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HomeMy WebLinkAboutAlaska Power Authority Small Hydropower Evaluation Guidelines May 1986 (2)Alaska Power Authority Small Hydropower Evaluation | Guidelines MAY 1986 Alaska Power Authority y Small Hydropower Evaluation Guidelines MAY 1986 Additional copies of this report may be obtained from: Librarian Librarian Energy Library Alaska Power Authority Department of Community and Regional Affairs P.O.Box 190869 Division of Community Development Anchorage,Alaska 99519-0869 949 E.36th Avenue,4th Floor (907)561-7877 Anchorage,Alaska 99503 (907)563-1955 This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the Alaska Power Adminis- tration,U.S.Department of Energy.Neither the United States Government not the State of Alaska agencies or employees,makes any warranty,expressed or implied,or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy,completeness,nor usefulness of any information,apparatus,product,or process disclosed.Reference herein to any specific commercial product or service by trade name or manufacturer does not constitute or imply its endorsement,recommendation,or favoring.The views and opinfons of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Covernment,the State of Alaska,or any agency thereof. CREDITS James Gurke Writer/Editor Linda Irvin Graphic Support Susan G.Rogers Editing Irene Tomory Word Processing Funding for this publication was provided by the Alaska Power Administration,U.S.Depart- ment of Energy Grant No.DE-F651-80R00103. Small Hydropower Evaluation Guidelines A Sourcebook for Microhydropower Development in Alaska Prepared by the Alaska Power Authority State of Alaska 1986 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Alaska Power Authority would like to express its appreciation to those agencies and individuals who contribu- ted financial support,information,graphics and text for development of this report:the Alaska Power Administration and the U.S.Department of Energy;the Washington Department of Ecology;the Oregon State University Extension Service; the National Center for Appropriate Technology,Butte, Montana;Mr.Earle Ausman,P.E.3;and Mr.Lou Butera,P.E. Smal]Hydropower Evaluation Guidelines A Sourcebook for Microhydropower Development in Alaska PREFACE The interest in microhydropower is explained,in part,by the independent nature of these systems,providing relatively constant power over many years of operation,with minimal envi- ronmental impacts.System sizes ranging between several kilowatts to approxi- mately 200 kilowatts can provide power to isolated areas lacking an opportunity for interconnection to a larger power source.For individuals or communities fortunate enough to have streams flowing on or near their property,hydro systems can vary between a source of mechanical power for a single pump,to a larger electrical power resource capable of meeting the needs of a small community or commercial enterprise. This manual is intended as an introduction to the planning process which must necessarily precede construc- tion and operation of a successful project.The guide was produced by the Alaska Power Authority through funds provided by the Alaska Power Administra- tion,USDOE.Readers'comments and suggestions as to its usefulness will be appreciated. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 1 INTRODUCTION Purpose and Organization of the Booklet 3 RECONNAISSANCE &PRELIMINARY FEASIBILITY Site Analysis Site Selection Measuring Critical Stream Features Flow Head 15 Estimating Potential Power 19 Equipment Needs Components Typical of Small Hydro Plants 31 Economic Considerations 34 END USE PLANNING Power Conversion DC Electrical Generation AC Electrical Distribution Systems 38 Independent vs.Utility Intertie Systems Measuring Demand Utility Intertie System Coordinations 44 LICENSING| Land Access 45 Alaska Permitting Procedures 51 Federal Permits &Licensing APPENDICES 57 A.Resource Assessment Measuring Flows Head Losses 76 B.Sources of Information Recommended Resources Bibliography 84 C.Directory of Equipment Manufacturers Sample Request Form 92 D.Agency Directory State,Federal &Association Addresses 96 E.Lexicon Acronyms Glossary 101 F.Conversion Table TABLES Page 5 Table 1 Overview of the Pre-construction Process 7 Table 2 Site Appraisal of Available Resources 16 Table 3 Typical Efficiencies for Small Water Wheels and Turbines 22 Table 4 Intake Conditions 24 Table 5 Comparison of Commonly Used Pipe 25 Table 5a Comparison of 12"Pipe 35 Table 6 Appliance Adaptability from AC to DOC 40 Table 7 Typical Household Appliance Loads 46 Table 8 Water and Land Use Requirements 53 Table 9 Federal Regulatory Acts Affecting Hydro Development 54 Table 10 Federal Agency Contacts Required by FERC 63 Table 11 Weir Table 70 Table A.1 Hazen Williams Coefficient "Cc" ILLUSTRATIONS 4 1.1 Stream Characteristics 10 1.2 Low-head Run-of-River Installation 11 1.3 High-head !mpoundment or Run-of-Stream Installation 12 1.4 Total Avaflable Head 18 [.5 Nomograph to Compute Energy Potential 27 '1.6 Pelton Wheel 28 1.7 Crossflow or Banki 29 1.8 Turgo {tmpulse 58 1.9 Yearly Hydrographs 60 1.10 Measuring Stream Area 61 1 Float Method 62 1.12 Weir and Depth Cage 67 1.13 Level and Tape Method 73 1.14 Hazen Williams Nomographic Chart 74 |.14a A Nomograph to Determine Losses Due to Friction in PVC Pipe INTRODUCTION In 1981 the Alaska Department of Commerce and Economic Development published the "Hydroelectric Commercialization Kit"which,in conjunction with technical assistance then available,provided an introduction to microhydropower development.Because the booklet lacked sufficient detail to be useful without assistance,a revision has been pre- pared as an introduction to site assessment and as a source-book for further research and development. Small hydro,microhydropower,mini-micro,are all terms used in the available literature,there being no hard and fast rules governing respective power ratings.In most instances the potential development site is assumed to be a range of several kilowatts to approximately 200 kilowatts maximum output.Most often this would be the product ofwhatisknownasahigh-head low-flow site:an exploitable power source available from water descending over a rela- tively large elevation change but containing only a rela- tively small flow or volume of water.Not only will these be the more likely physical properties of a site,but they may also be the more environmentally benign combination too, increasing the chances for development. The purpose of the publication is to facilitate the development of environmentally acceptable hydropower proj- ects.It is not a design manual,but rather a compilation of some of the more relevant issues to be addressed prior to construction of a facility.The guide is divided into several sections addressing major areas of investigation with appendices providing more specific references.Sec- tion I is an overview of reconnaissance level criteria necessary to compute potential power at a site.Section II addresses end use options,principally for conversion of mechanical power to electrical energy.Section III is a consolidation of permitting agencies within the state and federal governments,and approvals which may be necessary to develop a project in Alaska. The Appendices(1)expand upon the overview with informa- tion on actual measurement techniques to calculate head and flow;(2)provide a comprehensive bibliography;(3)list a number of manufacturers of hydropower equipment and provideaformletterforobtainingstandardizeddata;(4)provide an agency directory for permitting and information resourc-es;(5)and include other reference material related to terminology and a unit conversion table. If the power potential from a site appears to be promis- ing and can be matched with local energy needs,development options need to be assessed.Plan review by an experienced civil engineer or hydrologist is encouraged in addition to correspondence with specific manufacturers.Further techni- cal assistance is available through other references provid- ed and particularly in the course of applying for permits. The potential developer is advised to make use of the permitting process to explore details relevant to project feasibility. I.RECONNAISSANCE &PRELIMINARY FEASIBILITY A typical microhydro svstem is built around a turbine and generator;water turns the turbine,converting stream- flow into mechanical energy.The energy can be used to turn an electric generator or to operate nearby equipment direct- ly,such as a hydraulic ram or pump.Other elements common to microhydro systems are a dam or diversion structure,an intake and trashrack,pipe or penstock to carry water to the turbine,and possibly a power house where discharged tail- water returns to the stream. In order to succeed in the development of a site,a number of prerequisite tasks are required to ensure that a project is technically,economically and environmentally sound.Table 1 presents an overview of the entire planning to construction process.Among the planning tasks outlined in the table,several significant features are listed below: 1.Resource assessment or reconnaissance of physical conditions at the site, 2.Feasibility study and conceptual design to deter- mine cost versus benefits, 3.Permitting and land use approvals, 4.System design,5.Financing plan (or arrangements), 6.Equipment selection, 7.Familiarity with installation and operations re- quirements. The cost of doing these tasks including plant construc- tion and equipment installation will vary greatly depending on whether they are done by an individual or by an engineer- ing firm or other experts.The initial capital cost of hy- dro power sites can be prohibitively high,even for a do- it-yourself builder.Estimates of between $1,000 and $5,000 per installed kilowatt are not unrealistic,but life spans of twenty years or more can also be expected from microhydro projects.Before equipment or construction expenses are incurred it is advisable to have conducted a thorough exami- nation of these seven tasks.Additionally,construction plans should be reviewed by an experienced civil engineer where doubt exists. SITE ANALYSIS SITE SELECTION An important first step in communicating development plans is to identify the proposed hydroelectric system lay- out.A reconnaissance,or preliminary study,will establish an inventory of characteristics for identification on maps and as elements of a prospectus to facilitate the search for technical,licensing or rights-of-way information. The location of waterfalls,fish hatcheries,spawning channels,roads,trails,powerlines,buried utilities,and land status features are important for their potential im- pact on development.Topographic maps and aerial photos of the area can be obtained from the United States Geological Survey (USGS)to assist in documenting features near the proposed site.Maps and field notes will provide a basis for more sophisticated design and layout.The layout will also serve as information for equipment manufacturers to ensure that appropriate size and design parameters are met. STREAM CHARACTERISTICS CHOOSING THE RIGHT SITE HERE THE STREAM IS INACCESSIBLE - TOO FAR AWAY FROM USERS,SMALL FLOW LOOK FOR A SHORT DROP OR WATERFALL, RAPIDS ,ELEVATIONaPOWER GENERATION FACILITYSHOULDBELOCATEDATLOWER HIGH TIDE EFFECTSNN INTAKE WATER END OF ELEVATION DROP. JUST ABOVE =,WATER IS THEN RETURNED a STREAM TO HERE eeELEVATION'TO STREAM.et CHANGE eNO ee 7 x Ge o®®s we .aUSERS TRANSMISSION LINE -DISTANCE FROM GENERATION FACILITY TO USERS SHOULD BE SHORT AS POSSIBLE Pn Desire to Develop a Microhydro Project | L Conduct Site Survey Noting:Terrain Features & Proposed Project Works;Land Ownership; Development Constraints from Other Water Uses and Habitat. 4 Assess Minimum Streem blow tis Conduct Reconnaissance Study to include:Water Flow;Heed Measurement;Environmental Conditions; Power and Energy Calculations,Sketches of Proposed or Extating Project Works. Establish Flow Ouration Curves for Variable Flow -Intertie indep Systems Syetoms i)¥' .initiate Contract with Cumpute average amd peakPrepareaPlanofFineacePrepereConceptuelDesignPrepareandSubmitApplicationsforLocalUtilityforInter-loads for tadepentent T Required Permits end Licenses Connection Requirements bystems. and buy-back Rates.Obtain Specifications ond Costs Locels:Land Ornership Leases,Rights-of-tay, fer Equipment from Menufacturers.Easements ; $|Consult with APUC.|Obtain bide for equipment.|State:OEC Mester Permit Application;OWR Water } Rights Permit;OMB Coastal Permits.Others as required.Consult with OMR and U.S.