670 196,127 179,579 60,052 29,003 495,431 29,590 321,358 350,848 19753 27,799 223,532 109,814 899 17,535 379,579 51,045 180,429 231,474 1976 49,262 231,877 112,130 39,998 14,636 447,903 60,603 239,461 300,064 1977 58,256 298,959 263,728 434 18,621 639,998 58,163 218,824 276,987 1978 63,194 282,044 247,271 61,968 13,734 668,211 38,2094 137,4894 175,6984 1979 53,314 297,167 308,683 574 39,463 699,201 57,283 190,582 247,865 1980 48,242 561,483 327,908 30,306 42,213 1,010,152 59,900 165,000 224,900 Previous 5-Year Average 50,365 266,716 208,325 20,774 20,798 693,093 47,524 219,500 267,024 1Su bsistence catches for 1960-1976 have been revised and corrected. 2Primarily chum salmon. 3Final catch data used. 4Goodnews Bay not surveyed. Source: ADF&G 1981. 103 Figure 41. Commercial and subsistence harvest of salmon in the Kuskokwim River, 1980. Fishing district and statistical area 335-10 Lower Kuskokwim Commercial Subsistence Total 335-20 Middle Kuskokwim Commercial Subsistence Total 335-30 Upper Kuskokwim Commercia1 2 Subsistence Total Total Kuskokwim River Commercial Subsistence Total Number harvested ~C7h~i-n-o-o7k--~~~C~h~um--~~~C~o~h~o-------T-o-t-a~11 34,184 47,710 81,894 1,697 10,063 11,760 1,736 1,736 35,881 59,509 95,390 450,616 109,863 560,479 16,617 29,216 45,833 26,093 26,093 467,233 165,172 632,405 219,174 28,511 247,685 2,868 4,834 7,702 4,197 4,197 222,042 37,542 259,584 703,974 186,084 971,952 21,182 44,113 65,295 32,026 32,026 725,156 262,223 987,369 1. Subsistence totals include small numbers of pink and sockeye salmon. 2. Commercial salmon fishing in statistical area 335-30 has been closed since 1966. Source: ADF&G 1981. 104 A minor commercial fishery is conducted in District 2 (335-20). Commercial fishermen in the middle Kuskohlim districut are limited to ca tch quotas of 2,000 chinook, 2,000 coho, and a combined total of 2,000 sockeye and chum salmon (ADF&G 1981). The majority of commercial catch is taken in the Kalskag area. The remainder of the area is primarily utilized for subsistence fishing purposes. Set gill nets are used more than drift nets in this district. Chinook salmon stocks have only been utilized commercially by Kuskokwim River fishermen since statehood. Annual commercial catches in the river districts ranged between 30,000 and 40,000 from 1968-72 (Figure 42). This range served as a guideline for harvest until 1976, when it was decided by ADF&G that this harvest range was too high. The current guideline harvest for the entire river is 25,000 fish during the chinook salmon season (ADF&G 1981). The chinook salmon season in the lower river district does not open until subsistence catches indicate that early run fish have reached the Kalskag-Aniak area. The delayed opening helps to prevent overharvest of the early run and gives subsistence fishermen an opportunity to fish before the commercial fishery. In 1980 the Kuskokwim River was completely ice free by May 10. The first reported chinook salmon caught was on May 17 at Bethel (ADF&G 1981). The commercial chinook salmon season opened June 12 and closed June 18 and consisted of two six-hour fishing periods. The total chinook salmon commercial catch for the Kuskokwim River was 35,881 and was similar to the previous five-year average harvest (Figure 42). The chinook salmon run peaked between June 15-20 and was near average in magnitude (ADF&G 1981). Prior to 1971 chum salmon were taken only incidentally to the chinook and coho salmon harvests, and a commercial chum salmon fishery was not initiated until 1971. Total utilization figures have increased steadily since its inception. 105 Figure 42. Commercial harvest of salmon in the Kuskokwim River (Statistical Areas 335-10, 20, 301 ), 1960-1980. Number Harvested Year Chinook Chum Coho Pink Sockeye Total 1960 5,969 2,498 8,467 1961 18,918 5,044 23,962 1962 15,341 12,432 27,773 1963 12,016 15,660 27,676 1964 17,149 28,613 45,762 1965 21,989 12,191 34,180 1966 25,545 22,985 48,530 1967 29,986 148 56,313 86,447 1968 34,278 187 127,306 161,771 1969 43,997 7,165 83,765 322 135,249 1970 39,290 1,664 38,601 44 117 79,716 1971 40,274 68,914 5,253 2,606 117,047 1972 39,454 78,619 22,579 8 102 140,762 1973 32,838 148,746 130,876 33 369 312,862 1974 18,664 171,887 147,269 37 136 337,984 1975 21,720 181,840 81,945 10 23 285,538 1976 30,735 177,804 88,501 133 2,971 300,204 1977 35,830 248,721 241,364 203 9,379 535,451 1978 45,641 248,656 213,393 5,832 733 514,255 1979 38,966 261,874 219,060 78 1,054 521,032 1980 35,881 483,211 222,012 803 360 742,297 5-Year Average 37,411 284,065 196,872 1,410 2,889 522,648 lCommercial fishing in Statistical Area 335-30 has been closed since 1967. Source: ADF&G 1981. 106 The first chum salmon in 1980 caught was at Bethel on June 4, and due to this early run of chums, the commercial chum salmon season was open from June 23 to July 9 and consisted of four six-hour fishing periods. The 1980 catch was a record harvest and was 54 percent above the previous five-year average (Figure 42). Based on comparative catch and escapement infonnation, 1980 had an exceptionally strong chum salmon run (ADF&G 1981). In 1980 the commercial coho salmon season in District 1 opened on August 4, and fishermen were allowed two six-hour fishing periods per week, totaling 48 hours for the season. The 1980 coho catch was the second largest on record and was 24 percent higher than the previous five-year average (Figure 42). Very few sockeye or pink salmon are commercially harvested in the Kuskokwim River district. Because of the lack of information concerning these two species no harvests goals have been developed by ADF&G. Subsistence Fishery The subsistence salmon fishery in the Kuskokwim area, especially in the Kuskokwim River, is the largest and most in tense in the state. Nearly all Kuskokwim area residents depend to varying degrees on the fish and game resources for their livelihood. Subsiste_rs gather salmon, northern pike, burbot, and whitefish from tributary streams but mainly utilize fish from the main Kuskokwim River. Chinook and chum salmon are the two most important species taken for suhsistence purposes (Figures 40 and 41). Coho salmon are not heavily utilized due to the lateness of the run and the rainy weather that prevents proper drying of the catch. Whitefish, northern pike, burbot. inconnu. and herring have all been historically utilized for subsistence. ADF&G (l976b) estimated that 75 to 85 percent of this catch is utilized for human consumption. 107 The majority of subsistence-caught salmon are currently taken with nylon gill nets. The use of fishwhee1s. which historically harvested a considerable number of salmon in the Kuskokwim. is slowly disappearing. Only 11 fishwhee1s were used along the river in 1974, compared to 30 in 1965 and 65 in 1960 (ADF&G 1976b). Spears, dip nets, fish traps. and willow or caribou strip gill nets have historical use in the area but have been replaced by the more efficient nylon gill nets. Beach seines are occasionally used near the spawning grounds to catch schooling or spawning fish. Traps and fish weirs of various designs are used, mainly in late fall and winter to capture whitefish, inconnu, b1ackfish, and burbot. Inconnu, northern pike, char, and tomcod are frequently taken by fishing through the ice. Accurate catch records are not available for species other than salmon, but a gross estimate is that 250,000 to 500,000 whitefish, 90,000 pike, and 10,000 burbot are harvested annually by subsistence fishermen in the lower Kuskokwim River drainage (ADF&G 1976b). In coastal areas up to 20,000 whitefish, 20,000 pike, 9,000 pounds of halibut, and several tons of herring may be harvested each year (ADF&G 1976b). Approximately 800 fishing families harvested 59,509 chinook salmon, 165,172 chum salmon, and 37,542 coho from the Kuskokwim River in 1980 (Figure 41). The chinook salmon harvest was the second largest since 1970 and was 22 percent above the 1974-79 average (Figure 40). The subsistence harvest of chinook salmon by villages in the lower Kuskokwim project area is given in Figure 43. The chum salmon harvest in 1980 was 20 percent smaller than the 1960-73 average catch and 17 percent smaller than the 1974-79 average catch (Figure 40). Figure 44 shows the subsistence harvest of salmon other than chinook (mostly chum) by villages in the lower Kuskokwim project area. 108 Village Eek TWl tutuliak Kasigluk Nunapitchuk A tmauthluak Napakiak Oscanille Napaskiak Bethel Kwethluk Akial<chak Akiak Tuluksak 1960 1,474 226 135 683 1,830 1,968 536 1,923 2,692 1,626 1,865 737 Village Eek 1961 2,238 2,226 1,215 2,042 2,573 282 1,258 4,150 3,763 3,052 3,159 1,486 Tuntutuliak Kasigluk Nunapitchuk Atmauthluak Napakiak O,carville Napaskiak nethcl Kwethluk Akiakchaj, Akiak Tuluksak Figure 43. Subsistence harvest of chinook salmon by villages in the project area, 1960-1980. Number Harvested Each Year 1962 1963 1,060 2,697 842 2,853 127 1,302 848 1,874 2,191 75 759 1,378 2,329 1,800 906 493 3,148 309 1,569 7,019 5,050 2,533 2,869 1,295 1964 1965 1,857 2,737 1,826 1,978 513 636 490 2,677 339 2,201 4,114 3,262 3,488 2,495 572 1,670 678 1,412 3,342 4,538 3,952 1,774 1,019 1966 2,872 3,061 1,875 2,875 3,592 301 2,935 7,604 6,135 4,957 3,941 1,559 1967 4,375 3,338 2,766 1,926 3,922 1,327 3,091 11,772 6,889 5,543 3,790 1,710 1968 1969 2,760 2,037 2,026 2,195 1,360 2,888 1,360 2,279 2,317 393 1,647 4,900 3,549 3,415 1,332 1,048 3,546 457 2,227 7,472 . 3,187 2,602 1,275 1,131 Number Harvested Each Year 1974 2,356 1,577 1,411 1,165 382 l,22-l 180 900 4,631 2,694 1,726 1,292 BIl;) 1975 2,110 3,492 1,713 2,092 1,0·12 2,864 8!11 2,303 ll,6B8 3,179 3,534 2,B37 1,3aB 1976 3,232 4,807 1,613 2,578 1,169 3,330 623 3,566 13,215 4,H)3 3,076 1,411 1977 2,675 2,470 1,324 2,622 2,702 672 1,989 9,408 5,563 5,407 2,8BO 2,90(; 1978 1,807 1,656 608 2,178 966 2,140 349 2,122 6,905 3,172 1,850 1,906 1979 2,003 2,268 1,142 2,109 2,242 2,191 629 2,085 11,564 6,919 4,818 3,567 1,489 1970 2,065 3,558 3,931 4,680 1,205 4,960 542 3,446 17,026 7,932 7,022 3,290 1,995 1971 1972 1,882 1,969 1,841 3,214 1,645 1,292 1,970 2,496 548 1,868 570 1,916 8,731 5,564 4,818 2,588 1,280 1980 1,5.57 2,545 1,704 2,612 1,288 2.582 477 3,160 12,591 7,627 5,405 3,355 2,807 864 2,009 196 1,578 8,371 5,137 3,872 1,899 1,318 1974· 1980 Avg, 2,249 2,688 1,359 2,194 1,156 2,433 546 2,303 10,000 4,764 4,108 2,694 1,820 Source: ADF&G 1981. 109 1960- 1973 1973 Avg. 1,981 2,286 2,859 2,289 8,864 1,609 2,663 1,916 1,106 1,763 586 2,048 8,898 3,444 2,592 1,895 1,322 913 2,719 573 1,902 6,907 4,534 3,662 2,366 1,212 Village Eek Tuntutuliak Kasigluk Nunapitchuk Atmauthluak Napakiak Oscarville Napaskiak Bethel Kwethluk Akiakchak Akiak Tuluksak Figure 44. Subsistence harvest of salmon other than chinook by villages in the project area, 1960·1980. 1960 4,094 4,101 1,400 2,743 1961 1962 2,321 2,072 8,526 9,692 3,657 1,705 4,868 7,474 1963 1,771 6,791 1,020 2,462 Number Harvested Each Year1 ,2 1964 1965 3,151 2,898 8,421 18,993 4,041 1,171 4,261 1966 1,324 9,747 3,058 4,146 1967 1,922 11,531 2,309 6,278 1968 1969 1970 3,503 3,436 4,855 14,090 17,462 10,600 4,311 3,308 5,731 7,731 6,934 11,412 1,191 1971 1972 2,213 783 9,964 11,103 2,043 1,934 3,375 5,600 1,197 947 1960- 1973 1973 Avg. 2,401 2,625 19,888 3,948 5,199 12,972 32,976 15,932 13,061 19,261 5,789 6,167 1,680 1,723 4,286 6,546 3.711 12,312 12,928 9,275 12,685 12,700 12,390 16,371 4,427 5,191 13,572 11,042 6,090 3,124 7,663 5,436 2,818 1,538 8,461 10,164 3,081 2,474 8,478 9,145 1,025 487 8,010 407 2,580 2,104 2,743 4,669 .1,676 498 3,584 6,275 26.206 8,743 8,585 12,409 11,655 11,169 7,039 8,858 12,845 8,470 21,106 22,788 12,518 10,521 8,205 6,551 7,928 8,526 Village Eek Tuntutuliak Kasigluk Nunapitchuk Atmauthluak Napakiak Oscarville Napaskiak Bethel Kwethluk Akiakchak Akiak Tuluksak 1974 4,227 28,321 6,773 12,498 4,585 21,494 5,617 20,467 34,892 39,747 15,108 18,434 13.261 8.623 13.180 6,726 8,478 10,289 15,623 19,099 19,186 37,780 10,096 25,138 9,659 12,297 9,777 12,820 14,011 18,707 16,049 10,622 11.670 14,055 28,603 14,613 23,872 36,645 23,462 13,684 9,332 8,898 19,461 10,306 13,776 9,854 11,114 6,068 33,475 27,702 29,776 13,003 7,626 Number Harvested Each Year 1975 2,754 7,429 3,708 5,447 2,524 11,630 3,237 12,930 26,808 19,183 14,008 18,890 7,819 1976 4,425 8,440 4,050 6,651 3,446 9,477 2,416 21,618 26,970 27,120 16,050 12,337 11,833 1977 3,251 9,340 3,504 8,991 3,693 8,420 2,030 11,588 15,982 28,193 18,607 13,952 7,835 1978 1,874 5,564 1,242 4,977 3,860 6,074 1,276 9,286 13,731 14,038 9,445 9,237 4,478 1979 1,125 5,632 2,617 5,737 5,287 8,109 969 5,773 31,040 16,861 10,469 12,218 5,249 1 Catches are comprised principally of chum salmon and include small numbers of sockeye, coho, pink, and small chlnook salmon, 21965-1972 catches do not include late run coho salmon. Source: ADF&G 1981. 