-_-______-_ Develop o Cost/Benefit Ratio from Capital Coat O4n versus Energy Production ' Ontaia Financing Federal:FERC Cortificate for Qualified Facility, Exemption or Preliminary Permit;Others es required. +' Obtain FERC License or Exemption end Other Federal peraits. Obtaia State and Loced Persits. Li ¢ Purchase Equipment | Soil Conservation Service regerding Dem Construction. ' Start Construction }Mote:Process should be modified os required. OVERVIEW OF THE PRE-CONSTRUCTION PROCESS Table 1 Research through permitting offices,libraries,and resource and data collection agencies can be invaluable in early planning process.Anyone interested in hydropower should read as much as possible about the subject,become familiar with existing installations,and communicate with manufacturers and technically oriented people in the conceptual design stages.More than a half dozen microhydro projects are described in the book,Frontier Energy, published by the Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs and available through State Depository Libraries (see Appendix B)and the Cooperative Extension Service. Many other resources will be referenced throughout the course of the booklet. Use of various state and federal agencies to aid in research and development of a proposed hydropower site is also recommended.These agencies can assist in identifying site characteristics that may be useful in future analysis. Table 2 provides a summary of possible resources. Eventually sketchs or drawings of the proposed develop- ment including pertinent dimensions will be required.If license procedures of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commis-sion (FERC)are necessary,detailed drawings will be needed to describe the location of water diversions,use and stream return.The drawings should show property lines and key features such as intake point,penstock location,power-house,discharge point and electrical distribution line(s). Table 2 Site Characteristics and Available Resources Latitude and longitude of the proposed site,or part of section,township,range and meridian.Location of waterfalls or dramatic changes in elevation Location of existing dams,canals or conflicting water uses Location of fish hatcheries and spawning areas Stream gaging sites and other surface water resources Precipitation records,erosion data,and stream characteristics (silt load). Drainage area above the diversion site Identification of property owners,easements,roads Existing studies of hydropower sites Equipment options Conceptual design USGS;State Division of Land &Water Management(DNR) State Division of Land & Water Management Atlas at the State Department of Fish & Game,Regional Offices USGS;State Division of Land &Water Management; State Division of Geological &Geophysical Surveys;U.S.Army Corps of Engineers;Alaska Power Authority USGS;Corps of Engineers;U.S.Soil Conservation Service; Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center (UAA) USGS Recorder's Office (DNR); State Department of Transportation Right of Way Agents;local utilities and municipalities Alaska Power Authority; Corps of Engineers; State Depository Libraries Manufacturer literature and correspondence Dam safety personnel DNR;private civil engineers and turn-key developers; bibliographic references MEASURING CRITICAL STREAM FEATURES A water resource with sufficient head (elevation dif- ference)or flow must be available for a hydroelectric power plant to be feasible.Of course,it must also be reasonably close to a utility interconnection point or the load center, among a number of conditions. But the basic variables,head and flow,are responsible for the amount of power that a site could provide.In addi- tion to a factor for the density of water*,theoretical power (Pay)s flow (Q)and head (H)can be expressed in a simple hydraulic relationship: _QxHPth=7 where: Flow is the volume of water passing a given location in a given time.Flow is usually expressed in cubic feet persecond(cfs),but may also be measured in cubic feet perminute(cfm)or gallons per minute (gpm). Total Avatlable Head is the difference in elevation between the water level at the dam or diversion site and the ground elevation at the turbine site.Head is usually ex- pressed in feet. @ Stream Flow System sizing,design and energy projections are func- tions of the accuracy of streamflow measurements over time. Small hydropower projects are usually not economically fea- sible if the facility must be shut down for some period of time each year due to lack of water,or if large water or power storage facilities must be provided to regulate out- put.Therefore,measuring flow once a week for an entireyeariSnotunreasonablewhenasizableinvestmentoftime and money is spent on a project expected to have a twentyyearlifespan.Seasonal variations in streamflow are im- portant because the length of time that certain volumes ofwaterareavailable(days,hours)controls the amount of energy a hydropower facility can produce. "at 100%system efficiency,1kW is generated by 11.8 cfs falling one foot. BREAKER BOX --aT INTAKE nan SOURCE SYSTEM ----+-y | ENCLOSURE Too NT 4 \\\ (-"\..Y 5 .N \)SERGE,A PIPELINEGENERATED-ct »SK |_-_-_ ELECTRICITY |;i --o FOR If Gra |DISTRIBUTION |i :) *I :TURBINE { ! OUTLET7 DRAFT TUBE LOW-HEAD RUN-OF-RIVER INSTALLATION. Relatively high flow regimes permit the use of a reaction type propeller turbine.The conceptual design must include accurate head measurements and pipe sizing to minimize power losses. 1.2 é / ; 7 The maximum flow the turbine and pipe can accommodate is known as the design flow and will vary according to thesite's physical limitations and the needs of the developer. A fixed flow design will be based on low-flow patterns with minimum available flow being the design flow of the turbine. In other words,the turbine and pipe will be sized to accom- modate only a fixed volume of water.Such systems are sim- pler and less expensive than variable flow systems.The power output of a fixed flow system can be changed manually, but the load would also require a corresponding change. A variable flow system is designed to make more effi- cient use of changing stream flow rates.An increased out- put from the turbine-generator set is possible based upon the percentage of time that the system exceeds minimum flow values.This is referred to as the "exceedance value."As a general rule,the development of flow duration curves (a stream's historical average flow pattern plotted on graph paper)are necessary to establish an optimum turbine- generator design flow.Design flow will likely be 20 to 35 percent above the average flow measured at the site. One method of verifying exceedance values is to estab- lish a "flow measurement correlation"between the flow at the proposed site and the flow at a nearby site where stream gage data is available.The United States Geological Sur- veys Water Resource Office records stream gage sites andstatisticalanalysesofgagedata.A "duration analysis"and flow duration curves for neighboring streams can be used to validate flow measurements taken at the proposed site. Over 300 Alaskan streams have at least one year of stream data on record,and approximately 100 streams are being mon- jitored actively.Information and assistance is available in: United States Geological SurveyAlaskaIndex:Stream Flow&Water Quality Record toSeptember30,1983.Open File Report 85-332. Information related to computing stream flow and corre- lation methods is available in detail in the U.S.Department of Energy publication,Microhydropower Handbook,referencedintheAppendixB.This two volume reference is highlyrecommendedreadingforanyonewishingtounderstanddesign criteria in hydroplant construction. Methods of determining streamflow are provided in Ap- pendix A, <a SOURCE (UPSTREAM COLLECTION OR SPRING) =v \/&BREAKER BOX _--[----_-SYSTEMesSYUTOEE7STEM ne } GENERATED/,ELECTRICITY FOR GENERATOR: TURBINE | HIGH-HEAD,IMPOUNDMENT OR RUN-OF- STREAM INSTALLATION. High heed permits the use of relatively low flow regimes and use of impulse turbines such as the pelton wheel.An impoundment may be necessary for regulation of stream flow where seasonal changes vary greatly. DISTRIBUTION @ Total Available Head A second factor in determining power potential is the change in elevation (head)between the point at which the water is diverted from the stream and the point where it leaves the turbine(s). The higher the head,the less water needed to produce the same amount of power.A minimum elevation change for most small installations is 10 feet.With 10 feet of head, it takes about 1.39 cubic feet per second (cfs)to generate 1 kilowatt.The same amount of water with 100 feet of head would allow ten times as much power,or 10 kW,to be pro- duced, - --- -1 Twice the head and half the flow Head =2H 2H =80 feet Flow =Q/2 Q =ScfsPower=Flow(Scfs)x Head(80 feet).34 yy11.81 Half the head and twice the flow Flow =2Q 2Q =10cfs Head =H/2 KH =40 feetPower=Flow!10efs)_x teadi4ofeet)=34kW x If there is a choice,it is generally best to choose a high head facility,as it will produce less expensive powerthanalowheadfacility.The reason is that turbine out- put is related to the head difference taken to the 1.5 power (Hts),As an example,a 1 kW machine designed for operation under 10 feet of head would provide 0.35 kW at5footofhead,1.8 kW at 15 feet,and 2.3 kW at 20 feet of head.Additionally,at lower elevation difference,a generator will need more poles or a higher-ratio speedincreaser,both of which lose power and are more expensive than similar installations with high-head.Finally,the availability of high-head impulse turbines is greater than low-head reaction turbines for systems smaller than 200 kW. [As mentioned previously,most hydropower installations need at least 10 feet of head to function.Installations above several hundred feet of head introduce much more complex design conditions requiring analysis by an engineer familiarwithsurfacewaterhydraulics.] Friction and turbulence losses occur in the transport of water and are collectively referred to as head lose. Pipe length,interior roughness,the velocity of water with- in the pipe,decreasing diameter and bends in the pipe all contribute to losses.Computations for such factors are available usually through manufacturers;and head loss can be expressed in equivalent feet per unit,for elbows or valves,and feet per travel length,for pipe. Net head is determined by subtracting head loss from total available head.Between 5 and 25 percent of total available head is typically lost in the transport of water. Methods for measuring gross and net head are provided in Appendtz A. kkkkkkkkkkk In summary,desirable hydropower site characteristics include: An adequate amount of water, Short distance between generation site and exist- ing transmission lines, Sufficient elevation difference between intake and power generation equipment,with minimal lengths of pipeline,ideally approaching 100 feet of head,Good foundation material (bedrock), No spawning areas or hatcheries, Few landowners, Year-round streamflow (even under winter ice), Year-round access to powerhouse and intake. Least desirable site characteristics include: Small elevation differences between intake and po- werhouse site, Lack of rock foundation materials (sandy valleys),Periods of very low water flow (ice or drought), Important salmon run near potential dam or diver- sion site, Long distance to transmission lines or load cen- ter, Many landowners, State and Federal land holdings. Potential site development will be determined by the relationship between construction costs,financing and end use benefits over time.These issues should receive thor- ough examination in a feasibility study comparing fixed and operating costs to savings or earnings. ESTIMATING POTENTIAL POWER Power iS a measure of ability to do work and can beexpressedinkilowatts(kW).Because power from a hydro system is in direct proportion to the product of head and flow,a high-head,low-flow site can produce the same power as a low-head,high-flow site.One major difference between the two systems is that the equipment required for a high- flow site is usually more expensive. The ratio of power output to power input determines system efficiency.Some of the power available will be lost due to friction,power conversion,and losses in the turbine and generator.These losses vary with the equipment selec- ted and with the head and flow available at the site at any given time. The theoretical power available in kilowatts has been previously given as: P XHth11.81 where Q =usable flow in cfs H =net head in feet 11.81 =conversion constant relating to the density of water. Table 3 provides an indication of the various efficien- cies affecting theoretical power availability.More precise figures are available from manufacturers and will need to be factored into the power equation to compute a more accurate representation of actual power potential. To transmit the power from water wheel or turbine to a generator,alternator,or some mechanical system also entails losses.Belt drives are 95 to 97%efficient for each belt;gear boxes 95%and higher;alternators and generators 80%for small machines,and increasing to 90% with size.Efficiency ratings for second hand equipment will likely be slightly lower. Table 3 Typical Efficiencies for Small Water Wheels and Turbines Prime Mover Efficiency Range Water Wheels -Undershot 25 -45% -Breast 35 -65% -Poncelet 40 -60% -Overshot 60 -75% Turbines -Reaction 80% -Impulse 80 -85% -Crossflow 60 80% Belt Drives 97%each Generators 80 -90% These system losses must be included in the power equation so that available power is the product of the percentage of each system component.The power equation then becomes: p =Sat efficiency of the total system components 1 where e Typical overall efficiencies for electrical generationsystemscanvaryfrom50to70%,with higher overall effi-ciencies existing for the high head,high speed impulse turbines.Overall efficiencies of systems using water wheels are usually well under 50%. For example,assuming a plant efficiency of 75 percent, approximately 6 kW can be generated from one cfs at 100 feet of head.The same 6 kW could also be generated by a very small flow of .25 cfs at 400 feet of head. 1 ydropower texts also express the equation in the form: P =cfs x head x efficiency x 0.0846 Nomographs (scaled charts which can solve for unknownvariableswhenatleasttwoareknown)also can be used to demonstrate this relationship.In the nomograph on page 18, an efficiency level has been factored into the equation to account for pipe and machinery losses.Assuming head andflowmeasurmentsareknown,to use the graph locate the low flow rate in gallons per minute or cubic feet per second on the left-hand scale.Remember,if some water must be left in the stream,the power potential will be reduced.Next, locate the total available head on the right-hand scale. Connect these points with a straight line.On the middlescale,read the kilowatt potential (capacity)at the point where the straight line crosses.This is the approximate number of kilowatts the stream will produce. Energy can be thought of as a running total of power inkilowatts(1000 Watts)over time in hours,as expressed inkilowatt-hours (kWh).For example,a hydroelectric system generating at a 10kW power output for one hour will produce 10 kWh of electrical energy.Energy production is very sen- sitive to the maximum flow that the turbine and pipe can accommodate and to the variable volume of available water. If these volumes can be estimated for different times of the year,energy (E)can be calculated as: E=Pxt where P =power in kW t =time intervals in hours In part,the sizing of a stand-alone hydroplant depends upon the demand for electricity.In actual practice a typical house may have a peak demand of about 5kW.This means that at some time during a typical month there will be a period during which the household will be consuming power at a rate of 5 kW.A large group of houses together would have an average peak demand of about 2.5 kW per home,and an average demand of 1.4 kW.The average peak demand per house is reduced for the group,because not all appliances are in use at the same time,and the more houses,the more the peak is spread out.This would indicate that a stand-alone 100-kW plant could actually supply the energy needs of 35 to 40 homes,assuming that the annual production is 50%of thetheoreticalmaximumfromthe100kWplant.If a 100-kW hydropower plant is used in place of diesel power units,theplantwoulddisplacedieselfuelattherateof10gallons per hour,or about 88,000 gallons per year. LOWFLOW(GallonsperMinute)900,000 300 ,000 200 ,000 100,000 70,000 50,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 7000 5000 3000 2000 1000 700 500 300 200 100 i ,000 500 1.5 1.0 LOWFLOW(CubicFeetperSecond)H|El!|RJ1'PperrNz:Piriaana|inhOoiyoOonOojmmeeeonif|roy®OooOSo°°wnToTyifqTnNrs)°°oPOWER(Killowatts)jfTft-oOo/|LJ-OoTOTALAVAILABLEHEAD(Feet)==10 NOMOGRAPH TO COMPUTE ENERGY POTENTIAL Plot flow on teft and head on right.A line drawn connecting the two will show Potential Energy Production. Calculating Potential Power Output The power output c a prospective hydropower site may be calculated from the following equation: kWs Qx Hxe11.8 Where; kW =power in kilowatts Q =flow in cfs*(USGS data may be available) H =head in feet (USGS maps) e =overall efficiency (include losses from head, turbines,and generators,75%provides a roughestimate) 11.8 =conversion factor for specific units *Knowledge about the volume of water that must remain in the stream below the intake is extremely important. Underestimating the amount of water that must remain in a bypass often leads to an erroneous estimate of potential power output and,therefore,improper conclusions concern- ing the feasibility of the project.The project's annual "energy production may be estimated by assuming a 50 per- cent plant factor for facilities sized for mean annual flow.A flow-duration curve may also be used to more accurately estimate available energy. EQUIPMENT NEEDS Consult with experts who have built and operated micro- hydroplants.Proposals and quotations should be obtained from several suppliers to ensure that adequate engineering capabilities and experience are matched with site charac- teristics.A pre-engineered package of turbine,generator, controls,and auxiliary equipment will usually result in the most cost effective and reliable method of procurement.A sample form letter ts provided in Appendix C to assist the potential developer in obtaining standardized data. Many construction features for a particular site can be improved with low cost design adaptations.For instance, the possibility of using a pump as a turbine should be eval- uated by comparing cost,operating efficiency,and power production costs against traditional hydraulic turbines. The assistance of a civil engineer,versed in small hydro design in Alaska,is recommended to review project design before construction. COMPONENTS (to be considered in the conceptual design) @ Dam Construction Where an impoundment or diversion is required a dam or weir will be necessary.Typical materials include wood, timber,rock,concrete or earth aggregate.Generally speak- ing,a microhydro project will be easier to construct and permits easier to obtain if stream disruption is kept to a minimum.In some instances small dams will be necessary to maximize head or provide storage,for example: 1.To impound water so that over a short time period, more water can be used than is flowing into the reservoir.This is called regulation.Water is used by the turbine when required and is replen- ished when the turbine demands less water. To increase the head.As an example -a stream passes through a narrow gorge,then drops 10 feet over 100 feet of travel.From that point on it falls only one foot per 100 feet.Such a stream may not be economical to develop.However,by installing a 10 foot or higher dam the head is now20feetormore.The amount of power is doubled, and it may become economical to develop. To provide better intake conditions,to eliminate trash,sand and gravel,to provide a by-pass for logs and to establish an ice cover for preventing intake icing.To provide some height of water(head)over the intake so the intake will flow full. Dams which exceed 10 feet from lowest point to crest, and store more than 50 acre-feet of water require a permit from the State Department of Natural Resources,Division of Land and Water Management.An acre-foot of water is that amount of water which will cover one acre or 43,560 square feet,one foot deep.A cubic foot per second of water flow- ing for 24 hours will almost equal two acre-feet of water. One of the most important features of any dam jis the accommodation of floods.In the event of a failure,even a 9 foot dam with 40 acre feet of water behind it can have devastating consequences to life and property.If there is any doubt as to the safety of the situation,talk to theAlaskaStateDamSafetypersonnel(DNR)and consider hiring a civil engineer or hydrologist to aid in the design. The USGS bulletin entitled "Flood Characteristics of Alaskan Streams,"by R.D.Lanke,may be useful in determin- ing potential flood sizes.Spillway design practices can beobtainedfromtheBureauofReclamation's "Design of Smal] Dams."Both publications are referenced in the bibliogra- phy,Appendix B. Intakes Structures The purpose of an intake is to divert water from a stream or lake and direct it into a pipeline,channel, flume,or other water conveyance.Usually,an intake is built as a part of some form of diversion structure such as a dam.Included is a trash rack to separate debris from the water flowing to the turbine.In addition,an intake is usually equipped with a shut-off valve or gate,an air vent, and in some cases an emergency shut-off system.On streams where fish are present,the intake is used to isolate fish from the conveyance. Intake Orientation Generally in a larger stream,it is preferable to ori- ent the intake parallel with the flow of the stream.This allows large debris and other material to bypass the intake.This is especially true when the water is high (flooding)or assing over the spillway in excess of the turbine capacity.FHigh flow periods contain maximum trash and bed load move-ment of rock,sand,gravel,and silt.]Additionally,an orientation parallel to the stream will reduce water veloci- ty at the intake.If there are fish,they are much less likely to be trapped at the intake. Intakes are usually designed for 1.5 to 2 feet per sec- ond of velocity through the trash rack.The design dependsonanumberoffactors,some of which are listed in Table 4. Table 4 INTAKE LOWER WATER HIGHER WATER CONDITIONS VELOCITY VELOCITY (larger intake)(smaller intake) Attendance Required at the site Frequent X Infrequent X Trash in Stream Little X Much X Raker Power or Automatic xX Non-Automatic X Difficulty in Reaching Rack High X Low X Value of Head (Friction Loss) High X Low X Fish Present &Small X Not Present X Trashracks Debris entering the intake and penstock could destroy aturbine,and a sudden blockage of the inlet could cause wa- ter hammer to rupture the pipeline.To prevent this,anintakeisusuallyequippedwithatrashrackwithaseriesofbarswhosespacingisdeterminedbytheturbinemanufac- turer,but generally from 1/2 to one inch.These bars areusuallyinclinedat45or60degreesfromhorizontalsotheycanberakedwhencloggedwithleaves,grass,twigs,andbranches.If required,fish screens comprised of thinner,finer,meshed material are located behind the primary racks. Trash racks can be home built,fabricated from floor grates or purchased from manufacturers.Computing the de-sign area of the rake is critical for appropriate sizing ofthepenstockintake.Comprehensive methods for computingintakedesignareasarefoundinMicrohydropowerHandbook, USDOE,referenced in Appendix B. Gates Gates are used to shut off the water flow at the point where it enters the pipe.Gates are sometimes omitted on small projects or lower-head projects with short pipelines. A slide gate is typical for small projects and is usually purchased in standardized size and design from hydropower suppliers. Air Relief Vent An air relief vent must be provided down stream from the shut-off valve or gate in a pipe.Its purpose is to prevent a vacuum from forming in the pipe and causing the external air pressure to collapse it.The air vent design is somewhat difficult as it protrudes from the conduit and is subject to freezing and plugging.The air vent should be checked and cleaned of obstruction before the upstream valve or gate is closed. Water Conduit Pipe or penstock material can include steel,wood, polyethylene,PVC,concrete or fiberglass reinforced plas- tic.Design considerations include losses from friction, appropriate sizing,internal and external pressure capaci- ties,and methods of dealing with water hammer and freezing. Some comparative guidelines for commonly used pipe are offered in Tables 5 and 5.a. Table 5 COMPARISON OF COMMONLY USED PIPE DESIGN MATERTAL STRESS*Price/Ib.USAGE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Polyvinyl 2,000 psi 44-55¢/1b FOB Pipeline Low friction factor C=150.May be brittle when cold,may break Chloride Seattle in diameter Light,easy to lay,low cost,if frozen with water.Will not quantity 4"to 24"does not corrode,is stronger span as long a distance as as up to 300'at cold temps,residual steel.Harder to connect fixtures head.strength for water hammer.to than steel.Will not tolerate hot water.Needs a better class of bedding &padding than steel or polyethylene. Polyethylene 800 Pipeline Low friction factor C=150.Expensive,not economic at higher diameter Light,easy to lay,does not pressure.Operates at low stress 4"to 48"corrode,can be jointless.values.Takes special equipment to up to 300'Does not break when water join.Will not tolerate hot water. head.freezes.Easy to handle, flexible,residual strength for water hammer. Steel 16,500 psi 30-35¢/1b Pipeline Available in any size and Greater friction,C=140 with coal 21,000 psi any size strength.Joints can be stab tar enamel lining.Corrodes,and any head or gasketed type,or butt wel-corrosion protection adds 80¢/sq tt 2*with a safety factor of two ded.Attachment of anchors, fixtures easy. of surface.If frozen,breakage unlikely.Because of corrosion, bedding and padding can be more expensive.Water hammer pressureis higher. Table 5.a COMPARISON OF 12"PIPE (100 psi) Weight/ft Wall Thickness Cost/ft Steel 9.6 0.0747 14 gage $6.57* PVC 7.6 0.299 2.30 PE 13.15 0.823 13.15 *jncludes joints,inside coating,outside corrosion tape A brief discussion of some hydrology issues as they pertain to pipe selection and sizing is provided in Appen- dix A.A comprehensive examination of conduit design crite- ria is recommended.Although beyond the scope of this book- let,a few guidelines are offered: 1.Pipe.sizes are determined by maximum permissiblevelocity,regulation of flow and pressure,and economics.Plastic pipe manufacturers usually recommend 5 feet per second water velocity as appropriate,10 feet per second as excessive. Correspondence with pipe manufacturers regarding use of their specifications is recommended. 2.The pipeline route should be resurveyed to check results of head measurement to arrive at a more accurate net head.Pipe diameter should be chosen where losses are approximately 10 percent of the head under maximum flow. 3.In addition to head loss in the pipe,there is head loss in the intake and in accessories such as bends and valves.The head loss in accessories is frequently added in as equivalent pipe length. Consult with manufacturers for equivalence tables. 4.Maximum hydraulic power output of a pipeline is where the head loss is equal to 1/3 of the total head.Hydro plants are not usually operated undertheseconditionsasvelocitiesaretoohigh;that much head loss would not be economical,and it would be very difficult to control flow.High head,high flow sites should be analyzed with as- sistance of a civil engineer or hydrologist. 5.Specific joining and installation requirements govern each pipe material.Restrained joints such as welding,concreting or flanging of pipe is re- quired in above ground installations to prevent failure when pipe is pressurized. @ Turbines and Controls Head and flow combinations will dictate the type of turbine which will produce power most efficiently.Hydraul- ic turbines are classified as impulse or reaction types ac- cording to the method by which water head and flow is con- verted to mechanical power.Where flow and head can bemaintainedatfairlyconstantvalues,use of a pump (with reverse flow)as a turbine is an option affording re- duced cost and increased availability.Performance curves for pumps as turbines are not readily available and it jis advisable to contact manufacturers for proper sizing tech- niques. Impulse turbines make maximum use of high head and wa- ter velocity by concentrating flow through one or more water jets which strike the runner.Appendix C provides an inventory of hydropower equipment manufacturers including likely sources of microhydro turbines.Three basic types ofimpulseturbinesaremanufacturedandtheirrespective characteristics are outlined on the following pages: Pelton Wheel: Head: Flow: Cost: Efficiency: Generator 75 feet of head and up. Varies,but lowest of all turbines rela- tive to head. $300 to $500/kW on suitable site.Cost per unit of output will decline as head increases.Peltons are uneconomic at low heads because limited water handling restricts output. Up to 90%.The size of the water jet is a limitation on the acceptable volume of water which can be utilized. - Runner IN Tailrace 2.Crossflow or Banki: Head:25 to 200 feet. Flow:Can be built to accommodate a wide range of flows. Cost:$500 to $1,200/kW.Price varies with flow requirements,control systems used, and quality of equipment.Crossflow turbines can be designed and built by skilled individuals rather than pur- chased.1 Efficiency:Approximately 65%due to the water jet striking the runner in two stages.How- ever,the flow capacity is increased which allows for lower-head installa- tions. Generator Ieee Appendix B.Mockmore &Merryfield,"The Banki Water Turbine,"Oregon State College.Bulletin 25,1949. Turgo Impulse: Head: Flow: Cost: Efficiency: --To generator Comparable to Pelton--75 feet and up. For the same size runner,the Turgo will handle three times more volume than the