110 9,905 16,886 33,390 17,365 13,941 11,721 19,565 23,046 12,298 9,266 9,264 6,108 5,115 5,148 1980 2,177 8,961 6,684 6,626 4,794 8,123 1,396 7,391 33,198 24,564 16,172 10,696 9,963 1974- 1980 Avg. 2,833 10,527 3,939 7,261 4,027 10,462 2,420 12,712 26,089 24,243 14,121 13,666 8,596 9,864 14,324 6,118 9,666 5,946 9,298 Sport Fishery The lakes and streams of the mountainous areas of the lower Kuskokwim River and Kuskokwim Bay contain populations of fish that presently support a light to moderate sport fishery (Alt 1977). Rainbow trout are the most sought after sport fish in Kuskokwim area streams. Arctic char, chinook and coho salmon, grayling, and northern pike are popular sport fish. Most fishermen are local residents and travel by boat to fishing locations. There are small guiding operations on the Aniak, Kanektok. and Kwethluk rivers. A small number of fishermen fly into lakes at the heads of Kuskokwim Bay streams and float the rivers. Stream fishermen exert the most sport fishing pressure in summer during the clearwater periods of July, August, and September. Lower water levels often restrict boat travel to productive reaches of tributary streams during periods of good fishing. Conditions in most streams are not suitable for landing float or wheel planes during the open water period. There is a large under-ice fishery in the Kuskokwim during winter, especially for northern pike and whitefish. The sport fishing pressure exerted on area lakes is light. Most fishermen are local and fly their own planes or charter in to lakes. A few nonresident and guided fisherman visit the lakes. Lake trout is the main sport species taken in the lakes, along with some char and grayling. Little information on catch and effort is available. During July 1975 only three planes and six fishermerL were observed by ADF&G on lakes in the lower Kuskokwim area (Al t 1977). Fishery Resources of the Kisaralik River Of the five major rivers in the Bethel area, the Kisaralik is considered to have the highest potential for hydroelectric development. The Kisaralik River originates at Kisaralik Lake in the Kilbuk Mountains and flows northwest 111 approximately 110 miles, where it empties into the Kuskokwim River near the village of Akiak about 30 miles upstream from Bethel. The Kisara1ik River and tributaries support runs of all species of Pacific salmon, plus substantial populations of rainbow trout, Arctic char, and Arctic grayling. According to Alt (1977), 24 freshwater species can be found in the Kisaralik River system. The predominant species in the river include chum and chinook salmon, Arctic char, rainbow trout, and Arctic grayling (Glesne 1981). The mid-section of the river, A 30-mile segment below Golden Gate Falls, is believed to contain most of the spawning habitat for chinook, chum, and coho salmon as well as rainbow trout, Arctic char, Arctic grayling, and round whitefish (Alt 1977; Glesne 1981). Aerial peak salmon escapement surveys have been sporadically conducted by ADF&G in the Kisaralik River system since 1959. The majority of the data is for chinook and chum salmon. Chum salmon are the most abundant salmon in the river with peak counts ranging as high as 12,000 fish in 1966. The highest escapement count for chinook salmon was 2,417 fish in 1978 (Figure 36). The Kisaralik River offers excellent sport fishing prospects as well as contributing to the lower Kuskokwim commercial and subsistence fishery. Rainbow trout is the top sport fishing attraction, followed by chinook and silver salmon, Arctic char, and Arctic grayling. The river offers excellent opportunity for char and grayling fishing throughout and for rainbow trout and salmon in the channel sections below the falls and upstream of the lower end of the brEided section (Glesne 1981). The rainbow trout fishery is unique in that it borders on the northern boundary of rainbow trout habitat in North America (Alt 1977; G1esne 1981). Bethel and Akiak village residents generally use boats to access the area where most fishing takes place (from Mile 20 to 40). Existing recreational use is low. Additionally, 15-30 people (estimated) 112 fly in to participate in float trips or fish for lake trout in Kisaralik Lake. This results in an estimated 200 user days annually of recreation activity on the Kisaralik River (Heritage Recreation & Conservation Service 1980). Due to the outstanding attributes of the river for recreation, fishing, and scenic values, it has been proposed for inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic River System. 113 TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONHENT Vegetation Data Base Although the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta region has been inhabited and explored for thousands of years, published data on the vegetation of the area is scant. Much of the information that does exist is in the form of brief references in reports on wildlife (Weir 1973; Williamson and Peyton 1962; Williamson 1957) and is of little use. Aside from these reports, the main thrust of vegetation investigations in this area has centered on regionwide mapping of dominant vegetation types. The first major mapping effort in the region was accomplished by Spetzman (1963). Spetzman's work, as well as Vireck and Little (1972), was used to produce the Major Ecosystems of Alaska map (Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973). This map was modified slightly and reproduced in the Alaska Regional Profiles: Southwest Region (Selkregg et al. 1976), which includes brief descriptions of vegetation types. All nomenclature follows Hulten (1968). Recently the Alaska Department of Natural Resources has undertaken a more comprehensive vegetation mapping project in the area, which is based on LANDSAT satellite imagery. Although this project centers on the Bristol Bay region, it includes most of the study area. The final products of this effort are now in press. Aerial photography of most of the study area is available in color infrared (scale 1:60,000) and black and white (scale 1: 120,OeO). These photos were taken in 1980 by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. There is a gap in this coverage, however, which includes that portion of the Kisaralik River between Upper Falls and the Little Crow Hills. There also are black-and- white photos of this area taken about 1957. The quality of these photos is unknown at this time. 114 Vegetation of the Region The study area lies within a transition zone between tundra and forest types of vegetation associations. Spruce and spruce/hardwood stands occur in river valleys in the Kilbuck Mountains. These types often persist along the major waterways far into the tundra plain. On the plain, permafrost and drainage patterns are major forces in the distribution of plant communities. These tundra-type communities vary in species composition according to the amount of soil moisture present during the growing season. The Major Ecosystems of Alaska map identifies six major types of vegetation associations in the area. Unfortunately, these types do not follow currently accepted classification schemes (Viereck, Dyrness, and Batten 1981; Information and Education Working Group of the Vegetation Committee 1981). Although correlations can be dra\ID between the various classification schemes. more information is needed before the former associations could be reclassified to level III or greater in the five-level system currently in use. A "crosswalk" between the two systems follows. Major Ecosystems Community Classification Szstem for Alaska Vegetation (7th AEEroxim3tion 1982) Bottomland Spruce--Poplar Forest \ Level II Mixed Forest Upland Spruce--Hardwood Forest " High Brush \ Level II Tall Shrub Scrub Level II Low Shrub Scrub Moist Tundra { Level II Dwarf Shrub Scrub Wet Tundra Level II Graminoid Herbaceous -Alpine Tundra Level II Forb Herbaceous Level II Bryoid Herbaceous The following descriptions of vegetation associations are adapted primarily from Selkregg et al. (1976) with additional information from Holmes and Black (1973), Weir (1973), Williamson (1957), and Williamson and Peyton (1962). 115 Bottomland Spruce-Poplar Forest. This type includes both pure and mixed stands of white spruce (Picea glauca) and balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera). The understory is usually comprised of alder (Alnus sp.), birch (Betula sp.), willow (Salix sp.), ferns, mosses, and lichens. This type generally occurs along major river drainages. Upland Spruce-Hardwood Forest. Birch or aspen (Populus tremuloides) mixed with white spruce make up this type. Black spruce may occasionally be found in cool areas with relatively poor drainage. The percentage of each major species varies from site to site. This association usually occurs on slopes with moderate drainage. The understory is moss and low shrubs on cool moist slopes, grasses on more mesic sites and willow, alder, and dwarf birch (Betula ~) near timberline, which is generally at 1,500 feet in this area. High Brush. This association consists of dense thickets of willow, alder, and birch with various ferns, grasses, herbs, and mosses in the understory. It generally occurs along drainages and in subalpine areas, where it grades into alpine tundra. Moist Tundra. This association is characterized by various dwarf shrubs, such as dwarf birch, narrow-leaf labrador tea (Ledum cumbens), and mountain cranberry (Vaccinium vitus-ideae), sedges especially cotton grass (Eriophorum sp.), grasses, and herbs usually rooted in a moss-lichen mat. The drainage in moist tundra areas is better than in wet tundra. Wet Tundra. This association has a nearly continuous cover of sedges and grasses, primarily Carex aquatilis, Erioehorum sp. and Poa _a_r_c __ _ rooted in a mat of moss and lichens. Micro-relief and drainage are important in this community. Low areas often have standing water with pondweed (Potamogeton sp.), horsetail (Equisetum sp.), and bur reed (Sparganium sp.). The better-drained elevated areas often have dwarf shrubs such as willow, blueberries (Vaccinium uliginosum), and narrow-leaf labrador tea. 116 Alpine Tundra. Typical alpine tundra plants include blueberry (Vaccinium sp.), crowberry (Ernpetrum nigrum), and lichens. Alpine azalea (Loise1euria procumbens), Arctic willow (Salix arctica), and mountain avens (Dryas octopetala, D. integri- folia) occur in sheltered areas. Exposed areas provide habitat for lichens, lupine (Lupinus sp.) and cinquefoil (Potentilla sp.). Figure 45 shows these plant associations as they relate to the habitat types in which they occur. Habitat types follow Kessel (1979). Endangered plant Species Currently, no plant species listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as threatened or endangered are indigenous to Alaska. However, there are 31 species under review (Federal Register, Vol. 45, No. 242, December 15, 1980). None of these species has been reported from the study area. Avifauna The primary emphasis of this phase of t~e study has been twofold--first, to define the resources and second to identify sensitive habitats and important biological events. The avifauna of the study area is vast and diverse. Portions of the study area adjacent to the Kuskokwim River are part of the highly productive complex of habitats which make the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta one of the most important waterbird production areas in the world. Yearly, delta habitats contribute hundreds of millions of birds to the world population. The avifauna increases in complexity to the east in the Kilbuck Mountains in response to an increase in vegetation community complexity. The area's avifauna has undergone study in a series of waterfowl breeding pairs surveys (King, unpublished) and several reconnaissance level studies (Heir 1973; Aldrich and Aldrich 1981; Hilliamson 1957); however, with the 117 Figure 45. Vegetation associations and their relationship to habitat types.* ~ 0 "C Habitat "C ..., §..., en * <J.l ..., . ..., C':S ..., fI} UJ en Types ,... en ~* <J.l C':S ~~ ~ <J.l ::I <J.l -'" <J.l ,... en en :.E :.E C.,) ,... o ,... "C <J.l ..., en <J.l en ~"C ~ 0 ::I 0 o ,... C':S <J.l ..., <J.l 1=:-0 :::: 1:= C':S t: C':S <J.l ~ ..0 ..0 P:;.. "CP:;.. op:;.. .... ::::~ ..o<;l 0 e e <J.l C.,) en .... :::: .... <J.l-..0 C.,) fI} <J.l <J.l ...,~ "C :.E ..... ::s <J.l ::s I=: ~ ::s C.,) "t:: "t:: ::I "C ,... ..... 0 ::::~ U 0 C':S 00 00 o~ ,... 0 o E <J.l C':S <J.l ,... ,... ~ b"t:: ~"t:: ,.c: ~ "C~ ~~ :.E .... .... ""..0 00 ~O :goo 'S 00 ,... ,... C':S C':S ~ e ·S <J.l ..... ~"C ..., -~ I=: C.,)"C ::;:I"C .... "C <J.l ~ ~ (:J :3 § rz g -1:= O,.c: 0 ..... 0 C.,) I=: Vegetation Associations U C':S :::: 0 0 ...:loo p:;.. u :.Eu 00 C':S Bottomland Spruce-Poplar Forest X X X X X X Upland Spruce-Hardwood Forest X X X X X X High Brush X X X X X Moist Tundra X X X Wet Tundra X X X X Alpine Tundra X X X * A vegetation association may occur in multiple habitat types. Additionally, several habitat types may be found within anyone plant association. **Essentially nonvegetated habitats . . Note: Habitat types follow Kassel (1979). 118 exception of annual waterfowl surveys, these studies do not provide a comprehensive overview of the resource. Nearly all pertinent data are qualitative in nature and widely separate in space and time, which complicates their interpretation. The following discussion is based on review of both published and unpublished data sources and on consultation with wildlife biologists familiar with the area's fauna. Waterfowl Low-lying portions of the study area adjacent to the Kuskokwim River are important waterfowl breeding habitats. While breeding densities are low relative to many other areas of the Yukon-Kuskowim Delta (Evans and Cuccarese 1977; King, pers. comm. 1982; Spencer, pers. comm. 1982) the area nonethleless ranks high in importance as a waterfowl production unit. Duck breeding densities along the lower Kuskokwim River are believed to vary between five to 24 pairs per square mile (Evans and Cuccarese 1977). Although in the low range for Alaska as a whole, densiti~s of this nature are significant from a continent-wide perspective. Pintails (Anas acut~). oldsquaws (Clangula hyemalis) , green-winged teal (Anas creca), mallards (~. plat yrhyncos) , and scaup (Athya spp.) typify the breeding ducks of the study area (Fortenberry 1972-74; King, pers. comm. 1982). Breeding duck composition is weighted heavily towards those species which normally utilize freshwater ponds and marshes for production (Figure 1). Descriptions of preferred nest sites are provided in Figure 46 and in Bellrose (1978). Timetables of significant biological events are provided in Figures 47 and 51. White-fronted geese (Anser albifrons), and Taverner's Canada geese (!. ~ taverneri) are the most common breeding geese of the study area (Spencer, pers 119 Figure 46. Avifauna which probably inhabit or migrate through the Bethel study region. Breeding Habitats in Study Areal .., !!: <Ii 0 .:;~ -0 ~~ .., ... til til .... <Ii ..... ... til d:s ~ '" til "' <Ii .. <Ii til '" ::l <:J ...., til '" til :::E :::E :E.g ,::: .. 