Pelton.Also,for equal size flow,the runner can be smaller and speed will be slightly more than twice that of the Pelton runner. $500 to $700/kW.As with the Pelton, economics of the turbine improve with increased head. Up to 92%with high efficiency maintain- ed with flows as low as 25%of design. Rotation Bearings Nozzle Water from 1.8 penstock Feaction turbines are usually more appropriate for low- head sites with higher flow rates.Head is converted to velocity within the runner itself.Good seals are required to prevent leaking.For this reason,sandy or silty water conditions will degrade the water seals along the runner. Reaction turbines include Francis and propeller types.De- Signs are usually built to site specifications and can ac- commodate as little as 6 feet of head. Generators and Controls End use applications will dictate generator type:ei- ther synchronous,induction motor or direct current.Micro- hydro applications are usually rated between 900 and 1800 rpm.OQverspeed conditions resulting from unloaded con- ditions requires a shutdown capability.Overcurrent protec- tion can usually be specified with the generator by the man- ufacturer.Further detail is included in Section II,End Use Planning. Powerhouse and Tailrace The powerhouse should be a weathertight enclosure witharoofstrongenoughtohandlesnowloads.It should be sited above the high water mark of the stream and in an ori- entation to keep the penstock straight. The tailrace is generally a part of the powerhouse de-sign.It needs to be capable of carrying the design flow of the system with an ability to reduce flow velocity,par- ticularly where fish migration occurs.Velocity between .5 and 2 feet per second is standard. Switchgear and Distribution Lines These will vary with end use and distance to the load center or utility tie-in point.Electrical safety codes are governed by the Alaska Department of Labor,Division of La-bor Standards &Safety,Mechanical Inspection.The guide- lines that they follow are generally contained in theNationalElectricSafetyCode(NESC)and the NESC Handbook which discusses and illustrates the requirements of the nesct: Inesc and NESE Handbook.1984 Edition published by the Institute ofElectricalandEvectronicsEngineers,Inc.,445 Hoes Lane,Picataway,Nd 08854, kkk kkk In summary,the components outlined above represent an overview typical of microhydropower projects.A construc-tion manual which would take the developer from materials through installation is beyond the scope of this booklet, however,further references are contained in Appendices B, C&D. A conceptual design for a specific site must incorpor- ate a comprehensive inventory of system components matched to the stream resources and terrain.After the intake,con- duit and powerhouse has been decided upon,drawings of the system are required.As much as possible they should be to scale and include dimensions,notations of material needs and sizes,volumes of excavation and fill,and anything else to ensure that cost considerations are complete. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS A small hydroelectric project will normally have a de- sign life of twenty to thirty years if properly maintained. Although the capital cost of these systems is high,the actual lifetime cost may turn out to be quite reasonable. Economic models using a variety of criteria are useful in estimating whether a project's benefits exceed the risks. A simplified life-cycle cost analysis of a proposed system is one method of comparing costs of energy.The ini- tial cost of the system will include capital equipment, shipping,installation,legal fees,and other miscellaneous expenses.Assuming the entire installation was debt- financed,the cost of this borrowed sum could be computed annually using an amoritization table.*An annual fixed cost might typically be spread over a twenty year loan. Added to it are operating costs such as insurance,mainte- nance,and repair.This sum of fixed and operating expenses will provide a rough estimate of annual costs for the pro- ject. *Amoritization tables are readily available at lending institutions. The projected yearly output of the system in kilowatt- hours is the equivalent benefit.Total annual cost divided by annual kilowatt-hours produced will be an estimate of cost per unit of energy.It is then possible to compare costs with alternatives such as:interconnection to a utili- ty either to buy or sell power;or from a stand alone diesel power system where the same criteria of capital equipment, installation,maintenance and repair costs must also be ex- panded to include fuel and equipment replacement based on the diesel life expectancy. For example,suppose a l0kW hydroplant was envisionedwithaninstalledcostof$3,500 per kW or $35,000.Assum- ing 70 percent system efficiency at a 50 percent plant fac- tor,total energy output can be estimated as: Power x time =energy or 10kW x 8760 hours (per year)x .7 x .5 =30660 kWh Assuming that the entire $35,000 is debt financed for twenty years at 12 percent interest,an amoritization factor of 0.134 can be used to compute yearly repayment of the loan: $35,000 x 0.134 =$4,690 Insurance,O&M and other costs are assumed to be $2,000 per year for a total yearly cost of: $4,690 +$2,000 =$6,690 Based upon the energy projection of 30660 kWh per year, the cost per kWh would be: $6,690 +30660 =$.22/kWh Discounting the effects of various energy subsidies,if the project was designed to displace energy otherwise pur-chased from a rural Alaskan utility,at possibly $.30/kWh, then the project may be economically justified in the first year.This assumes that most of the power produced could be used at the suggested cost. If energy were to be sold to a utility at an avoidedfuelcostrateofperhaps$.07 per kWh the project would obviously not be viable. Of course,comparison to utility purchased power is still more complex due to the influence of inflation and potential fuel cost increases experienced by the utility. These factors might pertain to both the price of utility purchased power and that sold to a utility under an inter- connection agreement.In either case the methods and models used to estimate these influences are beyond the scope of this manual,but available in references provided in Appendix B. It may be necessary to go through this process several times,evaluating different options,considering design changes to reduce costs,or altering power needs through conservation or other alternatives.Whatever the final de- etston,tt ts tmposstble to overemphasize the importance of performing a comprehensive economte analysts as a basis for a dectston to proceed with constructton. lt.END USE PLANNING The kinetic energy harnessed from water power can be used directly to operate hydraulic ram type pumps,or be converted for other mechanical or electrical energy uses. Some examples of the variety of Alaskan micro systems can be found in,Frontier Energy,Appropriate Technology in Alaska, available through the Cooperative Extension Service,Univer- sity of Alaska. Mechanical energy is converted to electricity by a generator which can be designed to supply either DirectCurrent(DC)or Alternating Current (AC).AC is the most useful type of electricity,as most appliances and accessor- ies are set up for this type of system.In very small systems,however,there may be economic advantages in developing a DC powered system. POWER CONVERSION OC ELECTRICAL GENERATION Car alternators are the least expensive type of genera- tor.They are in actual fact alternators generating AC, which is then converted to DC by passing it through diodes. The DC usually produced for cars is slightly above 12 volts. Voltage regulation can be altered with inexpensive kits to produce 120 volts of DC power,however.These alternators are inefficient and have to turn at high speeds. Heavy duty alternators,which are used on trucks and for marine purposes are available.These alternators are more efficient,longer lasting and appropriate for adapta- tion to a small DC system. With a DC system,appliance options may either be somewhat restricted or could require the added expense of aninverter.For persons seeking a lowest cost option,an all 12-volt DC system is possible,as there are many appliances available from recreational vehicle suppliers.Table 6indicatessomeofthelimitsencounteredinappliance adaptability between AC and DC voltage. Direct current generators can produce energy for use in appropriate appliances or for conversion to AC through an invertor.A OC-to-AC system has several advantages,espe-cially in very small systems (less than 5kW).Excess power generated by a DC system can be stored easily in batteries, thereby extending the system's peak capacity.DC generators are not as speed-sensitive as AC,and a governor generally is not needed.A small DC system can be less costly and more versatile when the water source is small,because a hydro generator usually puts some power back into the battery set except in the most extreme cases.This meansthatadeepdischargecondition(a common cause of batteryfailuresometimesevidentinwind-battery systems)is less frequent.The DC system with storage does limit the size of a hydropower plant,as batteries become unwieldly and very costly for systems over 6kW in size. Table 6 Appliance Adaptability from AC to DC AC DC Lights Incandescent Runs Runs Fluorescents Runs No-Only Special Type Universal Motor Hand Runs Runs Tools (Skill Saw, Drill...)Refrigerator,Runs No-Only Special Type Motor Compressor Refrigerator,Runs Camper Type Stoves Runs Runs,but not Clock Timer or Electronic Accessories TV/Radio Runs Usually Not Motors,Air Compressor,Runs No Table Saw Heater,Toasters,Runs Runs Head Bolt Heater Switches Normal Derated Rating Wall Receptacles Normal Normal Welder Runs No Transformers Runs No Ease of Purchasing Yes No Equipment Governor Required Yes No Voltage Regulator Yes &No Yes Brushes Which Can Usually Not Yes Require Maintenance AC ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Electrical systems,if AC,can be single (10)or three phase (30).Most households are connected with single phasepower.Typical household voltage for single phase is 120/240.Standard voltages for electric ranges and some household motors are 120/240v,10. Many larger users are connected to three phase power, which can be provided in many voltages such as 120/208, 120/240 delta,or 277/480.Three phase generators and electric motors are more efficient,less expensive,and in the case of many motors,more reliable,because a starting system is not required.A three phase system requires balancing,however.That is,the equipment put on each leg (phase)of the generator is selected so the cur- rent,or amperes,iS as equal as possible.A 10 system does not require balancing the loads.For these reasons,a household should usually consider a single phase system,especially if the hydro plant is 10kW or smaller. For a larger installation,a three phase system will likely prove the most economical.Connections to a utility are limited to 10 if the utility has only 10 power.If the utility has 30,the connection can be 19 or 36,although utilities may add interconnect charges for 34. @ AC Generators Two types of AC generators are available for small hydro electrical output:induction and synchronous. In North America,AC systems operate at a frequency of60cyclespersecond(hertz);any variation will affect the accuracy of clocks,stereo systems and the like.Sixty hertz synchronous generators turn at basic shaft speeds asfollows: Speeds Use 3,600 rpm -Seldom Used for Hydro 1,800 rpm Frequently Used1,200 rpm -Very Frequently Used,More Costly than 1,800 900 rpm 720 rpm 600 rpm Generator is More Costly than 1,200 Usually too Expensive for Micro Hydro Practical Limit A synchronous generator turns at one of the speeds given,as determined by number of poles in its design.When turning at synchronous speed,the generator will produce AC at 60 hertz.Some of these machines are inherently regula-ted with no provision to alter the voltage;others have a regulator which will allow the voltage to be raised or lowered.The synchronous generator is the only AC machine to be used on stand-alone systems,those which are not connected to a utility or another synchronous generator. If a synchronous generator is to be connected to a utility,as a rule it will have to be synchronized to the line.This usually requires installation of a governor to match the speed of the turbine with the line frequency before the generator is connected.Another means of syn- chronizing a synchronous machine is to bring the speed of the generator up near synchronous speed with the fieldexcitation"off"(this controls voltage).This is donethroughwaterregulationattheturbinegate.As _themachinenearssynchronousspeed,the field is switched "on" and the generator will then pull into step with the utility or other machines on the line.At this point,the gates can be opened further and control turned over to the turbine governor. An induction generator is for all intents an induction motor being turned above synchronous rpm.This type of machine must be connected to a power system which provides synchronous operation.Because of this requirement,induc- tion generators are not used in stand-alone systems. An induction generator,operating similarly to a motor, is easy to synchronize.It can be brought up to speed andthebreaker(switch with the capability of tripping under overload conditions)closed as it passes through 60 cycles. As long as it runs at rpm higher than the synchronous requirement,it will generate power.Should the turbine be unable to turn the generator above the synchronous rpm,it will start to operate as a motor.In most cases,a reverse current relay is provided to prevent this from happening by disconnecting it from the line.The induction machine also uses what is known as reactive power -generated by the utility.In some cases this may require the installation ofcapacitorstomaintaintheutility's interest in balancing active and apparent power in an alternating current circuit. Energy product catalogs and manufacturers'literature are invaluable in determining characteristics,compatibility and cost of various systems.Several observations regarding machine costs and features are: e Generators are more efficient as size and output increase. e As rpm ratings decrease,price increases. e As generator capacity increases,cost per kW decreases. Single phase generators are usually more costly as they are 1.5 times larger for a given output than equivalent 30 machines.Single-phase induction machines are also diffi- cult to obtain in sizes above 10 kW. INDEPENDENT VS UTILITY INTERTIE SYSTEMS MEASURING DEMAND IN STAND-ALONE SYSTEMS In planning for a stand-alone hydropower facility it is important early in the project to examine power needs and characteristics of that need.Two separate but related issues needs consideration:total consumption and peak consumption.Accuracy in developing these figures is required,as over or undersizing will result in a system that is either unnecessarily expensive or too small.Guide- lines for further estimating potential power in independent systems is available in the following resources:"Assessing Stream Potential for Backyard Hydropower,"Peter Klingman; "Micro Hydropower:Reviewing an Old Concept,"NationalCenterforAppropriateTechnology.(See Appendix B). Total Conswnption is the number of kilowatt hours usedinagivenperiodoftime,most commonly kWh per month. Estimates of energy consumption and power needs can be derived from Table 7,typical household appliance loads,or from references in other publications. Peak Consumption is the maximum amount of electricalenergyneededatanyonetime.Peak consumption can beunderstoodbyconsideringtheinstantaneouspowerneedsina house if all the appliances were operating at once;the resulting demand would be the peak.In micro systems meet- ting peak demand will more likely cause problems if the peaks are erratic and high relative to average consumption. If the system must be designed to meet peak demands,it is likely to be less efficient and more costly unless other uses for the surplus energy can be found. In some instances it is feasible to build a hydropower project larger than current or forecasted electrical demand. The hydropower produced might be competitive with,and thus displace,fuels currently used for space heating.Where possible,the excess power may also be sold to a utility. Peak demand can be approximated from monthly energy use by the equation: Monthly Power Use (kWh)Peak Demand (kW)=187-5 where the factor,182.5,represents a cumulative averageduration(in hours)of appliance use per month in a typical household. Electrical motors and appliances will generally have a name-plate attached stating the power demand.Allowing for inefficiencies of appliances and wiring,a horsepower rating of 1 hp will be approximately equivalent to 1 kW in comput- ing demand.System load is also affected by startingcurrentrequirementswhich,for typical motors,is six times the operating current.The peak demand requirement would then be 6 kW for the same 1 hp motor. Development of a chart which lists al]l the electricalappliancestobeused,their respective ratings in watts,and their number of hours in use within a 24 hour period will provide a total daily picture of demand. Table 7 TYPICAL HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCE LOADS POWER AVG.HOURS TOTAL POWER CONSUMP, APPLIANCE (WATTS)USE/MO.kWh/MO. Blender 600 3 2 Car Block Heater 450 300 135 Chest Freezer (standard 15 cu ft)280 240 68 (high efficiency) Clock 2 720 1 Clothes Dryer 4600 19 87 Coffee Maker 600-900 12 7-11 Electric Blanket 200 80 16 Fan (kitchen)250 30 8 Freezer (chest,15 cu ft)350 240 84 Hair Dryer (hand-held)400 5 2 Hi-Fi (tube type)115 120 14 Hi-Fi (solid state)30 120 4 Iron 1100 12 13 Light (60-Watt)60 120 7 Light (100-Watt)100 90 9 Lights (4 x 75 Watt)225 120 27 Light (fluorescent,4')50 240 12 Mixer 124 6 1 Radio (tube type)80 120 10 Radio (solid state)50 120 6 Refrig.(standard,11 cu ft 300 200 42 (new high efficiency)Refrig.(frost free,17 cu ft)360 500 80 (new high efficiency) Sewing Machine 100 10 1 Toaster 1150 4 5 TV (black &white)255 120 31 TV (color)350 120 42 Washing Machine 700 12 8 Water Heater (40 gal)4500 87 ---- 392 Vacuum Cleaner 750 10 8 ®*®**®*®*®bd bd ®® Shop Equipment:Water Pump (1/2 hp)460 44 20 Shop Orill (1/4,1/6 hp)250 2 5 Skill Saw (1 hp)1000 6 6 Table Saw (1 hp)1000 4 4 Lathe (1/2 hp)460 2 1 UTILITY INTERTIE SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS Electricity is generally produced by utilities and sold to individuals.In order to encourage the development ofrenewableenergyresources,Federal laws (Public UtilityRegulatoryPoliciesAct-PURPA)now require electric utili- ties to buy power from qualified facilities (QF's)provided certain conditions are met.Qualifications governing rates and safety have been adopted in the regulatory functions oftheAlaskaPublicUtilitiesCommission(APUC)which is responsible for these matters.If a utility interconnection is anticipated for a proposed project,contact both the local utility and the APUC in the earliest stage of plan- ning.Critical economic considerations include buy back rates and costs of switch gear and safety features,all of which will affect financing options. There are several reasons for connecting to a utility grid. e Generation of Revenue.Sales may occur for non- firm power at rates equivalent to the utility's avoided fuel cost rate.Firm power sales are af- fected by a capacity credit which may vary for each utility. e Load Sink.For developers unable to consume the majority of the power generated by the site,the utility may provide a load sink by taking the excess energy and keeping the system fully loaded. This allows a fixed generator output to maximize the resource. e Power Backup.The utility can act as a backup power source for the developer whose system is down for repairs,or when the water source is too Tow for power production. Utilities have many differing requirements for connec-tion to their power lines.These can range from as little as a lockable disconnect switch at the point of tie-in to the utility system,to a total control system that involvespowermetering,telemetering,and protective relaying. The utility will require that protective equipment be installed for the following reasons: e Safety.There will be times when the power line is down for maintenance or repairs,or due to accidents,and the generator will have to be taken off the power line.This will require both auto- matic and manual disconnects. e Protection of the Generation Equipment.There are instances when the generator should be taken off the power line to minimize the potential for damage. e Utility Safety.The utility will also require protection for its system and equipment. Equipment required for an intertie may include a step-up transformer,protective equipment and a power line. Overcurrent and short circuit protection from the hydroplant generator are important considerations.Although the protection and disconnect system can appear expensive to the developer,its intent is protection of life and property. Work with the utility for this goal. The utility will require installation,maintenance, testing,and calibrating of metering equipment to measure the flow of power into the utility's grid.This metering will measure power "out"from the generator in kWh.The utility may also require a power "in"meter to measure both demand and kWh used by the microhydropower system. The utility might also require metering to measure reactive power,or kilovar hours.This would normally occur when a large induction motor is used as a generator.If the generator is a synchronous machine,the utility will also require a synchronizing device to connect the hydro genera- tor to the system. Other additional requirements that need careful con- sideration for their legal and financial implications include: e Power Factor Correction.Power factor corrective capacitors might be required to correct the line power factor to 90%or even to 95%when an induction motor is used as the generator. e Liability Insurance.Insurance could be required to protect the utility or developer from loss, damage,expense,and liability to persons whocouldbeinjuredbythedeveloper's or utility's construction,ownership,operation,or maintenanceofthesystem.Insurance limits of $1,000,000 or more may be required. eFasements.The developer could be required to obtain easements and rights-of-way for the utility for any interconnection equipment.A surveyor might be needed to write up the easement. e Shutdown Impacts.The contract between developer and utility may also address what happens when either party has problems that cause loss of power generation capabilities.This item needs to be addressed to minimize the impact of the shutdown. The microhydropower developer should remember that the utility is in business to distribute and sell power.The utility usually wants to generate its own power or to buypowerinlargequantities,so the role of the microhydro- plant could appear minimal to larger utilities. In smaller communities with isolated grid systems very different circumstances may exist,as the hydroplant output could match average total demand.Unique circumstances occur in this instance;working cooperatively with the utility and possibly the APUC is recommended.TIINTERFACING YOU MUST CONSIDER ©COOPERATION OF LOCAL UTILITY AND FEDERAL PURPA e PAYBACK RATE e HOOK UP EXPENSES Meter Base Standby Charge inetaillation ProtectionandSafety ¢AVONDED COSTS OF BATTERES ANO GOVERNOR FOR A STAND- ALONE MODE Hl.LICENSING Numerous laws enacted over many years at the local, state and federal levels have resulted in a large number of permit and license requirements which must be met before a hydro project can be built.Most projects will not requtreallthepermitsorapprovalelistedinthischapter.Smallprojectsinparticulararelikelytorequireveryfewpermits,but this will vary on a case by case basis. It is important for the prospective developer to regard the regulatory requirements not as barriers to be surmounted or circumvented,but as a means to identify potential problems associated with a particular site or project design.Agencies responsible for the permits and licenses should be consulted early in the development process,so that any appropriate modifications to the project can be made in a timely manner. LAND ACCESS Development of any hydropower project requires the developer to secure ownership,leases,easements,rights- of-way,or other approval to occupy and use land at the site and along transmission lines.This right may be obtained by purchase or through permit or easement from property owners. Direct negotiation with private property owners,such as village corporations,native corporations,or individuals is recommended.Sources for determining land ownership can include:coastal zone management plans;regional compre- hensive plans;timber management plans,and Alaska Power Authority reconnaissance and feasibility reports.These references are usually located in the Alaska State Deposito-ry Libraries by subject index (see Appendix B). Agencies or organizations managing federal and state land in the vicinity of a project should be contacted for additional information,such as: Federal Bureau of Land Management Land Information Office 701 C Street Anchorage,Alaska 99501 osAlaska Department of Natural Resources Recorder's Office 3601 C Street,Suite 1134 Anchorage,Alaska 99503 Development on designated parklands and game sanctu- aries is restricted.Parklands include national and state parks,forests,preserves,monuments and wilderness areas. Permission to utilize or cross national parklands could require an act of the U.S.Congress.Application for easements must be made through the National Park Service,or the Department of Agriculture,Forest Service.The Alaska Department of Natural Resources manages state parkland. ALASKA PERMITTING PROCEDURES Although it is difficult to rank the environmental acceptability of various types of hydropower configurations in general terms,resource agencies agree that projectsinvolvinganexistingdam(or,for small projects,no dam atall)have fewer adverse impacts than projects requiring construction of a new dam.Similarly,run-of-river and diversion type projects (assuming maintenance of adequateinstreamflowsfordiversionprojects)generally are more environmentally acceptable than projects involving a storage reservoir. Examples of possible development impacts include:areductionoffishinthestream;changes in water quality during construction;disturbance of wildlife;less or no water in the stream between the intake and powerhouse. Permitting processes give agencies a chance to review and comment on a project.It ie also an opportunity for thedevelopertoobtainsomefreetechnicaladvice.Since therearemanyagenciesinvolved,the complete permitting process may take 18 months or more for a large project.In someinstancescompliancewithregulationsmightrequireproject alterations.If a permit is denied,the project requires reevaluation. State permits pertain to water rights,fish and game, and use of state land.An inventory of State agencies charged with review of hydroelectric projects follows. Desire to bevelop a Microhydro Project + Reconnaissance Level Studies of Natural Features and Land Use/Ownership Completed ¢ Contact Appropriate Agencies for Permits and Rights-of -Way J 'I vFederalAgencies FERC Preliminary Permit Optional FERC Qualified Facility Designation -Optional Federal Agencies to Contect in FERC Prelicensing Process: U.S.Fish &Wildlife Service Environmental Protection Agency U.S.Corps of Engineers National Marine Fisheries Service Interior Department Environmental Division Other Federal Agencies: National Park Service -Park Lands Federal Aviation Administration - Transmission Lines State of Alaska Local Agencies or Entities Department of Environmental Conservation -Master Permit Application/Stream Discharge Department of Natural Resources - Water Rights and Dem Construction NOILYN1G¥00>Department of Fish &Came - Habitet Protection Office of Management &Budget Coastal Management Alaska Public Utilities Commission -Utility laterconnection WATER AND LAND USE REQUIREMENTS Table 8 Project Loceted in or Affecting: State Land Private Land Native Allotment Wilderness Area National Park or Monument Nattonal Wildlife Refuge National Forest Caneda Agency or Approval: State DNR individual(s) Village Native Corporation Regional Native Corporation Federal Buresu of Indian Affairs U.S.Forest Service National Park Service U.S.Fish & Wildlife Service U.S.Forest Service International Joint Commission - Corps of Engineers bo