0 ... til '" ...., '" c '" ~ 0 ::l 0 C\l :::: c til ]t;:; ~ ..0 ..0 I'-< ... "'--0"'- <:J (1)= ?:~ 0 ;:l ;:l ..0..0 til '0 til <.I C ~ '" ....,~ -0 !:: ... ;:lr:r.J ..0 ;:l <Ii ::l C '" ... ;:l <.I 53 :::: .~ 0 ::: 0 '" tiS ... 0 Ci 0 '" .tl..o U 0 ., ..0 e ... .. .. 'tl ~..o .is .,... ..... '-r:r.J ::l ..0 ~ 'tl.!:: C ~r:r.J ';; r:r.J "" ... ... r:r.J :::: .., '" til ~~ 'c Q; .- '-'-0 ::::-0 :0;::-0 ~ !!: x c Species ~ '" c ~ c U ~ '" .5;:;s -;;; 0 .-0 ...:l '" ro :::: Ci Ci I'-< U ::;;:u Common Loon Gavia immer R-V XX X Arctic Loon Gavia arclica C XX X Rl'd-throaled Loon Gavia stellaia FC XX X Yellow-billed Loon Gavia adams!i R XX X Red-necked Grebe Podiceps grisegena FC XX X Horned Grebe Podiccps auritus R XX X Whistling Swan 0101' coiumbianus C X XX ,..... Canada Goose Branla canadensis minima R N Brania canadensis taverner! XX 0 Black Brant Branla nigricans V Emperor Goose Phi/ac ie canagica V* White-fronted Goose .4nser albifrons C X XX Snow Goose Ansel' cacl'ulescens C* I.,lallard Anas plaiyrhynchos FC XX X X X Gadwall Anas sirepera R XX X X Pintail Anas acuta C X X X XX Green-winged Teal Anas carolinensis C X XX X American Widgeon Anas americana FC-V X XX X Shoveler Anas clypeaia V-FC X XX Greater Scaup Aythya marila C XX XX Lesser Scaup Ay lhYQ a{finis R XX XX Common Goldeneye Bucephala ciangu/a V-FC X X XX Barrows Goldeneye Bucephala islandica R X X XX Buffelhead Bucephala albeola R X X XX Oldsquaw Clangula hyemalis C XX X Harlequin Duck Hislrionicus histrionicus Ca* Steller's Ei der Polysllcta slelleri R-V X XX Common Eider Somateria mollissima FC X XX King Eider Somateria spectabilis FC* Spectacled Eider Somateria fischeri V White-winged Scoter Melanitta deglandi R-V X XX Surf Scoter Melanitta perspicillaia It XX X Common Scoter A1 elanitta nigra FC X XX Common Merganser Mergus merganser Ca* Hed-brl'asted l\lerganser Goshawk Sharp-shinned lIa wk Marsh Hawk Rough-Ic!\ged Hawk Golden Eagle Bald Eagle Osprey Gyrfalcon Peregrine Falcon Merlin Sparrow Hawk Spruce Grouse Willow Ptarmigan Rock Ptarmigan Sandhill Crane Semipalmated Plover Golden Plover Black-bellied Plovel- Whimbrel BristleJ-thighed Curlew Ited Knot Western Sandpiper Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Rock Sandpiper Scmipalmated Sandpiper Dunlin Spotted Sandpip"r Wandering Tattler Surfbird Black Turnstone Ruddy Turnstone Greater Yellowlegs Solitary Sandpiper Figure 46 (Continued). Avifauna which probably inhabit or migrate through the Bethel study region. Species Mergus sen·ator Accipiter genlilis Accipiter striatus Circus cyalleus Buteo lagopus Aquila ehrysaetos Haliaeetus leucocephalus PandiOIJ hallaetus Falco rusticolus Falco peregrillus Falco columbarius Falco sparverius Callacizitcs canadensis Lagopus lagoptls Lagopus mutus Crus canadensis Charadrius semipalmaius Pluvia/us dominica P/uvialis squalaro/a NtLn!cnills phacopus NUlllcllius /alziliellsis Calidris canutus Calidris mauri Calidris aCHminila Calidris plilocnemis Caiidris pHsil/a Calidris alpina Actitis macH/ara Heteroscelus il/canum Aphriza virgata Arellaria meial!()cep/wla A renaria interprcs Tringa melanoleuca Tril1p,a solitaria U~FC X R R U R-U U-FC U R-U R-U R U R U C R~U C U XX U-FC C R-U C FC* C C* FC X R-U C R XX '! XX R C XX FC R R X XX X XX XX Breeding Habitatsin Study Areal XX XX X Ii X XX XX X X XX X XX X XX XX XX XX X X XX X XX x X X X XX XX x XX x X x X XX XX XX XX X X X .... ~ .. o ... til ::l o .... ..= ·2 o u X XX X X x X xx XX X x xx XX XX xx X I-' N N Figure 46 (Continued). Avifauna which probably inhabit or migrate through the Bethel study region. Lesser Yellowlegs Long-billed Dowitcher Common Snipe Least Sandpiper Bar-tailed Godwit Northern Phalarope Red Phalarope Pomarine Jaeger Parasitic Jaeger Long-tailed Jaeger Glaucus Gull Glaucus-winged Gull Herring Gull lI.Iew Gull Sabine'5 Gull Bonapart's Gull Arctic Tern Aleutian Tern Snowy Owl Great lIorned Owl Great Gray Owl lIawk Owl Short-eared Owl Belted Kingfisher Downy Woodpecker Northern Three-toed Woodpecker Horned Lark Traill'5 Flycatcher Barn Swallow Cliff Swallow Bank Swallow Tree Swallow Violet-green Swallow Grey Jay Species 'Trillga f/auipes Li!llll odrom us scolopaceus Capella gallillago Caliuris mil1ulilla Limosa lapponica Phalaropu51obatus Phalaropus fulicarius S1ercorariu5 pOmarillllS Slercorarius parasilieLls Stercorarius IOllgicaudus Latus hyperborcus Lams g/aucescens Larus orgellialus Larus car!1ls Xerna sabilli LaTUs philadelphia Sterna paradisaea Stema aleutica Nyctea scalldiaca Bubo virginiallUs Strix nebulosa Surnia ulu/a Asio flam lJleus Megaceryle alcyol! DClldrocopos pubeseells Pieoides [ridaelylus Eremophila alpestris Empidonax lrailIii Hirundo rustiea Petroehelidoll pyrrhonota Riparia riparia Iridoproelle bicolor Taehyeinela Ihalassina Pcrisoreus canadensis R FC FC-C R-V C C FC V-FC* FC-C C C V R C C V C V V FC R R FC R-V Ca Ca R U V R-V R FC R-V V-FC Breeding Habitats in Study Areal X XX XX XX XXII x xx XX X X X XX X XX XX XX XX X xx XX XX XX XX XX X XX XX XX XX XX XX XX X X XX " x XX ... '" t o ::... <J> ::I o '" ,J:: '2 o (,) XX xx XX XX X XX X X XX X X X XX XX X XX XX X Figure 46 (Continued). Avifauna which probably inhabit or migrate through the Bethel study region. Breeding Habitats in Study Areal .... It <1/ .-~ 0 ... u .... "0 <1/ .-.... . ...., '" til .... ~..t: <1/ '" '" '" a:; til -'" <1/ til uE-< ~ <1/ ;:l (J ... "'"0 ::E ::E u ... o ... .... Vi <1/ Vi ~-~"3 ~ 0 ;:l 0 co Q) ... Ql C <1/ ~ :::: c co C co .-It ..0 ..0 t... "Ot... :::::= ..ot... ::) ::) ... Q) /li;':: 0 "3~ ..0 til '8 ~ '" Ql .... ~ ... ... ;:l c c ~ <1/ ... ;:l '" "0 ..t: ..t: ;:l 0 u 0 co .-0 :::: 0 U 0 '" r:n r:n ~ E ... Cl ... u ... "0 1:;;..t: o;~ rJiCQ "" '-.... r:n ;:l ..t: u "O~ C ~r:n .s:: 0<'; ... ... ;l::S r:n ""' u .-;:l .. co co '2 x c ~ "'"0 ::)"0 ~"T.;j u li; ;l: o u -;;; 0 .-0 j ; &:; ; (5 ; :::: Cl Cl ~;;S E-< U ::Eu Species Black-billed Magpie Pica pica R XX Common Raven Corvus corax FC X XX Black-capped Chickadee Pants atricapillus V-FC XX X Boreal Chickadee Parus hudsonicus R-V X XX Dipper Cine/us mexicallus C XX Robin Turdus migratorius V XX XX Wheatear Oenallihe oenallthe Ca* ...... Varied Thrush lxoreus naevius FC X XX X tv Hermit Thrush Calharus guttatus FC X XX w Swainsons' Thrush Calharus ustulatus FC XX XX X Grey-cheeked Thrush Catharus millimus FC XX XX XX Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis Ca-R. X XX Ruby-crowned Kinglet Regulus satrapus R XX X Water Pipit Anlhus spl1loleltus V XX Yellow Wagtail Motacilla {lava FC XX Bohemian Waxwing Bombycilla garrulus V XX Northern Shrike Lallius excubitor V X XX X X Orange-crowned Warbler Vermivora celata V XX X Yellow Warbler Dendroica pelechia V-FC XX XX X X Myrtle Warbler Dendroica coronata Ca XX X Blackpoll Warbler Dendroica slriala FC XX X Northern Waterthrush Seiurus noveboracensis FC XX XX Wilson's Warbler lVilsonia pusi/la FC XX XX XX Rusty Blackbird Euphagus carolinus V XX XX XX Pine Grosbeak Pinico/a ellue/ealor Ca XX X Common Redpoll Carduelis flammea FC XX XX X X Hoary Redpoll Carduelis homemanni R-U XX Savanah Sparrow Passerculus sandwichensis C XX X Tree> Sparrow Spizella arborea FC-C XX XX X White-crowned Sparrow Zonotrichea /eucophrys R-U XX XX X Golden-crowned Sparrow ZO/lolrichea alricapilla R-U XX X Fox Sparrow Passerella iliaca FC X XX X Lincoln's Sparrow Melospiza /inco/flU Ca X X XX X X Lapland Longspur Calcarius lapponicus C XX Figure 46 (Continued). Avifauna which probably inhabit or migrate through the Bethel study region. Snow Bunting McKay's Bunting C = Common FC Fairly Common U Uncommon H. Rare Ca = Casual * = Occurs only as migrant XX Primary breeding habitat X = Secondary breeding habitat (1) = Habitat types follow Kessel 1979 Species Plecirophenax niualis Plectropi1enax hyperboreus FC FC'" (2) = Abundance categories follow Kessel and Gibson 1978 Sources: Weir 1973 Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959 Bellrose 1978 Williamson 1957 King and Dau 1981 Mindell and Dotson 1980 Lensink 1973 Cade 1960 Mickelson 1973; 1975 Williamson and Peyton 1962 White and Boyce 1978 Holmes and Black 1973 Aldrich and Aldrich 1981 Kortright 1967 U.S. Department of Interior, ND Breeding Habitats in Study Areal XX comm 1982). Average numbers of breeding geese in the study area vary frOlU five to nine per square mile (Evans and Cuccarese 1977; Timm and Dau 1979; King, unpublished data). Low numbers of breeding geese are dispersed throughout the study area in appropriate habitats. Taverner's Canada geese nest almost exclusively on drier upland areas (King and Dau 1981), and white-fronted geese prefer nest sites on the elevated banks of sloughs and rivers (King and Dau 1981; Bellrose 1978). Whistling swans (Olor columbianus) are the most conspicuous waterfowl of the study area due to their large size and brilliant coloration. Nesting density within the study area varies from a low of 0.2 to 0.9 birds per square mile to a high of 1.0 to 1.4 birds per square mile (King 1973; Evans and Cuccarese 1977). These densities are in the low to medium continental range for nesting whistling swans. Approximately 50 percent of all whistling swan nests on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta are along the shorelines of ponds and lakes, and approximately 30 percent are on islands in lakes and ponds. Most nests are within 20 yards of water in heath tundra. Elevated hummocks appear to be preferred for nesting (Bellrose 1978). Whistling swan distribution and abundance correlates with the number of ponds and lakes ina given area. The greater the number of waterbodies, the greater the use by swans (King, pers comm 1982). AEIDC and the US~~S are cooperating in an analysis of aerial transect data collected by the latter agency during yearly waterfowl surveys. These data will be used to assess the relative importance of project area habitats to waterfowl as a ~10le and to identify Dnportant waterfowl use areas. The product will be used to assess the likely influence of various developments on the waterfowl resource. 125 Loons, Grebes, and Cranes Arctic (Gavia arctica) and red-throated loons (Q. stellata) and lesser sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis canadensis) are common to abundant nesters in portions of the study area (King, unpublished data; King and Lensink 1971; Williamson 1957; Evans and Cuccarese 1977). Little is known, however, about either the distribution or abundance of grebes. Evans and Cuccarese (1977) reviewed pertinent narrative reports from the Clarence Rhode National Wildlife Refuge, unpublished data collected by J. King, and Peterson's (1976) data to estimate breeding bird distribution and abundance of this group in this area. Nesting density of this group within the present study area is relatively high, varying between 15 to 24 birds per square mile and 25 to 44 birds per square mile. Densities in this range are moderately high for Alaska as a whole (Evans and Cuccarese 1977). Raptors Few raptors are found on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Numbers, types, and distribution of breeders on the delta are unknown, but lack of suitable habitat, primarily high cliffs, probably limits the opportunity for nesting. The rough- legged hawk (Buteo lagopus), marsh hawk (Circus cyaneus), short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), and snowy owl (Nyctea scandiaca) are probably the only species regularly breeding in low-lying portions of the study area (Fortenberry 1972-74). Breeding bird densities are unknown but are probably low. Raptor habitats increase in both number and productivity to the east in the Kilbuck Mountains. The Kisaralik River gorge supports a diverse and seemingly productive array of breeding raptors (White and Boyce 1978). White and Boyce (1978) found a total of eight rough-legged hawk nests (three active), 14 golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) nests (seven active), three occupied gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus) nests, and an unidentified raptor nest during an aerial 126 survey of the Kisaralik River gorge. Numbers of breeding golden eagles reported from this drainage are high by Alaska standards, implying that the habitat is excellent for this species. In addition to the above species, several peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) have been sighted in the Kisaralik River drainage. A single adult was observed in 1973 (USFWS, ND) and a pair were seen on an eyrie near the head of the canyon in 1981 (Aldrich and Aldrich 1981). At present, two races of peregrine falcons (F. p. tundrius; F. p. ana tum) are considered by the Federal govern~ent to be endangered. In all probability Kisaralik peregrines belong to one of these two races. As of this writing, it is not possible to characterize either the extent of breeding habitat available for peregrine falcons, the significance of this habitat, or its present productivity. Several authors have implied that the Kuskokwim and its tributaries have high potential as peregrine falcon breeding areas (Spurr 1900; Cade 1960; Fyfe et al. 1976), but recent investigations have failed to meet these expectations (White and Boyce 1978; Ritchie and Ambrose 1978; Mindell and Dotson 1980). AEIDC plans to investigate the potential for peregrine falcons in this area in 1982. Study plans are waiting approval by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the federal agency with oversight on endangered species. Several other raptors may inhabit the Kisaralik drainage, based on their occurrence in adjacent drainages. In addition to the above-named species, Weir (1973) encountered osprey (Pandion haliaetus), bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), and goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) in the Tuluksak drainage. Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) and Roseneau (pers comm 1982) reported that merlins (Falco columbarius) occur throughout the area. The merlin is of special interest due to the marked similarity of its pelage to the peregrine. Under some circumstances merlins may be misidentified as peregrines (Roseneau, 127 pers comm 1982). This is especially true of the black phase of the species, which is strikingly similar to the peregrine in appearance. Roseneau (pers comm 1982) reported that black merlins are the common race in this area of Alaska. Seabirds and Shorebirds Little pertinent data on either the distribution or relative abundance of either of these groups within the area of interest has been published to date. Both are abundant nesters on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, but the latter group occurs in truly remarkable numbers. Throughout much of their range, most of the gulls, terns, and jaegers listed in Figure 46 are colonial nesters. On the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, however, these species groups seldom form breeding colonies in the classic sense of the word. Typical nesting groups are comprised of from one to three pairs (Sowls et al. 1978). Nesting occurs throughout the area, though most species seem to prefer elevated (dry) nest sites. Hybridization is common in gulls, and field identification is sometimes difficult (Strang 1977; Patten and Weisbrod 1974). This circumstance, coupled with the homogenous light stocking characteristic of the area, dictates that estimates of abundance found in Figure 46 be viewed with caution. -The Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta supports one of the densest concentrations of shorebirds in the world. More species of shorebirds in greater densities and numbers occur here than in any other area of western Alaska (Gill and Randell 1980). Estimates of total numbers occurring in fall vary from 100 million (U.S. Department of Interior 1973) to 300 million (Gill and Randell 1980). Nearly the entire population of six North American species occurs here (Figure 47). Fifty-two species of shorebirds have been recorded in the area (Gabrielson 128 Figure 47. Index of abundance. Black turnstone Western sandpiper Rock sandpiper Dunlin Bristle-thighed curlew Bar-tailed godwit American golden plover Whimbrel Red knot Source: Gill and Handel 1980. l1ain North American population occurs in area x x x x x x 129 Main Alaska population occurs in area x x x and Lincoln 1959; Kessel and Gibson 1978). Only 30 of these, however, are common to abundant (Gill and Handell 1980). Breeding shorebirds utilize the full gamut of habitat types in the area. Depending on species, nesting aggregations occur from tidewater through the alpine zone in sites ranging from wet to dry. For example, semipalmated plovers (Charadrius semipalmatus) prefer nesting in the supralittoral zone, American golden plovers (Pluvialis dominica) utilize drier tundra environments for breeding (Gill and Handell 1980), and surfbirds (Aphriza virgata) nest almost exclusively in alpine communities (Dixon 1927; Murie 1924). The bristle-thighed curlew (Numenius tahitiensis), an abundant migrant in the area, is of special interest to ornithologists as only two nests of this species have ever been found. Allen and Kyllingstad (1949) discovered the nests in 1948 in the vicinity of Mountain Village on the lower Yukon River. Both nests were in alpine communities dominated by alpine azalea (Loiseleuria procumbens). Passerines Few species of passerines are common to the tundra plains portions of the study area adjacent to the Kuskokwim River. Passerine diversity and abundance are artifacts of the structural complexity of the vegetation. Since the veg~tation in this area is structurally simple, relatively few species occur here. TIlerefore, the areas of greatest species diversity are most likely the riparian scrub and forest communities. Holmes and Black (1973) recorded a total of 28 species of passerines in an area which is environmentally similar to tundra plain portions of the study area. Only three of these species were common in the wet tundra and heath tundra communities which typify the area of interest, however. These were the 130 yellow wagtail (Motacilla flava), the savannah sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis), and the Lapland longspur (Calcarius lapponicus). Numbers of passerines observed by Holmes and Black (1973) were strongly correlated with the amount and availability of scrub type vegetation. Species diversity and numbers of individuals probably increase to the east of the Kuskokwim in the river valleys which drain the Kilbuck Mountains. The flora of these valleys is relatively diverse and includes both conifer and deciduous trees. The increase in both structural diversity and community complexity should favor passerines. Weir (1973) found passerines locally abundant and diverse during his investigation of the Tuluksak River valley. In all probability, similar associations occur in the Kisaralik River valley. Significance of the Resource The avifauna of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta consititutes a resource of both national and international significance. Birds raised in this area disperse throughout the America's and the Pacific Rim during the fall and winter months, and several important species of waterfowl almost entirely depend on the delta for breeding and rearing habitats (King and Dau 1981). The delta annually contributes more than one million ducks and hundreds of thousands of geese to the continental population (King and Lensink 1971; Fortenberry 1972-74). In addition, the area provides important migratory habitat for birds which breed above the Arctic Circle. For example, upwards of 150,000 snow geese utilize delta habitats as rest areas during their flights between wintering grounds in North America and breed Lng grounds in the Soviet Union. Migratory birds also provide an important subsistence resource for delta residents. This is especially true during the spring of each year. Subsis- tence larders are usually low by the end of winter and returning migra tory 131 birds provide an important source of protein (Klein 1966). Fall hunting for waterfowl is generally less important for several reasons. First, most adult males are busy catching fish, which constitutes the winter dietary staple of delta residents. Second, migratory waterfowl departing the delta do not utilize well defined flyways, as they do in spring, which limits hunter success (Klein 1966; King, pers comm 1982). Spring waterfowl hunting along the lower Kuskokwim River generally commences as soon as the birds begin arriving (Figure 48) and continues until snowmelt restricts travel by hunters. In most years hunting ceases by 15 May (Dau 1978b). Both hunting intensity and hunter success are strongly dependent on climatic influence. Generally, a late spring equates with higher harvest levels and an early spring with lower ones. Although few studies of the spring use of waterbirds by humans are extant, their importance to the local economy is apparent. Delta residents harvested 325,000 kg of water-related birds in 1976 (Timm and Dau 1979). Timm and Dau (1979) reported that more than 2,000 boxes of shotshells were sold in the village of Hooper Bay in 1972. In 1970 Hooper Bay had a population of 490. There are approximately 10 similar sized villages on the delta with similar subsistence needs. The population of lower Kuskokwim River villages is provided in Figure 49 to place Hooper Bay's use of shotshells in perspective. -Estimates of numbers of water birds taken in a given year have been attempted by several authors (Figure 50). Wide discrepancies in predation rates are obvious and may relate to survey design, yearly variation in water bird availability, or invalid assumptions. A detailed review of these problems is found in Coop and Smith (1981). Eggs are another important subsistence resource for delta residents. Most birds begin nesting almost immediately following their arrival on the 132 Figure 48. Arrival times. Whistling swan Lesser Canada goose Black brandt Emperor goose White-fronted goose Pintail duck Mallard Crane Earliest recorded date of arrival in Bethel area (1) May 1 April 17 April 17 April 19 April 13 (1) Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959 (2) Dau 1978(b) (3) Mickelson 1973; 1975 133 Average peak arrival times on the Yukon- Kuskokwim Delta (2,3) April 30 -May 2 May 5-7 May 15-17 May. 14-16 May 1-4 May 7-10 May 2-4 Figure 49. Human population. 1960 1980 Kwethluk 325 454 Akiak 187 197 Akiachak 229 360 Tuluksak 137 236 Napaskiak 154 244 Oscarville 51 51 Napakiak 190 262 Eek 154 228 Tuntituliak 144 216 Kasigluk 244 Nunapitchuk 327 Atmautluak 219 Bethel 1,258 3,576 Total 3,400 6,043 134 Figure 50. Estimated Native spring take of migratory fowl and eggs, all villages. Year of estimate Geese Ducks Swans Cranes Eggs Source 1966 47,858 21,700 5,885 1,033 39,795 1 1981 31,731 18,913 2,614 1,477 25,529 2 1978 ND 150,000 ND ND ND 3 1 Klein 1966. 2 Coop and Smith 1981. 3 Dau 1978(a). ND=No data. 135 delta (Figures 47 and 51). Thus, their eggs are available to hunters in the field. In times past, women and children regularly accompanied the men to their spring bird hunting areas. The women and children would process the birds and gather bird eggs. Goose and swan eggs were the most highly prized for their size, but even passerine eggs were regularly taken (Klein 1966). This pattern has changed somewhat in recent years. Few now take their families with them on the hunt. As a consequence egg gathering has diminished somewhat in importance (Figure 50). Figures 52 through 55 present data gathered by Coop and Smith (1981) for their recent review of spring bird use by delta residents •. For reasons previously discussed, it is probably better to use these data to assess trends rather than to take them as absolute estimates of bird use. Several trends are apparent in these data. First, most take is of species which normally nest in the interior of the delta; and second, those species taken in greatest abundance are those which are normally the first to arrive (Figures 48, 52, and 53). This occurs for several reasons. First, the Kuskokwim River is an ~nportant spring migratory flyway for birds enroute to breeding habitats in the interior of the delta (King, pers comm 1982; Klein 1966). Second, most hunting camps in this area are situated along it, and take is wholly opportunistic. Based on this information, it seems highly likely that subsistence harvest varies widely from year to year in response to bird avail- ability. It is important to emphasize that Figures 52 through 55 represent estimates of only the spring take and are thus minimal indicators of water bird importance to the local economy. Delta Natives have traditionally harvested water birds, particularly waterfowl, throughout warm weather months and continue to do so. The contribution of other season hunts to the village economics has yet to be evaluated, but it was once considerable and probably still is. 136 Figure 51. Timetable of major biological events. Waterfowl Sources: Hansen and Nelson 19 [,9 Bellrose 1978 Lensink 1£)73 ~Iickelson 1973; 1975 Holmes and Black 1973 Williamson 1957 King and Dau 1981 Shorebirds Mindell and Dotson 1080 Gahrielson and Lincoln 1959 Cade 1DGO 137 Raptors Figure 52. Estimated spring goose take by village 1981. Canada White-Black Cackler Other front Emperor brandt Kwethluk 0 67 0 0 0 Akiak 86 156 11 0 0 Akiachak 157 283 20 0 0 Tuluksak 104 187 13 0 0 Napaskiak 61 0 461 0 46 Oscarville 12 0 95 0 9 Napakiak 65 0 495 0 49 Eek 32 107 100 14 36 Tuntituliak 30 100 94 13 34 Kasigluk ND ND ND ND ND Nunapitchuk ND ND ND ND ND Atmautluak 46 377 101 0 0 Total 593 1,277 1,390 27 174 Source: Coop and Smith 1981. ND = No data available. 138 Snow Subtotal 0 67 0 253 0 460 0 304 0 568 0 116 0 609 0 289 0 271 ND ND ND ND 0 524 3,461 Figure 53. Estimated spring duck take by village 1981. Pintail Mallard Eiders Oldsquaw Scoters Kwethluk 246 84 43 0 43 Akiak 141 60 0 0 2 Akiachak 257 110 0 0 4 Tuluksak 170 73 0 0 3 Napaskiak 559 491 0 0 '0 Oscarville 115 101 0 0 0 Napakiak 600 527 0 0 0 Eek 54 7 0 0 22 Tuntituliak 50 7 0 0 20 Kasigluk ND ND ND ND ND Nunapitchuk ND ND ND ND ND Atmautluak 63 4 0 172 157 Total 2,255 1,464 43 172 251 Source: Coop and Smith 1981. ND = No data available. 