vs STATE AGENCIES Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) Master Permit Application The Alaska Permit Information Centers provide a centra- lized statewide environmental permit information service. Permit Information staff can identify all federal,state and local permits that any specific project is likely to re- quire.In addition,the Centers can arrange for the appli- cant to meet with permitting agencies to discuss how to fill out the applications. A recently updated Alaska Directory of Permits is also available at the Permit Information Centers.Permit Infor- mation Centers are located at: Juneau 465-2615 Anchorage 279-0254 Fairbanks 452-2340 Collect calls are accepted during business hours. The master permit application serves state agencies with a "notice of intent"for a proposed project.The map report and prospectus prepared in a site reconnaissance are submitted with the application to all state departments and the municipality where the project is located.Jurisdiction or permit requirements are then obtained for the applicant for completion and resubmittal.If public hearings are required,DEC will coordinate the hearing in or near the municipality where the hydro project is proposed.Final decisions will be incorporated into one document and return- ed to the applicant. Certificate of Reasonable Assurance (Water Quality Certi- fication) Certification of compliance with Alaska Water Quality Standards are regulated through DEC.Any work,construc- tion,discharge or placement of structures within water waysmustsatisfyAlaskaAdministrativeCode,regulations 18 AAC 65.050 through 18 AAC 70.010.The Division of Environmental Quality is the administering agency and works in coordination with the U.S.Corps of Engineers to assure standards are satisfactorily met. @ Department of Natural Resources (DNR) Application for Water Rights (Form 10-102) The Alaska Water Use Act provides the public with a legal method to obtain water use rights.All use of Alaskan stream water is controlled by the Alaska Department of Natural Resources.Permits must be obtained from the Division of Land and Water Management (DNR)according to procedures described in their "Water User's Handbook". A water rights permit will provide legal standing against subsequent conflicting uses,therefore,early application for the permit is recommended.Only after the water is being beneficially used can a Certificate of Appropriation be issued.This is the legal document which conveys water rights.A water right then becomes a property right attached to the legal description of the property.If the land is sold,the water right goes with the land to the new owner unless special arrangements are made through DNR, Applicants for water rights are advised to contact the Division of Land and Water Management for complete details. Application to Construct or Modify a Dam A dam and reservoir may be required at a proposed site to regulate flow,increase head or as a diversion for the intake design.An Application to Construct or Modify a Dam is required by the Department of Natural Resources for dams which are 10 feet or more in height or capable of storing 50 acre-feet or more of water. In general,any dam 10 feet or more in height will require submission of plans as well as specifications, topographic maps of the dam site,and profiles and cross sections of the dam.Detailed hydrologic data,seepage and permeability analysis of the structure,and a stability analysis must be submitted if the structure is in an earth- quake zone, For dams less than 10 feet in height,or for reservoirs of less than 50 acre-feet in storage,no special additional approval is needed other than the granting of a water rights permit to develop the water source.Plans and specifica- tions,however,will still be required. The purpose of the dam construction and safety regula- tions is twofold.The primary purpose is to maintain an accurate central file system of existing structures as a foLoe)precaution in the event of emergency situations.The secondary purpose is to ensure a consistent review of dam construction and the application of sound engineering standards in the construction of dams. Land Leases State land leases also are the responsibility of DNR. Leases and other land issues are not likely to be included in the master permit application inventory.Contact with the Division of Land and Water Management is necessary. Department Of Fish &Game (DF&G) Habitat Protection Permit The Department of Fish and Game oversees wildlife management and protection.DF&G's interest in water use development relates to the protection of resident andanadromousfish(salmon and steelhead)and the effects of water impoundments on game habitat.A Habitat Protection Permit is required where either resident or anadromous fish are identified. Identification of resident species can be researched at Fish and Game offices.Catalogs and atlases document the extent of anadromous fish migration.Management data on resident fish is also available. Fish and Game is also invited by DNR to comment on water use permit applications.Any restriction of water flow where fish are present will likely necessitate a Habitat Protection Permit. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Division of Governmental Coordination Coastal Project Questionnaire and Certification of Consistency Section 307 of the U.S.Coastal Zone Management Act of1972,as amended by 16 USC 1456(c)(3),governs development in coastal areas.It requires applicants for federal land and water use permits in Alaska's coastal areas to provide certification that activities will comply with the standards of the Alaska Coastal Management Program. All potential hydropower developers seeking permitsfromtwoormorestateagenciesorfromafederalagency (F.E.R.C.or the Corps)are required to respond to a coastal project questionnaire.Because Alaska's coastal boundries encompass a substantial amount of interior area as well,a review of the Interim Coastal Zone Boundries map of Alaska, available at the Governmental Coordination offices,is advisable, The need to meet various environmental standards in coastal areas will be determined by OMB on the basis of questionnaire responses.Furthermore,additional guidance on other state and federal permitting procedures is avail- able from OMB during the review process.As their name implies,the Division of Governmental Coordination will communicate with other state and federal agencies to facili- tate permit acquisition and responsiveness to coastal zone issues, Alaska Public Utility Commission (APUC) Cogeneration and Small Power Production Regulations Although Alaska Statutes do not include a state- specific enactment of the federal Public Utilities Regula-tory Policy Act (PURPA),AS 42.05.361 -42.05.441 enables the APUC to regulate certain electric utilities.Article 2 3AAC 50.750 -3AAC 50.820 includes regulations governing the interconnection,purchase and sale of electric power betweenautilityandaqualifyingfacility(QF). In keeping with the spirit of the federal PURPA enact- ment,the APUC's guidelines state that "...regulations are to encourage cogeneration and small power production by setting out guidelines for the establishment of reason- able,non-discriminatory charges,rates,terms and condi- tions under which interconnection and purchases and sales of electric power will occur...." QF certification is obtained from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.Application is pertinent only if the benefits available through PURPA are required from a hydro- plant operation.Examples of benefits include: e Exemption from certain utility regulations dealing with revenues, e Certification for tax benefit purposes, e Requirements that utility interconnection be allowed, e Requirements relating to a utility selling power to a QF.ase Applications should be made through the Washington,OCofficeofFERC.An address is contained in the AgencyDirectory,Appendix D. Power buy-back rates are governed by whether the power sold can be defined as firm or non-firm.Non-firm rates should now be established for all utilities regulated by APUC.These are directly related to the avoided fuel costs that a utility realizes in the purchase of power from a QF. Firm power rates involve a number of considerations related to increased utility plant capacity which might otherwise be required if no alternative sources were being proposed.Purchase rates are subject to negotiation with the utility but must meet requirements set forth in APUC's regulations.Up to sixty days can be required for a tariff decision.Disagreements with the utility over its suggest- ed buy-back rates may be appealed through the APUC,provided it is a regulated utility. FEDERAL PERMITS &LICENSING FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION (FERC) The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)is the primary federal agency responsible for fssuing licenses for all non-federal hydroelectric projects under its juris- diction. The purpose of federal licensing is best stated inSection10{a)of the Federal Power Act which requires the Commission to assure that:"the project...will be best adapted to a comprehensive plan for improving or developing a waterway or waterways for the use or benefit of interstate or foreign commerce,for the improvement and utilization ofwaterpowerdevelopment,and for other beneficial public uses,including recreational purposes...."In more direct terms,Congress wanted to ensure that hydropower developmentinanyriverbasinwouldbecompatiblewiththebestoverall use of the resource.In addition to the Federal Power Act, Congress has enacted a number of other statutes to assuretheoriginalintentoftheActandtoprotectotherpublicinterests.Some of these more recent statutes are listed in Table 9. A hydropower project is within the jurisdiction of FERC,and therefore requires a license or an exemption from licensing,if any of the following apply: 1.The project is on a navigable waterway, 2.The project will affect interstate commerce ({i.e., ea)will be connected to a regional transmissiongrid), 3.The project uses federal land, 4,The project will use surplus water or waterpower from a federal dam. Under these criteria very few projects are exempt from FERC licensing requirements.Only a very small project which does not affect a navigable waterway or interstate commerce and does not hook up with a grid system would be exempt from FERC involvement. If there is uncertainty regarding FERC jurisdiction, there is a relatively simple legal procedure for obtaining a decision from FERC.A Declaration of Intention is filed according to Part 24 of the FERC regulations (Title 18 CFR). The requirements are short and uncomplicated and can be completed with a minimum of data.A more direct method is to request an unofficial opinion from FERC staff. Preliminary Permit A preliminary permit protects a developer's priority toapplyforalicenseforaparticularsiteandallowsfurtherstudy;it does not authorize construction.FERC permits are broken down into major and minor projects.Microhydro comes under minor projects,less than 1500 kW. The exact specifications for filing a preliminary permit application are in FERC Orders No.54,1233,and 183 and 18 CFR 4.80-4.83.An application consists of an ini- tial statement and four exhibits: 1.A description of the facility and proposed mode of operation, .A map of the general location,-An environmental report, .A set of drawings showing the existing and proposed project works.WPTasa onTable 9 Federal Regulatory Acts Affecting Hydro Development Leaislation Regulation Federal Power Act 16 USC 791 National Environmental Policy Act 42 USC 4321 Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act 16 USC 661 Historic Preservation Act 16 USC 470 Wilderness Act 16 USC 1131 Clean Water Act 33 USC 1251 Wild and Scenic Rivers Act 16 USC 1271 Endangered Species Act 16 USC 1531 Coastal Zone Management Act 16 USC 1451 Federal Land Policy &Management Act 43 USC 1701 Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act PL 95-619 Licenses and Exemptions A project which satisfies certain requirements may qualify for an exemption from the FERC licensing process. FERC has created two categories of case-specific exemptions and one generic category.Presently,the generic category has been stayed by court order pending further evaluation. The case-specific exemption categories are: 1.Projects less than 15 MW that are built into conduits or provide direct discharge of water for agricultural, municipal or industrial use. 2.Certain projects not exceeding 5 MW which involve dams built prior to 1977 or run-of-river projects which utilize natural water features without the need of an impoundment. If exempted from licensing,a project is not subject to a number of provisions applicable under the Federal Power Act. If the project is located only on federal lands,any person may apply for an exemption.If any part or all of the project is not on federal lands,only the owner of those property interests or the holder of an option to obtain those interests may apply for a exemption. A potential hydro developer is required to consult withlocal,state,and federal agencies (see Table 10)duringpreparationofalicenseorexemptionapplication,andincludeevidenceoftheseconsultationsintheapplication. Although the Federal Power Act requires evidence of com-pliance with state and local requirements prior to issuanceofalicense,FERC may override state and local decisions. FERC issues licenses to construct and operate hydro- electric projects up to 50 years.Projects must be reli- censed when a_previous license expires.For more informa- tion on the FERC licensing and exemption processes,see Appendix C,FERC's "Bluebook"and FERC Order No.106 as amended and clarified by Order No.106-A,and Orders No. 202,202-B,and 202-C. Recent changes in FERC licensing requirements are outlined in FERC Order No.189,"Application for License for Minor Water Power Projects and Major Water Projects 5 Megawatts or Less." Table 10 Federal Agency Contacts Required by FERC U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service Environmental Protection Agency U.S.Army Corps of Engineers National Marine Fisheries Service U.S.Department of Interior,Environmental Division NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT (NEPA) Federal agencies making