139 Other Ducks Subtotal 17 433 16 219 30 401 20 266 83 1,133 17 233 89 1,216 14 97 13 90 ND ND ND ND 145 541 444 4,629 Figure 54. Estimated spring take by village 1981. Other Geese Ducks Swans waterfowl Cranes Seabirds Subtotal Kwethluk 67 433 25 110 34 9 678 Akiak 253 219 24 24 8 0 528 , Akiachak 460 401 44 44 14 0 963 Tuluksak 304 266 29 29 9 0 637 Napaskiak 568 1,133 90 7 83 0 1,881 Oscarville 116 233 20 2 18 0 389 Napakiak 609 1,216 97 8 89 0 2,019 Eek 289 97 7 0 0 0 393 Tuntituliak 271 90 7 0 0 0 368 Kasigluk ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Nunapitchuk ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Atmautluak 524 541 111 0 54 0 1,230 Total 3,461 4,629 454 224 309 9 9,086 Source: Coop and Smith 1981. -ND = No data available. 140 Village Eek Kwethluk Napaskiak Nunapitchuk Figure 55. Average number of waterfowl reported taken per hunter 1981. Geese Ducks Swans Others 4.51 1. 51 0.11 0 0.53 2.87 0.2 0.87 8.34 10.18 1. 33 0.11 8.59 16.66 1.82 0 Source: Coop and Smith 1981. 141 Cranes 0 0.27 1. 22 0.80 One of the most effective means of gathering waterfowl for human use is the bird drive. During summer waterfowl congregate on protected lakes to molt their feathers (Figure 51). In times past human residents throughout the delta regularly took advantage of this phenomenon to increase their larder. Groups of men would band together to drive flightless birds into protected embayments where they would be killed with clubs and spears. Generally, the techniques employed were similar to those described by Hanna (1922). The hunters would form a line with their kayaks and begin to herd the flightless birds toward a group of their colleagues concealed on shore. Once the birds were driven into the shallows, they would be killed. This practice is no longer as widespread as it once was (Klein 1966), but it remains important on the local level (King 1973). This is particularly true in the more isolated villages. For example, the villages of Kasigluk and Nunapitchuk conducted yearly bird drives into the 1970's (King 1973). Considering the comparatively isolated nature of these villages and the lack of employment opportunity within them, it is reasonable to assume that this practice continues to this day. In sum, water birds are extremely important to the local economy. The spring hunt generally commences as soon as the first birds arrive, and take is entirely opportunistic. The birds begin breeding soon after their arrival; harVest data (Figures 52 through 55) provides an important index to waterfowl use of project area habitats. Collecting of migratory bird eggs and the use of bird drives has declined somewhat in recent years but is still important on the local level. For the final report AEIDC will examine the distribution and relative abundance of all waterfowl species important to the local economy. This information will be compared with the various alternatives, and an evaluation of their likely effects on the resource will be made. 142 Environmental Background--Mammals Introduction Little is known of either the composition, distribution, or relative abundance of the study area's mammals. Exceptions are limited chiefly to those spec ies which have importance in the local economy. For example, the distribution and relative abundance of moose (Alces alces) is fairly well known, but the distribution and abundance of ermine (Mustela erminea) and associated prey species is not. Although fragmentary and heavily weighted towards economically important species, the data record is sufficient to allow a characterization of the mammalian fauna (Figure 56). The environment in this area favors aquatic and semiaquatic lifeforms, so species such as beaver (Castor canadensis) and muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) are widespread and abundant (Dinneford, pers. comm. 1982). Population estimates for these species are unavailable, but aerial surveys of active beaver caches have been conducted in the Kisaralik River drainage (Dinneford, pers. comm. 1982). Since average beaver colony size in Alaska is fairly well known, it may be possible to derive a population estimate of beaver from these data. AEIDC will acquire these data and evaluate their potential for use in estimating beaver population size. -Apparently few mink (~. vison) or river otters (Lutra canadensis) inhabit the Kisaralik River drainage. Aldrich and Aldrich (1981) found scant evidence of river otter and none of mink during their survey in 1981. Dinneford (pers comm 1982) reported that few of these animals are trapped in Kisaralik drainages. Both species, however, are common along the lower Kuskokwim River, and they may be locally abundant in other portions of the study area. AEIDC will examine ADF&G trapping records to define the distribution and relative abundance of all fur animals within the study area for inclusion in the final report. 143 Soricidae Masked shrew Vagrant shrew Arctic shrew Vespertilionidae Little brown myotis Leporidae Snowshoe hare Arctic hare Sciuridae Hoary marmot Arctic ground squirrel Red squirrel Castoridae Beaver Cricetidae Red-backed vole Meadow vole Tundra vole Singing vole Muskrat Brown lemming Northern bog lemming Collared lemming -Zapodidae Meadow-jumping mouse Erethizontidae Porcupine Canidae Wolf Red fox Ursidae Brown bear Black bear Figure 56. Mammals. Sorex cinereus* Sorex vagrans Sorex arcticus Myotis lucifugus Lepus americanus LeEus arcticus Distribution in study area d,f,g,h,i,j d,f,g,j ,i,j d,f,g,h,i,j b, i, j f,g,h,i,j d,e,f,g Marmota caligata e Spermophilus parryll e Tamiasciurus hudsonicus i,j Castor canadensis a,b Clethrionomys rutilus h,i,j l1icrotus pennsylvanicus d,e Microtus oeconomus d,e Microtus gregalis e Ondatra zibethica a Lemmus sibiricus c,d SynaEtomys borealis c,d Dicrostonyx groenlandicus c,d Zapus hudsonicus Erethizon dorsatum Canis lupus Vulpes vulpes Ursus arctos Ursus americanus 144 d,j i,j b,e,f,g,h b,j Relative abundance ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 3 ? ? ? ? 3 ? ? ? ? 1 1 1 2 1 Figure 56 (Continued). Mammals. Mustelidae Marten Ermine Least weasel Mink Wolverine River otter Felidae Lynx Cervidae Moose Caribou Martes americana Mustela erminea Mustela nivalis l1ustela vison Gulo gulo Lutra canadensis Felis lynx Alces alces Rangifer tarandus * Nomenclature follows Jones et al. 1975 Distribution key (a) lacustrine waters and shorelines (b) fluviatile waters and shorelines (c) wet neadow (d) dwarf shrub meadow (e) dwarf shrub mat (f) low shrub thicket (g) medium shrub thicket (h) tall shrub thicket (i) coniferous forest -(j) mixed decidious-coniferous forest (habitat types follow Kessel 1979) Abundance key 1 species present in low numbers 2 -species commonly observed in suitable habitats 3 species widely distributed and abundant Sources Hall 1981 Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game 1973, 1978 Dinneford 1982 Hinman 1979, 1980 Aldrich and Aldrich 1981 Skoog 1968 Lutz 1960 145 Distribution in study area i,j c,d,f,g,h,i,j c,d,f,g,h,i,j a,b,c,d d a,b d,e,f,g,h,i,j a,f,g,h e Relative abundance ? ? ? 1 2 1 2 1 1 Both wolverine (Gulo gulo) and lynx (Felis~) are relatively abundant in Kisaralik drainages (Dinneford, pers comm 1982). Since lynx abundance is directly related to prey availability, and since hares (Lepus spp.) form the dietary mainstay of lynx, hares must also be abundant in this area at this time. Bears Black bears: Black bears (Ursus americanus) range throughout the Kilbuk Mountains westward to, but not including, the wetland portion of the lower Kuskokwim River basin. Very little data have been collected on black bear life history, abundance, or distribution in the Kilbuck region. State game laws do not require sealing of black bear hides from this area of the state. Consequently, harvest data for black bears in the Kuskokwim region do not exist. Areas of relatively moderate abundance presumably occur in the forested portion of the Kuskokwim valley upriver from Akiak. Abundance decreases to a relatively low level toward the sparsely forested Akhlun Mountains and Cape Newenham (ADF&G 1973). Black bears are not known to concentrate in Significant numbers in any particular places of the study area. Brown-grizzly bears: Brown-grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) have a range simIlar to that of black bears except that this larger species reportedly ranges further west onto the Kuskokwim wetland portion of the study area. Petroff (1882) noted that brown bears were plentiful during the fishing seaSOll in the "swampy" river bottom of the lower Kuskokwim River. At that time men boldly attacked bears with spears to repel them until their seasonal range shifted to the Kilbuck uplands. The historical range of the brown bear has probably changed very little since then. State biologists have identified 146 several river systems in the region which support low to moderate numbers of brown bears during the salmon spawning season (ADF&G 1973). These systems include the upper reaches of the Eek River's Middle Fork; a 15-mile segment of Eek River beginning at the Eek Lake outlet; Canyon Creek to the Kwethluk River confluence and downriver about 12 miles; from the Kisaralik Lake outlet downriver to about the Quartz Creek confluence; and the upper reaches of the Tuluksak River. Because of the statewide mandatory sealing requirement of brown bears, some harvest information is available for this species. The only significant brown bear harvest since Sta tehood occurred during the past several years. In 1979, 11 brown bears were reportedly harvested. Fourteen bears were taken in 1980, of which eight were accountable to the Kisaralik area. A surge in commer- cial guiding has contributed to a recent increase in the brown bear harvest (Dinneford 1981). Mortality related to other causative factors has not been documented, although ADF&G has received unconfinned reports of several illegally taken brown bears from tributary drainages in the lower Kuskokwim area. Dinneford (pers. comm.) estimated a maximum density of one bear per 35 square miles for this portion of Game Management Unit 18. At present there is no information on population status and composition. Moose Moose habitat is not abundant along the lower Kuskokwim, being limited primarily to bands of riparian willow and associated cottonwood-aIder-spruce! birch timber along watercourses. Below Tuluksak on the Kuskokwim, habitat becomes progressively narrower and more limited, and moose numbers diminish. During most winters moose occupy restricted ranges. Moose winter range generally coincides with the areas of highest value for food and cover. Moose winter range in the study area appears limited to low-lying riparian communities along 147 the Kuskokwim and its tributaries. From these havens of food and cover, moose move out onto adjacent low wetlands and into the tundra areas of the Kilbuck Mountains during the warmer periods of the year. Moose probably have historically inhabited this region. In 1843-44 Larrentii A. Zagoskin reported that the Kuskokwim River region, in the vicinity of the present villages of Georgetown and Sleetmute, was well supplied with feeding areas for caribou and moose, and that local people utilized moose for food and clothing (Lutz 1960). A low moose population persists in the Kisaralik drainage. Participants of a U.S. Bureau of Land Management float trip on the Kisaralik River in July 10-17, 1978 recorded 11 moose at intervals between Kisaralik Lake and the Spein Mountain area. A U.S. National Park Service wild and scenic rivers study team floated the Kisaralik River on August 3-11, 1981 and noted moose tracks at intervals over the entire length of the river, although no animals were seen. Chuck Hunt, FWS employee and resident of Bethel, is familiar with the Kisaralik area. He estimates about 25 moose resident in the brush-timber riparian zone of the Kisaralik lowlands. Because of heavy cover, moose persist here in the face of heavy subsistence hunting (Charles Hunt, pers comm). Four hours of moose surveys by the ADF&G along the Kisaralik River April 11, 1979, revealed no moose and only one possible set of tracks (Hinman 1980). In late February 1980 a similar survey covered the Kisaralik, Kasigluk, and Kanektok drainages and again yielded no sign of moose (Hinman 1981). These observations imply that use of the Kisaral ik drainage by moose is seasonal and probably restricted in winter to the lower river and the Kuskokwim areas. The reported moose harvest in the entire Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta (Game Management Unit 18) is usually below 50 and that of the lower Kuskokwim, below 20. Calista, the regional Native corporation, however, conducted a survey in 1978-79 that tallied 32 moose taken on the lower Kuskokwim. 148 The Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game described the moose population in Unit 18 as being at a relatively static and depressed level (Hinman 1980). The major limiting factor is thought to be illegal harvest in winter with the use of snow machines. Lack of compliance with regulations has curtailed the reestablishment of a viable moose population in Unit 18, and the moose population remains considerably below range potential (Hinman 1980, 1981). The Kisaralik drainage contains a potentially productive area of moose habitat and is probably typical of the lower Kuskokwim and Unit 18 in regard to the status of moose. In summary, the Kisaralik drainage has a moose population considerably below habitat capacity. The population, subject to seasonal movements, ranges widely over the drainage between summer and fall. During winter the population is restricted to riparian lowlands and probably does not exceed 25 in number. Caribou Skoog (1968) summarized historical records of caribou for this region. The record begins in the mid nineteenth century when the Russian explorer Zagoskin, travelling along the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers in 1843-44, noted good feeding areas for caribou in the lower Kuskokwim and the Native use of caribou in this region. Skoog postulated the historical pattern of caribou in the lower Yukon-Kuskokwim region during the period 1835-1875 as follows: A large caribou population occurred along the Bering Sea coast from Bristol Bay to Norton Sound. It probably was on the increase during the 1830's (based on the Russians' lack of mention of large migrations, yet the presence of caribou on the Innoko River, which is rather poor caribou habitat); reached a peak by the 1860's, or perhaps earlier; and was starting to decline in numbers by the early 1870' s. During the peak, this apparently huge population ranged over a wide area, including the Kuskokwim-Yukon lowlands and even Nunivak Island (reached, 149 no doubt, via the ice pack). The main movement pattern was north- south across the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers: extending probably north to the Seward Peninsula, definitely south to the Ki1buck Mountains, possibly southeast to the Alaska Peninsula, and probably east to the Alaska Range. Quite likely the animals ranged into the upper Kuskokwim River area as well. Migrations across the lower Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers gradually declined and by the 1880's caribou had almost disappeared from the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta area. However, a large remnant herd of caribou persisted in the Kilbuck Mountains to the end of the nineteenth century. Petroff (1882) noted that along the mountain range extending between the Kuskokwim and Togiak rivers, reindeer (caribou) were plentiful enough to be constantly hunted by Natives on both sides of the divide. By 1925, caribou were rarely seen in the Kilbuck Mountains and continued to be absent from the lower Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. Large numbers of reindeer, however, were herded along the Bering Sea coast. Some of these escaped and ranged into the Kilbuck and Taylor mountains. Alaska Game Commission reports of the late 1930's suggested that no caribou remained along the lower Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers and that feral reindeer ranged in the Kilbuck Mountains (Skoog 1968). Caribou/reindeer have apparently continued to inhabit the Kilbuck Mountains in low numbers up to the present. No caribou have returned to the lowland delta area, however. -ADF&G (Hinman 1980) estimated that 100 to 200 caribou range in the Kilbuck Mountains between Aniak and Kagati lakes. The herd, which is thought to be increasing, is unoffiCially known as the Kisara1ik Lake herd (Hinman 1980). During the spring season of 1979, an estimated 75 caribou were harvested from this herd, probably an excessive take (Hinman 1980). Similar inventory reports in 1980 suggest that this population has some as yet unquantified interchange with the Mu1chatna herd. Bruce Dinneford (pers comm) , ADF&G's biologist, 150 reported seeing traces of 10 to 15 caribou about 5 miles below the outlet of Kisaralik Lake during February 1981. He also noted that caribou movement patterns transect the upper Kwethluk River area northeast of Greenstone Ridge in line with the proposed dam site. Small numbers of caribou were observed in the upper Kisaralik River drainage above the proposed dam location-during the National Park Service wild and scenic rivers study trip of August 1981. In summary, there appears to be a small resident caribou herd of a few hundred animals in the Kilbuck Mountains. The group may be a remnant herd of caribou which once ranged throughout this area, augmented by feral reindeer from the lower Yukon-Kuskokwim delta and Aniak areas. Population numbers in the Kilbuck Mountains may be seasonally augmented in summer by animals from the Mulchatna herd to the west. Within the Kisaralik drainage, caribou occur above the dam site in the mountains. The lower Kisaralik River below Golden Gate Falls does not appear to be suitable caribou range, and none has been noted. 151 HUMAN ENVIRONMENT The human environment facet of this project has just commenced. The following preliminary bibliography has been prepared, which should yield a great deal of information about the cultural resources of the area. Many of these citations are not complete since they were taken directly from other sources, and the original documents have not yet been examined. In addition to this list, we plan to examine the Baxter collection of Bethel's Kuskokwim consortium library. Organizations and agencies such as Nunam Kitlutsisti, the Alaska State Historic Preservation Office, the Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs, the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service will be contacted for additional information. Aside from the preliminary literature review effort, Ms. Ramona N. Suetopka-Duerre of the AEIDC cultural resources staff participated in public meetings held at Akiak and Napakiak on April 16 and 17, respectively. This marked the beginning of a continuing effort toward compiling socio-cultural resource information at the village level. 152 ) Cultural Resource Bibliography Ackerman, R.E. n.d. An archeological survey conducted in the Yukon- Kuskokwim delta area of the Clarence Rhode National Wildlife Range. Field Report. 1962. Culture contact in the Bering Sea: Birnirk-Punuk period. In J.M. Campbell, ed. Prehistoric cultural relations between the Arctic and Temperate Zones of North America. Arctic Institute of North America, Montreal, Canada. 1964. Prehistory in the Kuskokwim-Bristol Bay region, south- western Alaska. Laboratory of Anthropology. Report of investiga- tion No. 26. Washington State University Press, Pullman, WA. 1970. Ethnohistory in southwestern Alaska and the southern Yukon. University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, KY. 1978. Southwestern Alaska archeological survey 1978: A final field report. Arctic Research Section Laboratory of Anthropology. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game. n.d. Subsistence profile, Yukon delta. Unpublished. 19 pp. Alaska Geographic. 1979. The Yukon-Kuskokwim delta. 6(1):1-95. Alaska, University, Arctic Environmental Information & Data Center. 1979. Review of present day subsistence resources by village. Unpublished. Report for U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. 14 folders. Alaska, University, Cooperative Park Studies Unit. Site map and list for 14h(l) sites in the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta. Asuluk, P. 1976. Eskimo life. Kaliikaq Yugnek. Bethel Regional High School, Bethel, AK. 2(2):22. Attie, W. 1977. When you listened to the speaker. Kaliikaq Yugnek. Bethel Regional High School, Bethel, AK. 1 (1) :97. Ayers, M. 1980. BIA employment statistics, personal communication from U.S. Dept. of Interior, BIA, Bethel Agency, September i5, 1980. Bantz,-D., and Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corporation, Bethel Service Unit Hospital. 1979. Tribal specific health plan, Yukon-Kuskokwim delta. Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corporation, Bethel, AK. 98 pp. Burns, A.W. 1977. Subsistence land use in southwestern Alaska and the impact of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act. M.A. thesis. California State University, Long Beach, CA. 244 pp. Collins, H.B., Jr. 1927. The Eskimo of western Alaska. Explorations and field work of the Smithsonian Institute in 1927, Washington, DC. pp. 149-156. 153 Community Education, History of Bethel Series. 1979. Tape 1, Reflec- tions on fishing. Unpublished. 1979. Tape 2, Reflections on trapping and reindeer herding. Untranscribed. 1979. Tape 3, Flying in the old days. Untranscribed. 1979. Tape 4, Women's activities and festivals. Untranscribed. Copp, J., and M.F. Smith. 1981. A preliminary analysis of the spring take of migratory waterfowl by Yupik Eskimos on the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta, Alaska. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge. Bethel, AK. 53 pp. Darbyshire and Associates. 1979. City of Bethel comprehensive develop- ment plan. Vol. I: Community survey analysis: a statement of Bethel community attitudes. Anchorage, AK. 50 pp. 1980. City of Bethel comprehensive development plan. Vol. II through VI. Anchorage, AK. 1980. Yukon-Kuskokwim delta coastal resource service area: proposed work program. Anchorage, AK. 29 pp. Davidson, A., ed. 1974. Does one way of life have to die so another can live? A report on subsistence and the conservation of the Yupik lifestyle. Yupiktak Bista, Bethel, AK. Draper, H.H. 1978. Nutrition studies: the diet of the aboriginal Eskimo in modern perspective. Pages 139-144 in P.L. Jamison, S.L. Zegura, and F.A. Milan, eds. Eskimos of northwest Alaska: a biological perspective. Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., Stroudsbury, PA. Drebert, F. 1942. A brief history of Bethel through 1940. graphed. (Reprinted 1980 in Tundra Drums). Mimeo- Fienup-Riordan, A. 1981. Navarin Basin sociocultural systems analysis. U. S. Bureau of Land Management, Anchorage, AK. Alaska Socioeconomic Studies Program. Technical Report 70. 616 pp. Foster, J. 1976. Statement to Subcommittee on Fisheries, Wildlife and the Environment of the United States Congress on Oversight of Fisheries Conservation and Management Act of 1976, by Jessie Foster, Pl"esident Pro-tem, Bering Sea Fishermen's Association, Commercial Fishermen in Bristol Bay, and Subsistence Fishermen in Kuskokwim River. Heller, C.A., and E.M. Scott. 1967. The Alaska dietary survey: 1956- 1961. Public Health Service, U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, & Welfare, Anchorage, AK. 281 pp. 154 Hemming, J.E., G.S. Harrison, and S.R. Braund. 1978. Social and economic impacts of a commercial herring fishery on the coastal villages of the Arctic/Yukon/Kuskokwim area of Alaska. North Pacific Fishery Management Council. Prepared by Dames & Moore. 186 pp. Hickok, D.M. 1968. Land and ethnic relationships. Pages 85-284 in Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska. Alaska Natives and the land. Anchorage, AK. Hrdlicka, A. 1931. Anthropological work on the Kuskokwim River, Alaska. Smithsonian Institution. Explorations and Field Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1930. Publication No. 3111. Washington, DC. 1933. The Eskimo of the Kuskobvim. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 18(1):93-146. Klein, D.R. 1966. Waterfowl in the economy of the Eskimos on the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta, Alaska. Arctic. 19(4):319-336. Kozely, L.A. 1964. Overall economic development plan relating to the Yukon-Kuskokwim River basin. Bureau of Indian Affairs. Mimeo- graphed. 185 pp. 1965. Socio-economic report, City of Bethel. Bethel Community Action Program Committee. Mimeographed. 55 pp. Lantis, M. 1958. Traditional home doctoring and sanitation, Lower Kuskokwim Valley, Nelson and Nunivak Islands. Science in Alaska. pp. 132-50. 1959. Folk medicine and hygiene: Lower Kuskokwim and Nunivak- Nelson Island areas. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska. 8(2):1-76. Larsen, H. 1950. Archeological investigations in southwestern Alaska. American Antiquity. 15(3). Laughlin, W.S. 1963. Eskimos and Aleuts: their origins and evolution. Science. 142(3593) :633-45. ffaddox, D.M. 1975. On the distribution of Kuskokwagamiut fishcamps: a study in the ecology of adaptive radiation. Pages 197-210 in R.W. Casteel and G.I. Quimby, eds. Maritime adaptations of the Pacific. Mouton, The Hague and Paris. Mason,-L.D. 1974. Epidemiology and acculturation: ecological and economic adjustments to disease among the Kuskowagamillt Eskimos of Alaska. Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology. 4(3):35-62. 1975. Hard tunes along the Kuskokwim. Natural History. 84:66-73. Michael, H.N., ed. 1976. Lieutenant Zagoskin's travels in Russian America 1942-1844. Arctic Institute of North America, University of Tornoto Press, Canada. 358 pp. 155 Nowak, M. n.d. Alternatives to subsistence: a survey of some economic factors in two communities in southwestern Alaska. Unpublished. 16 pp. 1975. Subsistence trends in a modern Eskimo community. Arctic. 28 (1 ) : 21-34 • 1977. The economics of Native subsistence activities in a village of southwestern Alaska. Arctic. 30(4):225-233. Nunam Kitlutsisti. 1976. Subsistence survey. Unpublished. Bethel, AK. 1980a. Issues paper: Furbearers. Unpublished. Bethel, AK. 1980b. Issues paper: Migratory birds. Unpublished. Bethel, AK. 1980c. Issues paper: Game. Unpublished. Bethel, AK. 1980d. Issues paper: Recreation. Unpublished. Bethel, AK. 1980e. Issues paper: Welfare. Unpublished. Bethel, AK. 1980f. Issues paper: Subsistence. Unpublished. Bethel, AK. 1980g. Issues paper: Biota. Unpublished. Bethel, AK. 1980h. Issues paper: Habitat. Unpublished. Bethel, AK. Oswalt, W.H. 1957. A western Eskimo ethnobotany. Anthropological Pape~s of the University of Alaska. 6(1):17-36. 1962. Historical populations in western Alaska and migration theory. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska. 11 (1): 1-14. 1963. Mission of change in Alaska. The Huntington Library, San Marino, CA. 170 pp. 1963. Napaskiak, an Alaskan Eskimo community. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. 