decisions on hydroelectric project licenses are required to comply with the National Environmental Policy Act for minor projects and for addi- tions of hydroelectric facilities at existing dams.A developer is initially required only to provide enough environmental information for FERC to make a determination of environmental significance. If the project is determined to be environmentallysignificant,a full Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)is required.When a full NEPA EIS is required,it is writtenbytheFERCstaffusingtheinformationprovidedin qo wtadeExhibit E of the license application.When necessary,FERCwillrequirethatadditionalstudiesandinformationbe provided.FERC regulations regarding NEPA are listed in 18 CFR 2.80-2.82. OTHER FEDERAL PERMITS U.S.Army Corps of Engineers Section 10 and Section 404 Permits The Corps of Engineers has jurisdiction over anyprojectwhichisproposedforanavigablewaterway(Sec-tion 10,River and Harbor Act of 1899),or which involves the discharge of any dredge or fill material into waters oftheUnitedStates(Section 404,Federal Water Pollution Control Act). In general,the Corps does not require a separate Section 10 permit in cases where FERC exercises licensing jurisdiction.The Corps does,however,review and comment on FERC applications as part of FERC's prelicense consulta- tion process to ensure the protection of navigational interests. For projects involving the discharge of dredged or fill material into U.S waters a 404 permit is required in addi- tion to any FERC action.These applications are made on a general form and take approximately three to six months for approval.Required is information on the nature and location of the proposed activity;the time span involved;and the status of other federal,state,and local permits. The developer should contact the Corps District Engi- neer well in advance of construction.The Corps,Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation and the Division ofGovernmentalCoordination(OMB)work together to ensure that compliance to water quality standards is reviewed and met. The Alaska District Office in Anchorage has jurisdiction over Corps permits within the state.See Appendix D for the address and telephone number. @ Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Determination of No Hazard The FAA has forms which must be completed and reviewed to determine if any project feature (e.g.,transmission towers)constitutes a hazard to aviation.A project layout showing elevation contours should be turned in with the application,and information on microwave tower and existing airports in the project area may be required.Approval of this permit will take approximately two months. @ U.S.Forest Service (USFS) Special Use Permit If any part of a project is on National Forest lands,aSpecialUsePermit(SUP)is required from the U.S.ForestService.In order to secure a SUP,the developer must have a FERC license or exemption. The developer then applies to USFS for a Study SpecialUsePermit(SSUP).This SSUP is for studies which gather information required under NEPA.After NEPA regulationshavebeensatisfied,the USFS writes a 4(e)report,which istheirofficialpositiontowardtheproject.The 4(e)report is required by FERC as part of its licensing requirements. After FERC has issued a license or exemption,the developer can apply for a SUP in order to begin actualconstruction.The USFS SUP process can be quite complex and hydropower developers should establish early contact with the Forest Service.we APPENDIX A RESOURCE ASSESSMENT aaIf no data is available on the stream of interest or the data is not sufficient,measurements will need to be made.Fora stand alone system which will supply a village, house or business without connection to an outside genera- tion source,the most critical measurements are during low flow periods.In most Alaska locations low flow periods are during early or late spring just prior to break-up.Flow measurements taken at this time will yield the base flow of the stream versus the usual minimum.An exception to this case occurs in Southeastern Alaska,where the minimum yearly flow can occur near the end of a long summer dry spell. Flow calculations for the body of water under consi- deration may already exist;in that case measurements will not need to be made.To find out if this is the case, contact public agencies whose responsibility it is to acquire this type of data.The best source for surface water data in Alaska is the USGS,which is also the source of topographic maps and aerial photos. MEASURING FLOWS To determine flows in a stream where no previous measurements have been made,it is worthwhile examining adjacent streams of similar basin characteristics.Drainage area,vegetation cover,surrounding mountain height,orien- tation toward prevailing winds and elevation may have been measured or observed extensively. Streams in Alaska have different flow characteristics dependent upon these known characteristics.To illustrate this and to provide an indication on flow rates,some yearlyhydrographsarepresentedforafewtypicalstreams(I1lus-tration 9).To aid in their interpretation,these hydro- graphs have been "unitized";each basin's run-off for an entire year has been called "100 percent,"even though the actual streams have differing flow rates. ahhOuAVERAGEPERCENTAGEOFTOTALANNUALFLOWAVERAGEPERCENTAGEOFTOTALANNUALFLOW28 r--SOUTHEAST (Specific Streams) 24 ---Skagway River sueccenanes Harding River 20 -'a --Fish Creek °ow"seectees,$$90%Pvceegst*® OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP 28 Ts SOUTHCENTRAL (General Characteristics) 24 |-High-elevation mountain streams ---Low-elevation mountain streams 20 p-_-_ceseccecece Cook inlet lowlands streams / -w-as-.Guif of Alaska lowlands streams OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP Yearly Hydrograghs In the case of Ship Creek in south coastal Alaska,the creek has a drainage area of 90 square miles and has been gaged for 39 years.The average annual flow is 163 cfs. Now suppose some idea of minimum flow were needed on a stream with 30 square miles of drainage area which had basin characteristics similar to Ship Creek.As an approximation, the annual flow of the stream in proportion to the drainage area is: 163 cfs x (30 +90)=54 cfs average annual daily flow.The yearly flow for the stream would be 54 cfs X 365 days =19,700 cfs-days. The chart for a low elevation mountain stream in South- central Alaska shows that the minimum percentage of annual flow occurs in February and is about 2.3%of the annual flow.Calculating the low flow for the stream in question results in: .023 x 19,700 cfs-days =453 cfs-days. February has 28 days,so dividing 453 by 28 provides cfs/day: 453 cfs-days/28 days =16 cfs minimum flow. An approximate power generation capability can be determined from this minimum value.For example,for 30 foot of head and a typical turbine generation output of about 6 KW/cfs/100'of head,the output would be: 30 feet/100 feet X 6 KW/cfs X 16 cfs =29 KW. If a hydro system will produce electricity for a house- hold,it will often be a DC-to-AC conversion system,requir- ing only minimum flows.If,however,a considerably larger system is envisioned,a direct AC system design would be chosen.In this case load projections will have to be calculated,particularly with respect to what can be done with the energy at the time of year it is available.This will require some information regarding maximum and mean stream flows as well as minimum.If the system requires a dam,it will be vital to know maximum stream flows in order to size spillways adequately to bypass excess water and prevent damaging the installation.asl nHwoOTHER METHODS OF MEASUREMENT: @ Container Filler Time For small mountain streams or springs,temporarily dam up the water and divert the entire flow into a container of known size.Carefully time the number of seconds it takes to fill this container. For example,if the filling times for a 55 gallon drum, placed under a culvert,averaged 20 seconds,the flow rate would be: 55 gal/20sec =2.75gal/sec x 60sec/min =165gpm =.37cfs Float Method Flow can also be estimated using a watch,tape measure, weighted float,and calibrated stick such as a yardstick for shallow streams.A float can be made using either a piece of wood weighted at one end with some heavy material -such as nails or metal scraps -or a plastic container partially filled with water.The float is partially submerged to ob- tain a better estimate of the average stream velocity,but should not touch the bottom of the stream. Begin by finding a stretch of stream as straight and asuniforminwidthanddepthaspossible.Pick a typicalsectionandmeasurethestreamwidth(W)with the tape measure.Use the calibrated stick vertically to measure the depth at .6-inch intervals across the stream.Nine depth measurements,including two zero measurements at the stream banks,are shown in Illustration 10.Average these depthstoestimatetheaveragestreamdepth(D).Multiply the vera by the stream width to estimate the streamarea(A). Average depth:Stream area: Dw cL 02+OF +04 +05 +0G +07+0 A 2 OxW Measuring stream area. 1.10 The stream velocity can be determined by choosing a straight stretch of water at least 30 feet long with sides approximately parallel and the bed unobstructed by rocks,branches or other obstacles.Mark off two points approx- jmately 20 feet apart along the stream.On a windless day,place a float upstream on the first marker,in midstream. Carefully time the float's travel between markers.Repeatseveraltimesatdifferentdistancesacrossthestream's width.Use the average time and the measured distance to calculate the average velocity. Flow can be calculated from the equation: Q=AxVxC, where Q =water flow rate, A =stream area, V =average stream velocity, C =correction factor. The flow equation includes a correction factor to account for streambed conditions.Use C =0.8 for a smooth streambed;or C =0.7 for intermediate conditions;C =0.6 for a rough or rocky streambed. Flow is calculated in cubic feet per second (cfs), based on area in square feet and velocity in feet per second.For other units of measure,see the conversion table at the end of this booklet. Flow measurements must be made several times over a year to determine flow variability.For rough estimates, several measurements using the float method would do. Remember that both the stream area and velocity change with flow rate,so that depth,width,and velocity must be measured each time.A more complex and accurate measurement technique is achieved by building a weir across the stream. ep Gow dee Bee >3rd Float |--_anFloat"7B Length for timing,L -aeae > Average time:Stream velocity:Stream flow: T;+ar +3 L Q =AxVxCTjvee Float method of measuring average stream velocity. 1.11 adiNoW/eT op on Sab ee en ,1 St 1(1/yr eH |Ha AL @ Weir Method A weir,as used in flow measurement,is a temporary dam built across the stream perpendicular to the flow.A rectan- gular notch or spillway of predetermined proportions is located in the center section.The notch has to be large enough to take the maximum flow of the stream during the period of measurement,so make some rough estimate of thestreamflowpriortobuildingtheweir.The notch width (W)should be at least three times its height (H),and the lower edge should be perfectly level.The lower edge and the vertical sides of the notch should be beveled with the sharp edge upstream.The whole structure can be best built out of timber with all edges and bottom sealed with clay,earth and sandbags to prevent any leakage.A typical weir is shown in Illustration 12. In order to measure the flow of water over the weir, set up a simple depth gage.This is done by driving a post in the stream bed at least 5 feet upstream from the weir, until a pre-set mark in the post is precisely level with the bottom edge of the spillway.The depth of water above the pre-set mark will indicate the flow rate of water over theweir.You will need to refer to a "Weir Table"in order to determine this flow rate.(See Table 11) Depth Gage Notch (level with bottom face of weir) fT SON eu Weir and Depth Gage 1.12 Table 11 WEIR TABLE Inches 0 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 0 0 0.003 0.008 0.0015 0.0024 0.0033 0.0044 0.0055 1 0.0067 0.0080 0.0094 0.0108 0.0123 0.0139 0.0155 0.0172 2 0.0190 0.0208 0.0226 0.0245 0.0265 0.0285 0.0306 0.0327 3 0.0348 0.0370 0.0393 0.0415 0.0439 0.0462 0.0487 0.0511 4 0.0536 0.0561 0.0587 0.0613 0.0640 0.0666 0.0694 0.0721 5 0.0749 0.0777 0.0806 0.0835 0.0864 0.0894 0.0924 0.0954 6 0.0985 0.1016 0.1047 0.1078 0.1110 0.1142 0.1175 0.1208 7 0.1241 0.1274 0.1308 0.1342 0.1376 0.1411 0.1446 0.1481 8 0.1516 0.1552 0.1588 0.1624 0.1660 0.1697 0.1734 0.1771 9 0.1809 0.1847 0.1885 0.1923 0.1962 0.2001 0.2040 0.2079 10 0.2119 0.2159 0.2199 0.2239 0.2280 0.2320 0.2361 0.2403 ll 0.2444 0.2486 0.2528 0.2570 0.2613 0.2656 0.2699 0.2742 12 0.2785 0.2829 0.2873 0.2917 0.2961 0.3006 0.3050 0.3095 13 0.3140 0.3186 0.3231 0.3277 0.3323 0.3370 0.3416 0.3463 14 0.3510 0.3557 0.3604 0.3652 0.3699 0.3747 0.3795 0.3844 15 0.3892 0.3941 0.3990 0.4039 0.4089 0.4138 0.4188 0.4238 16 0.4288 0.4338 0.4389 0.4440 0.4491 0.4547 0.4593 0.4645 17 0.4696 0.4748 0.4800 0.4852 0.4905 0.4958 0.5010 0.5063 18 0.5117.0.5170 0.5224 0.5277 0.5331 0.5385 0.5440 0.5494 19 0.5549 0.5604 0.5659 0.5714 0.5769 0.5825 0.5881 0.5937 20 0.5993 0.6049 0.6105 0.6162 0.6219 0.6276 0.6333 0.6390 21 0.6448 0.6505 0.6563 0.6621 0.6679 0.6738 0.6796 0.6855 22 0.6914 0.6973 0.7032 0.7091 0.7151 0.7210 0.7270 0.7330 23 0.7390 0.7451 0.7511 0.7572 0.7633 0.7694 0.7755 0.7816 24 0.7878 0.7939 0.8001 0.8063 0.8125 0.8187 0.8250 0.8312 25 0.8375 0.8438 0.8501 0.8564 0.8628 0.8691 0.8755 0.8819 26 0.8882 0.8947 0.9011 0.9075 0.9140 0.9205 0.9270 0.9335 27 0.9400 0.9465 0.9531 0.9596 0.9662 0.9728 0.9792 0.9860 28 0.9927 0.9993 1.006 1.013 1.019 1.026 1.033 1.040 29 1.046 1.053 1.060 1.067 1.074 1.080 1.087 1.094 30 1.101 1.108 1.115 1.122 1.129 1.136 1.152 1.149 31 1.156 1.163 1.170 1.178 1.184 1.192 1.199 1.206 32 1.213 1.220 1.227 1.234 1.241 1.248 1.256 1.263 33 1.270 1.227 1.285 1.292 1.299 1.306 1.314 1.321 34 1.328 1.336 1.343 1.356 1.358 1.365 1.372 1.378 35 1.387 1.395 1.402 1.410 1.417 1.425 1.432 1.440 Flow per Inch of Weir Width (cfs) To use the table,determine the depth of water in inches above the post notch.The table