178 pp. 1965. The Kuskokwim River drainage, Alaska: an annotated biblio- graphy. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska. l3(1): 1-73. 1966. The Kuskowagamiut. Pages 122-172 in W.H. Oswalt. This land was theirs. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. 1979. Eskimos and explorers. Chandler & Sharp Publ ishers, Inc., Novato, CA. 349 pp. 156 Oswalt, W.H. Alaska • AK. 1980. Historic settlements along the Kuskokwim River, .~aska State Library Historical Monograph No.7. June8u, Pennoyer, S., et al. 1965. Arctic-Yukon-Kuskokwim area salmon fishing industry. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game, Information Leaflet 70. Juneau, AK. 55 pp. Selkregg, L.L. 1976. Alaska regional profiles: Yukon region. Arctic Environmental Information & Data Center, University of Alaska, Anchorage, AK. Prepared for the Office of the Governor and the Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission. 345 pp. VanStone, J.W., and W.H. Oswalt. 1960. Three Eskimo communities. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska. 9(1):17-56. Wolfe, R. J. 1979. Ph.D. thesis. (Reprinted in Food production in a western Eskimo population. University of California, Los Angeles, CA. 301 pp. 1980 by University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI). 157 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION One of AEIDC's co-principal investigators also functions as the Bethel Area Power Plan Feasibility Assessment Public/Agency Participation Coordinator (BAPPFAPAPC). On March la, 1982 Coordinator Dick Hensel visited the USFWS Yukon Delta M{R headquarters in Bethel to outline to their staff the overall scope of this study. This meeting also provided a forum to discuss special use permit needs of HARZA, AEIDC, and other subcontractors. Mr. Hensel also accompanied Project Manager Ford to various municipal and Native organizations in Bethel to acquaint interested and concerned persons with the overall study plan. Mr. Hensel also prepared draft letter materials for HARZA and Alaska Power Authority relative to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Preliminary Permit intervention situation and also prepared materials for submission to USFWS relative to a Special Use Permit for work on the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Range. Hensel also organized a meeting among agencies and intervenors to the FERC Preliminary Permit process during which the study and the terms of a USFWS Special Use Permit were discussed. Along with Nick Pansic of HARZ A , and Don Baxter of APA, Dick Hensel participated on April 7 in a Kisara1ik Wild and Scenic River study team meeting to address questions and concerns relative to the environmental study approach to the proposed Kisara1ik hydro alternative. As the Agency Coordinator. Dick Hensel has heen active in liaison capacity toward reaching a consensus as to the best approach of evaluating the habitat potential and act~a1 use of the Kisaralik area by peregrine falcons and other raptor which reportedly nest in this portion of the study, As of this writing, the USFWS has indicated that a Special Use Permit would be forthcoming during the early part of May. 158 Lastly, Mr. Hensel assisted Harza and subcontract personnel in presenting project information to villagers of Tuntutuliak, Nunapitchuk, Akiak, and Napakiak during a round of public meeting held during the period of April 12-17. 159 MAJOR ISSUES CONFRONTING CONSTRUCTION Biological factors which could impede or otherwise hinder project advance- ment are briefly discussed in this section. It is important to note that these observations are preliminary in nature and may not be relevant in fact. AEIDC will continue to examine these and other issues as they arise. All issues likely to confront the Kisaralik project alternative advancement will be prioritized for the final report and a listing of mitigative measures provided. Migratory birds form an important dietary supplement for human residents of the delta. As a consequence, local residents are likely to resist any activity which alters, or is perceived as capable of altering either the distribution, abundance, or take of migratory birds and their eggs. Placed in this light, construction of the electrical transmission grid could prove to be a sensitive point since evidence points to their being a significant mortality factor for migratory birds (Owen and Cadbury 1975; Anderson 1978; Stout and Cornwall 1976; Heyer and Lee 1979; Drewlen 1973; Avery 1978; and others). Death results from collision with conductors and support towers. Most strikes occur during periods of poor visibility and since low-lying fog is common during warm weather months in this area, the gria could conceivably influence local bird distribution and abundance. A single conductor line stretching between Bethel and an abandoned U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs facility is of interest in this regard. Hundreds of birds reportedly strike the line yearly (King, pers comm 1982: Strickland, pers comm 1982). While mortality rates are not precisely known, King (pers comm 1982) reported that in times past the mortality was of such magnitude that many local residents relied on the line to supplement their larders. Such local use was apparently restricted to the old or infirm residents. 160 Resistance to construction of the transmission net could expand to the national level as waterfowl produced in the area are highly valued by sporting and conservation interests throughout the continent. The sighting of a pair of peregrine falcons in the Kisaralik drainage may also prove a hindrance to project advancement. Although not overly susceptible to disturbance (Cade and White 1976; Mindell and Dotson 1980), the species is on the endangered species list and enjoys a high national profile. Complicating the issue is the fact that peregrine populations have almost recovered from the near disastrous population lows recorded in the 1970's (Roseneau, pers comm 1982). Some have proposed that the species be removed from endangered status, and there is a move afoot to allow falconers to once again capture young birds for sporting purpose (Roseneau, pers comm 1982). AEIDC plans to survey the Kisaralik in 1982 to define the presence, distribution, and abundance of breeding raptors. These plans are contingent, however, on receipt of a special use permit from the U.S. Fish and Hildlife Service. The permitting process has been hindered to date by intraservice concerns over the well-being of Kisaralik peregrines. AEIDC has been working diligently to allay the concerns of service personnel and remains confident that a solution is near. From an aquatic perspective, transmission lines, construction or maintenance roaus, or pipelines may cross streams with fishery resources. Hydroelectric development would likely involve streamflow division or alteration, including altered water temperature, other water-quality features, and downstream river channel morphology. Some aquatic systems would be changed from lentic to lotic habitats with reservoir inundation. Development of other fuels may require disposal of heated water or other by-products of combustion having potential consequence to freshwaters. Construction activities may induce erosion which impacts aquatic systems. 161 Information was presented in a previous chapter of this report on species present in major river systems, their abundance, and movement patterns. Periods of aquatic sensitivity vary seasonally and also depend on species present. For example, rivers flowing southward into the lower Kuskokwim (e.g., Johnson River) are inhabited principally by whitefish and pike, but streams originating in the Ahklun and Kilbuck Mountains flowing weshlard into the Kuskokwim are salmonid systems. As this regional power plan study proceeds during the next several months various alternatives will be addressed by HARZA Engineering Company. AEIDC will make environmental and sociocultural information available to the alternatives analysis process and will focus on defining major environmen- tal concerns related to the proposed Kisaralik hydroelectric development. The fisheries resources of this are are basic to the subsistence and commercial economies. Any activity which alters, or is perceived as capable of altering this resource may be viewed with disfavor by local, state, or national interests. Finally, the Kisaralik River is under consideration by the U.S. National Parks Service for inclusion in the nation's system of wild and scenic rivers. Designation of the Kisaralik as a wild and scenic river would probably preclude any development since the primary purpose of this program is to maintain rivers in their natural state. 162 BIBLIOGRAPHY Alaska Dept. of Environmental Conservation. 1979. Water quality stand- ards. Juneau, AK. 34 pp. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game. 1954-1981. Kuskokwim stream survey file, 1954-1981. (Computer printout). Commercial Fish. Div. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game, Anchorage, AK. 153 pp. 1973. Alaska's wildlife and habitat. Vol. 1. Anchorage, AK. 1978. 1976a. A compilation of fish and wildlife resource information for the state of Alaska. Vol. 2. Sport Fisheries. 337 pp. 1976b. A compilation of fish and wildlife resource information for the state of Alaska. Vol 3. Commercial Fisheries. 521 pp. 1977a. Biophysical process maps for Alaska's coastal zone. No. 17. Kanetok River to Ninglick River. Anchorage, AK. 2 maps (1 summer, 1 winter). 1977b. A fish and wildlife resource inventory of western and arctic Alaska. Vol. 2. Fisheries. Alaska Coastal Management Program. 340 pp. 1978a. Alaska's fisheries atlas. 2 vols. 1978b. Alaska's wildlife and habitat. Vol. 2. 1981. Annual salmon management report, 1980. Kuskokwim area. Commercial Fish. Div., Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game, Anchorage, AK. 56 pp. Alaska. University, Arctic Environmental Information & Data Center. 1975. Anadromous fish inventory--Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge. Vol. 9. 2 pp. Aldrich, T .• and B.J. Aldrich. 1981. Kisaralik wild and scenic river study reconnaissance. Unpublished. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Bethel, AK. 7 pp. Allen,-A.A., and H. Kyllingstad. 1949. The eggs and young of the bristle-thighed curlew. Auk. 66:343-350. Alt, K.T. 1977. Inventory and cataloging of sport fish and sport fish waters of western Alaska. Sport Fish Db:, Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game. Federal Aid in Fish Restoration. Vol. 18. Inventory and cataloging western Alaska waters. Study G-I-P. 128 pp. Anderson, W.L. 1978. Waterfowl collisions with power lines at a coal- fired power plant. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 6(2):77-83. 163 Avery, M.L., ed. 1978. Impact of transmission lines on birds in flight. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Washington, DC. 151 pp. Bellrose, F.C. 1978. Ducks, geese, and swans of North America. 2d. ed. The Wildlife Management Institute. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, PA. 540 pp. Cade, T.J. 1960. Ecology of peregrine and gyrfalcon populations in Alaska. University of California Publications in Zoology. 63(3): 151-290. Cinquemani, V., et ale 1978. Input data for solar systems. Report for U.S. Dept. of Energy. 192 pp. Coonrad, W.L. 1957. Geologic reconnaissance in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta region, Alaska. U.S. Geological Survey. Miscellaneous Geologic Investigations Map 1-223. 1 sheet. Coop, J., and M.F. Smith. 1981. A preliminary analysis of the spring take of migratory waterfowl by Yupik Eskimos on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. Unpublished. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Bethel, AK. 53 pp. Dapkus, D. 1978. Field inspection of the Kisaralik River, July 10-19, 1978. U.S. Heritage Conservation & Recreation Service memorandum, October 18, 1978. 10 pp. Dau, C. 1978a. Black brant situation and re-analysis of the potential spring harvest of waterfowl on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Un- published. Memorandum to James C. Bartonek, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Pacific Flyway Representative, Portland, OR. November 24, 1978. Bethel, AK. 8 pp. 1978b. Spring phenology of waterfowl, climate, and native rvest on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Unpublished. Memorandum to Refuge Supervisor, Alaska Area Office, Anchorage, AK, November 30, 1978. Bethel, AK. 6 pp. Dinneford, W.B. 1981. Brown/grizzly survey--inventory progress report. Pages 79-80 in R.A. Hinman, ed. Annual report of survey inventory activities Part I, Vol. 12. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Projects W-19-1 and W-19-2, Jobs 17.0, 4.0, and 22.0. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game, Juneau, AK. 1982. Interview, 31 March 1982. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game, Bethel, AK. Dixon, J. 1927. The surf-birds secret. Condor. 29(1):3-16. Drewlen, R.C. 1973. Ecology of Rocky Mountain greater sandhill cranes. Ph.D. thesis. University of Idaho. 1 vol. Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc. 1982. City of Bethel coastal management program. Preliminary report. 165 pp. 164 ERTEC Northwest, Inc. 1982. Resource inventory and analysis, review draft. Cenaliulriit, Bethel, AK. 119 pp. Ferrians, O.J., Jr. 1965. Permafrost map of Alaska. 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Report for Pacific Northwest Laboratory. 168 pp. 171 APPENDIX 172 N I K wiglu k IsJaJ.,:l Figure 1. Surficial geology. ----I Source; Karlstrom et al. 1964. Scale 1 : 1,000,000 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 B:HH==J.:~=="::··=="3r:::::==Miles 1---------c.-'---3 _____ E-=~-===:==3 J Surficial Geology Uni ts Glacial moraines and drift Qm Outwash and valley train deposits Fluvial deposits Qfp Modern flood-plain and associated low-terrace and alluvial fan deposits. Qat High terrace deposits on valley margins and discontinuous terrace deposits in valleys where flood plains are too small to map. Coastal deposits Qcc Older coastal plain deposits of inter·stratified alluvial and marine sediments, including, locally, glacial drift. Qed Coastal delta deposits. / / '. I I Undifferentiated upland valley and lowland deposits Qu Alluvium in larger. upland valleys and in lowlands including undifferentiated eolian, colluvial, fluvial, marine, and glacial deposits. Undifferentiated alluvium and slope deposits in mountainous and hilly regions Qra Dominantly coarse rubbly deposits associated with steep·sloped mountains with high percentage of bedrock exposure. Qrb Coarse and fine-grained deposits associatl'd with moderate to steep·sloped mountains and hills with bedrock exposures largely restricted to upper slopes and crestlines. Qrc Qrd Dominantly fine-grained deposits associated with gently sloping hills with rare bedrock exposures. Deposits witb higb percentages of volcanic rock particles, ash, and pumice flanking volcanic cones and peaks of Quaternary and Tertiary age. N ..... 1 KWigJuk r~ Figure 2. Soils distribution. Source: U.S. Soil Conservation Service 1979. Scale 1 : 1,000,000 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 EffHELE::H-==EF==-=====-~-----E-----=r:-~-=---==j Miles Soils Units IQ2 IQ3 IQ6 IQll IQ16 Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, loamy. nearly level to rolling association. Histic Pergelic Cryquepts-Typic Cryofluvents, loamy, nearly level association. Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, loamy. nearly level to rolling -Pergelic Cryofihrists, nearly level association. Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, loamy, nearly level to rolling -Pergelic Cryum- brepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep association. Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, very gravelly, nearly level to rolling -Pergelic Cryo- horolls, every gravelly, hilly to steep association. IUl IU2 IU3 RM1 S06 Pergelic Cryumbrepts, very gravelly, nearly level to rolling -Histic Pergelic Cry- aquepts, loamy, nearly level to rolling assocation. Pergelic Cryumhrepts -Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep associa tion. Pergelic Cryumbrepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep -rough mountainous land association. Rough mountainous land. Typic Cryorthods -Lithic Cryumbrepts, very gravelly, hilly to steep asso- ciation. , -, N '7 ...... r ~ Figure 3. Permafrost distribution. Source: Ferrians 1965. Scale 1 : 1,000,000 10 10 20 30 40 BEL8~D9~====EEC~·~-==.====r~========~t=·======3C======~E--= Miles 50 :=J o'O~ . Permafrost Distribu tion m3 Mountainous areas, generally underlain by isolated masses of permafrost. Tempera- ture just below the zone of seasonal variation is extremely variable. Lowland and upland areas, generally underlain by moderately thick to thin perma· frost; are3S of predominantly fine-grained deposits. Maximum determined depth to base of permafrost is about 600 feet. Locally, in close proximity to large water bodies, permafrost is absent. Temperature just below zone of seasonal variation ranges from about 23 degrees to 30 degrees F. \J \ \ r "-\ \ <. \ "", S Lowland and upland areas, generally underlain by numerous isolated masses of per- mafrost; areas of predominantly coarse-grained deposits. Maximum determined depth to base of permafrost is 265 feet. Temperature just below zone of seasonal variation ranges from about 23 degrees to 30 degrees F. Locally, ground tempera- tures are above 30 degrees F. Lowland and upland areas, underlain by isolated masses of permafrost; are3S of pre- dominantly fine·grained deposits. Permafrost generally occurs either at a consider- able depth below the surface as relict permafrost, or ne3r the surface as thin lenses at local sites where ground insulation is high and ground insolation is low. Tem- perature just below zone of seasonal variation generally is above 30 degrees F. Figure 4. Fishery resources for the lower Kuskokwim River area. LEGEND Arctic lamprey AL Inconnu (sheefish) SF Pond smelt PSM Chinook (king) salmon KS Round whitefish RFW Northern pike NP Sockeye (red) salmon RS Least cisco LCI Blackfish BL Coho (silver) salmon SS Bering cisco BCI Longnose sucker SU Chum (dog) salmon CS Humpback whitefish HWF Burbot BB Pink (humpback) salmon PS Broad whitefish BWF Threespine stickleback TST Rainbow trout RT Arctic grayling GR Ninespine stickleback NST Lake trout LT Boreal smelt SM Slimy sculpin SC Arctic char AC (Alt 1977) Goodnews River System Species present (18): KS, CS, RS, PS, SS, RT, AC, LT, AL, RWF, GR, PSM, BB, NP, BL, NST, TST, SC. Habitat notes: The most southerly river in Kuskokwim Bay. Contains numerous lakes and two major tributaries (Middle and South Forks). Large eddy at confluence of Middle Fork is important resting area for salmon and trout. Middle Fork and Main River to Goodnews Lake contain major salmon spawning areas. This system is particularly important for coho, sockeye, and pink salmon. Some of the largest sockeye salmon in Alaska enter the Goodnews River. Sport fish (RB, AC, LT, GR, KS, CS, RS, PS, AND SS) are abundant in this system. Fishery: Commercial fishery for all five species of salmon has existed since 1968. Coho and sockeye make up the largest portion of the catch. Coho salmon are the most sought after subsistence fish. Although sport fish are abundant, few trophy size lake trout, char or rainbow trout are caught. The system is moderately fished mainly for rainbow trout, Arctic char, sockeye and coho salmon. Kanektok River System Species present (18): KS, CS, RS, PS, SS, RT, AC, LT, RWF, BCI, GR, SM, PSM, BB, BL, TST, NST, SC. Habitat notes: All five salmon species are abundant. Salmon and trout spawn throughout the river and lakes in the system. Most spawning takes place between River Mile 12 and 59. Fishery: Salmon contribute to large commercial catches with coho and chum being the highest. The average size (27 lbs) of the commercial caught chinook salmon in 1972 was the largest in the state. Subsistence fishing is mainly for salmon, principally coho salmon. The river has excellent sport fishing for chinook, chum, pike, sockeye and coho salmon as well as rainbow trout, Arctic grayling, and Arctic char. Lake trout fishing is pursued in lakes in the upper drainage, while rainbow trout and grayling fishing occurs between River Mile 12 and 33 downstream from Nukluk Creek. .. Eek River System Species present (23): KS, CS, RS, PS, SS, AC, AL, SF, RWF, HWF, BWF, LCI, BCI, GR, SM, PSM, BB, SU, NP, BL, NST, TST, SC. Habitat notes: The Eek is the southernmost tributary of the Kuskokwim River. Lower 40 miles of the river is under tidal influence. Salmon use both the North (main) Fork and Middle Fork, and have been noted as far as River Mile 165. Fishery: Most of the commercial and subsistence fishery is done from Eek village downriver to the Kuskokwim for chinook, chum, and coho salmon. Sport fishing pressure is low. There are no rainbow trout reported in the Eek River. Kwethluk River System Species present (23): KS, CS, RS, PS, SS, RT, AC, AL, SF, RWF, HWF, BWF, LCI, BCI, GR, SM, PSM, BB, SU, NP, BL, NST, SC. Habitat notes: Excellent spawning and rearing habitat for chinook, chum, coho, and pink salmon, rainbow trout, Arctic char, and grayling exists in the braided section between River Mile 50 and 86. Salmon spawn as far upriver as Crooked Creek. Fishery: Commercial and subsistence fishing occurs mostly near the mouth and in the main Kuskokwim for chinook, chum, and coho salmon. The Kwethluk River receives the heaviest sport fishing pressure of the lower Kuskokwim streams. Rainbow trout is the main sport species with Arctic char, grayling, and coho salmon also being sought. Kisaralik Ri ver System Species present (24): KS, CS, RS, PS, SS, RT, AC, LT, AL, SF, RWF, HWF, BWF, LCI, BCI, GR, SM, PSM, BB, SU, NP, BL, NST, SC. Habitat notes: Main spawning area is found between River Mile 24 and 42 or between Nukluk Creek and Quartz Creek of the river. Chinook and coho salmon are known to migrate into Kisaralik Lake. Predominant species in the river are chum and chinook salmon, Arctic char, Arctic grayling, and rainbow trout. Fishery: The commercial and subsistence fishery occurs mostly near the mouth and in the main Kuskokwim for chum and chinook salmon. The Kisaralik is an important sport fishery stream in the lower Kuskokwim and most fishing is for rainbow trout, Arctic char, grayling, and coho salmon in the midsection of river between River Mile 20 and 40. Kisaralik and Gold Lake contain populations of lake trout. Kasigluk River System Species present (23): KS, CS, PS, SS, RT, AC, AL, SF, RWF, HWF, LCI, BWF, BCI, GR, SM, PSM, BB, SU, NP, BL, NST, SC. Habitat notes: Receives overflow from Kisaralik River at River Mile 29 and 39. Major spawning area is above Columbia Creek near River Mile 20 to 50 (junction with the Little Kasigluk). Fishery: Most of the commercial and subsistence fishery occurs near the mouth and in the main Kuskokwim River for chinook and chum salmon. Sport fishing occurs for rainbow trout above the Kisaralik·Kasigluk slough at River Mile 30. Sport fishing is also done for Arctic grayling, Arctic char, northern pike, and coho salmon. Tuluksak River System Species present (22): KS, CS, PS, SS, RT, AC, AL, SF, RWF, HWF, BWF, LCI, BCI, GR, SM, PSM, BB, SU, NP, BL, NST, SC. Habitat notes: Excellent spawning habitat for salmon, Arctic grayling and char is found between River Mile 30 and 60. Fishery: Most commercial and subsistence fishing occurs near the mouth and in the main Kuskokwim for chinook and chum salmon. Sport fishing pressure is light with northern pike, Arctic grayling, and Arctic char the more important species. Rainbow trout are not reported to be in the Tuluksak River. Aniak River System Species present (23): KS, CS, RS, PS, SS, RT, AC, LT, AL, SF, RWF, HWF, BWF, LCI, BCI, GR, PSM, BB, SU, NP, BL, NST, SC. Habitat notes: Some salmon spawning occurs in the main stem above Doestock Creek (River Mile 9) but most spawning takes place in the tributaries, especially the Salmon and Kipchuk rivers. The Aniak provides excellent rearing area especially between Doestock Creek (River Mile 9) and the Kipchuk River (River Mile 62). The water is generally too turbid from breakup in early May until midsummer and normally is not clear enough for sport angling until August. Fishery; The Aniak represents the upstream limit of the northernmost distribution of natural rainbow stocks in the world. Rainbow trout are more abundant than in any other lower Kuskokwim stream. The Aniak also has large numbers of Arctic grayling, Arctic char, round whitefish, and all five species of salmon. Commercial and subsis- tence fishing occurs mostly in the lower river and the main Kuskokwim River for chinook, chum, and coho salmon. Sport fishing takes place mostly in the lower easily navigable sections of the river for rainbow trout, Arctic char, Arctic grayling, chinook and coho salmon, northern pike, and sheefish. Johnson River System Species present (11): SF, BB, NP, BWF. HWF, LCI, BCI, BL, NST, SM, PSM. Habitat notes: The broad whitefish is the most sigificant species in the system. Northern pike, burbot, and black- fish are alSo important. The majority of the whitefish are found in the shallow tundra lakes during the summer. Outmigration generally occurs in August and September. Spawning takes place from October to December in the main Kuskokwim River. The majority of the fish move back into the system beginning in May. Fisheries notes: The Johnson River is a nonsalmonid stream. Its importance to a fishery lies in the whitefish resource that is second in importance only to salmon in the lower Kuskokwim. The main use of this fishery resource is for subsistence. -" \ \ '\ \ lei C,< ,--, ) ~ C ~_ '\ \ • __ r I Tuluksak River System Species present (22): KS, CS, PS, SS, NP, BL, NST, SC. Eek River System Species present (23): KS, NP, BL, NST, TST, SC. CS, RS, PS, SS, AC, AL, SF, RWF, HWF, BWF, LCI, BCI, GR, SM, PSM, BB, SU, ek Island \ ~.p'Z>oL ~ Co v .... ri_1..~. __ _ Figure 4. Fishery resources for the lower Kuskokwim River area. Source: Alt 1977. Scale 1 : 1,000,000 10 o 10 20 30 40 50 HHR N Kanektok River System Species present (18): KS, CS, RS, PS, SS, RT, AC, LT, RWF, BCI, GR, SM, PSM, BB, BL, TST, NST, sc. /1 --~~-~~ ) ~o9~w. t ~ L / ;~, ) ~ '\f (~1:~~~ ,\', ~ ~, ~\,' r'\ ~ () /)l'~ ~ ?" Arctic lamprey Chinook (king) salmon Sockeye (red) salmon Coho (silver) salmon Chum (dog) salmon Pink (humpback) salmon Rainbow trout Lake trout Arctic char Inconnu(sheefish) Round whitefish Least cisco Bering cisco Humpback whitefish Broad whitefish Arctic grayling Boreal smelt Pond smelt Northern pike Blackfish Longnose sucker Burbot Threespine stickleback Ninespine stickleback Slimy sculpin AL KS RS SS CS PS RT LT AC R SF RFW LCI BCI HWF- BWF GR SM PSM NP BL SU BB ' i TST NST y ? SC Miles " I "!.-. \ j i Y Goodnews River System J) ~ ~ne t/ Species present (18): KS, CS, R~~ ~~ S~' ~T, A:, LT, AL, RWF, G~,~:~, BB, NP, BL, NST, TST, SC. (Alt 1977) \ \