lists flow for each inch of weir width.To establish total flow,multiply the volume flow rate by width,in inches,of the weir notch. This wn give the stream flow rate in cubic feet persecond, While the weir is in place,readings can be taken at convenient intervals.If the weir will be in place for any extended period of time,it is important to frequently check the watertightness of the sides and bottom. Note:Wetr econstructton should only be undertaken with appropriate permits.Contact Division of Land and Water Management (DNR)and other agenctes referenced in Sec- tton III. HEAD LOSSES The greater the vertical distance water falls the more potentially useful power is available from it.For high head systems,detailed topographical maps of the area may give some indication of the vertical height difference between proposed intake and tailwater levels.The degree of accuracy attainable from map readings is limited,so this technique should only be used for very preliminary estima- tions. More comprehensive methods of head measurement are necessary for both the independent developer and those who wish to interconnect to an existing electrical grid.In the former case,when minimum flow values are known and power needs have been calculated,a design head can be computed to determine an approximate intake location.The basic hydro power equation given earlier solves for kW capacity: p =Qx .xe where =design capacity in kW flow in cfs head in feet system efficiency 1.8 =conversion factor for water density oa-DTO"wonae Vw Rewriting the equation to solve for H produces the follow- ing: .11.8 xP Qxe Theoretically,provided topography and other factorswerefeasible,the design head could then be located for further conceptual examination. H Where head is subject to variation to satisfy design requirements,more precise methods of measeurements areavailable.Several of these are given below. METHODS FOR MEASURING HEAD @ Estimating Head Through Water Pressure Head and water pressure are directly proportional: E foot of head =.433 Ibs per square inch (psi) Using this relationship,head can be measured in relatively short river increments using a static pressure gage and hose.A gage with 0.1 psi accuracy and hose of less than 20 feet are required. Starting at the tailrace location of the turbine or other power unit,the hose is submerged so water flows freely through it.The upper end of the hose ought to have an elbow joint attached to direct the opening to 90°from the upstream direction in order to compensate for effects from water velocity.The lower end then has the pressure gage attached for a measurement. Noting the location of the upper end of the hose,successive measurements and readings are taken until the intake location is reached.The sum of all the readings divided by .433 equals pool-to-pool head in feet. h P +P 9 +P n433 where h =head in feetP=individual measurements n =number of measurements 33 =pressure per foot of head @ Photographic Surveying For those who are acquainted with photographic surveying techniques,this method of head measurement can give fairly accurate results.Pictures taken in the field can be developed and the elevations scaled on the photo- graphs.But caution --this is not a method for amateurs. Photographic surveying requires some skill and training. Altimeter Measurements Pocket altimeters can give preliminary estimations of the elevation difference between intake and tailwater lo- cations on proposed high head systems.The accuracy of these measurements is not suitable for any serious calcula- tions. Larger portable altimeters tend to be very expensive, but enable elevation measurements to an accuracy of a couple of feet.These instruments are suitable for engineering calculations and can be rented from retail outlets for surveyor's equipment. Surveying A surveyor can be hired to determine the head.The surveyor will calculate the vertical distance between watersource,or proposed intake location,and the proposedlocationofthepowerplant.Because this approach may be expensive,reasonable assurance of carrying through with the project is recommended.If the head is less than 25 feet, very precise measurements are required and a surveyor is advisable. If you know how to use standard surveying equipment(transit or a surveyor's level and leveling rod),borrow orrenttheequipmentandgetafriendortwotohelpyoumake the necessary measurements. Level &Tape Measure Another do-it-yourself technique involves a carpenter'slevel,some sort of table to raise the level a few feet off the ground,and a tape measure.The assistance of a secondpersonmayalsoberequired.The "plane table and aledaide"method is described below and shown in the following illustration: CARPENTER'S LEVEL NX H=HEIGHT OF LEVEL FROM SURFACE OF WATER RECORD HEIGHTS ABl AB2 _FEET AB3 FEET Set the level on the stand;make sure the level is horizontal (level)and that its upper edge is either at the same elevation as the water source, or a known vertical distance above the water surface (height of the stand plus width of level). Sight along the upper edge of the level to a spotonanearbyobject(tree,rock,building)that is further downhill and which can be reached for mea- suring. Level &Tape Method START AT PLACE WHERE WATER INTAKE WOULD OCCUR uaMEASURING STICK HELDSTRAIGHTUPBY2NDPERSON STOP MEASURING AT PLACE WHERE POWER FACILITY WOULD GO sose A3 FEET FEET TOTAL DROP eeeIN ELEVATION - SUBTRACT HEIGHT - OF LEVEL ABOVE WATER AT 1ST H cee MEASUREMENT eee TOTAL ELEVATIONDROPOR"HEAD" I.13 3.Note this precise spot on the object and mark it(point A in the diagram). 4.Move the level and stand down the slope and set it up again so that this time the upper edge of the level is at some point B,below point A on the first object,as shown in the drawing.Mark this point B and measure and record the vertical distance A to B.Now sight along the upper edge of the level in the opposite direction to another object that is further downhill. 5.Repeat this procedure until the elevation of the proposed power plant site is reached. 6.If more than one set up was required,add all the vertical distances A-B.If the first set up was above the water surface,subtract the vertical distance between the water surface and the upper edge of the level from the sum of the vertical distances.You now have the total head. e You do not need to be concerned with horizon- tal distances for head determination. e Every time you re-set the level,its upper edge should be at precisely the same level asPointB(sight back to check). e You need not travel in a straight line. HEAD &SYSTEM LOSSES @ Penstock Effects Once total or gross head has been determined,variouslossesmustbeconsideredbeforefurthertheoreticalpower calculations can be made.The net head is required for these calculations. Gross Head -Losses =Net Head Losses occur through friction and are greater as flowvelocityincreasesorpipediameterdecreases.Variation inslope,intake and valve constrictions,and the turbine itself may all contribute to some inherent head loss,butthemostsevereareaofconcernisrelatedtothepipeor penstock.A brief discussion of pipeline hydraulics isfollowedbyoneavailablemethodtocalculatepipelossesandappropriatesizing. Most hydroelectric installations involve the transport of water through a pressure line or penstock to the turbine. The flow of water in a pipe is measured as the average velocity multiplied by the cross sectional area.Once a pipe size is chosen,the cross sectional area of the pipe isfixedandthereforeanincreaseinwatervolumethroughthe pipe requires a proportional increase in water velocity. The increased water volume and subsequent velocity increase results in some head loss and a decrease in pressure at the turbine. In a high-head situation one can tolerate an increased head loss and perhaps use a smaller size pipe,saving money on the penstock.The maximum economical head loss possible in a penstock seems to be approximately 1/3 of the total available head.In a low-head situation it is necessary to size the penstock for minimal head loss to limit affects on power production. The Hazen Williams Nomogram provides a method for determining pipe solutions,if three of the parameters in the nomogram are known.In a typical application,the flow is known and the type of pipe is chosen,leaving the size of pipe to be determined.The Hazen Williams Nomogram found on page 73 simplifies determination of a pipe diameter if head loss,quantity of water,and the value of pipe friction factor "C"are known.While this nomogram is based on a limited range of experimental data,the degree of accuracy is well within the design requirements necessary in small hydropower installations. A rough idea of pipe size is determined by the equa- tion: D =F (qv) where D=Inside diameter of Pipes inches or (centimeters)Q =Flow,cfs,(m/sec) * Examples provided courtesy of Lou Butera,from "Hydroelectric PipelineHydraulicsforthePrivateUser",Sourcebook published by Conservation and Renewable Energy,Inc.,6th Alaska Alternative Energy Conference,1985. V =Desired velocity,(5 ft/sec)typical,and will usually not exceed 10 ft/sec. F =Conversion Factor 13.5 (English units)1.1 (Metric units) The diameter and the known flow are entered as points on the left side of the nomogram and connected with a straight line extended across the center line or pivot point.A value of "C",the Hazen Williams Coefficient,is chosen from Table A.1 based on the type of pipe being used. A line drawn connecting the coefficient value with the pivot point will intersect the values of velocity and head loss. The value of head loss is per 1000 feet of pipe and there- fore is adjusted to represent the head loss for the particu- lar length of pipe. Table A.1 HAZEN WILLIAMS COEFFICIENT "C" Material "cr Polyethlene 140 P.V.C.150 Fiberglass 150 Steel (new)140 Steel (worn)120 Example A.1 -Use of Hazen Williams Nomogram Given:Required Flow =6 cfsLengthofPipe:600 feet P.V.C.pipe Choose a pipe diameter to accommodate the flow.What are the velocity and head loss? D =13.5 (6/5) =14.8 inches (round to 14 inches,a common pipe size) Entering the nomogram at Q =6 cfs D =14 inches C =150 it is seen that:Velocity Head Loss 5.5 feet per second 5 feet per 1000 feet Pipeline Head Loss =OG0 x 600 ft =3 feet (in 600 ft) This solution is just one of many possible combinations of pipe diameter,velocity and head loss.The proper choiceofpipediameter,once the Hazen Williams Nomogram is mastered,is a matter of economics. Example A.2 Your hydroelectric site provides plenty of water;115 feet of head is available over a 2500 foot length of pipe run.You have available an old 6"steel mining pipe.How much water is available at the nozzle to determine your power potential? Solution:Power =Llow(cfs Li Net Head (ft) The absolute maximum hydraulic power output of a pipeline is where the head loss is equal to 1/3 of the totalhead,producing the highest suitable water velocity. Assuming head Loss =1/3 x 115'=38 feet. 'Head Loss per 1000 Feet =ay x 1000 =15'=§ ("S"is the head loss per 1000 feet,located along thefarrightcolumnofthenomograph). Entering the Nomographic Chart at S =15 and C =120,the pivot point is obtained and a line drawn connecting the pivot point to 6"diameter pipe yields a flow of 0.8 cfs or 350 gallons per minute. Therefore,the power at the nozzle = 0.8 cfs x (115-38)ft 11.8 - =5.22 kW It should be noted that this is the power calculated from a preliminary net head.This power will]be reduced due to valve constrictions,pipe bends,and intake head losses. Use of 1/3 head loss for pipe calculations should also belimitedtopiperunsthathaveafairlyuniformslope.Apiperoutethatvariesinslopewouldintroducecomplexflow problems at this maximum water velocity. Example A.3 A low head site has the following fixed parameters: Head -20 feet Length of pipe -100 feet Mean flow rate -12 cfsWwnroreo©eIn this case with 20 feet of head,little head loss can be tolerated through the 100 foot section of pipe.The penstock must be sized to deliver 12 cfs flow with minimal head loss,therefore a large penstock and low flow velocity should be selected.; Example A.4 A high head site has the following fixed parameters: 1.Head -100 feet 2.Length of pipe -600 feet 3.Mean flow rate -2.0 cfs 4.Power required (at nozzle)-15.0 kW 5 Polyethylene penstock - QxH_2.0 x 100 _Power 118 118 16.9 kW In this case the theoretical power (not considering anyheadloss)at the nozzle is 16.9 kW;therefore,the gross effective head can be reduced by pipe friction losses to the point where 15 kW is produced at the turbine nozzle as required.The amount of head necessary to produce 15 kW is calculated as: _11.8 x 15 kW>-cfs =88 feetH A head loss of 100 -88 =12 feet of head in 600 feet of pipe is the maximum head loss allowable.This is equivalent to: Sootese *1000 =20 feet/1000 feet (head loss)=S Referring to the Hazen Williams Nomogram todeterminepenstocksize,one draws a line connecting a headlossof20feet/1000 feet with the coefficient of C =140 for polyethylene pipe,extending the line to the center lineorpivotpoint.A line drawn from the pivot point to therequiredflowcapacitywillcrossthepipesize.In thiscasewitha2cfsflowratean8inchpipewouldbere- quired. ” nmOHDA o7+w onoae Toschaulsus feesshu inFili (desusfssslyysefasslul FhiliI,Tsuba] "14.0001 Yad 1334 - GV3H JO SSO - 3did JO 3dOTS-§ 1N3145309 NOILDINS -3 FLOW OF WATER IN PIPES HAZEN WILLIAMS NOMOGRAPHIC CHART JANI LOAId < GNOO3S 43d 1334 - MOTS JO ALIDOTZA--- A 7 o COaaonr ow + ty] N -aoro ww<¢ Cy] N o a = coe 8 : ; 4 ° ° ° 8333b=4o o o JLANIN Yad SNOTIVD "SN -0 §8s¢gs¢s8§8888g ge .y,. «aw f lL.bitinlLTrereiaLtTreertL 'boltht 1irrefaveL| aOeaaeNea ee £27 8 © " e2288 GNOO38 Y3d 1334 SIGNS SOYVHOSIG -O , : 2 Sones oan ao *¢© © 0 * Labi tittttds udilida l:tit.t || S3HONI - LINGNOS JO YALSNVIG -G ra - rioh -, a Los, meee iene, a, "em io oe a. A Nomograph to Determine Losses Due FLOW ==uu aoO©ioe Se3002500 -E-2000 200=1500150==1000 100 -4-800_ 80 - 4-600 +50eo °° 40-t-300 30-E+200 20--150 =100 10--808 -60od6--ye5*) 4 30 253 20 2 15 10 to Friction in PVC Pipe PIPE SIZE (160PSIPVCPIPE)1.14a FRICTION HEADLOSSINFEET_..PER100FT.OFPIPEVELOCITY an5dititititWbibitbttittthtt!haro)©°>°a°bd°onNoOFEETPERSECOND|diditi)aN™Ses kkkekkkkkekr In summary,the steps to follow to determine the hydro potential of a site are: 1.Measure the water flow rate using one of the following: available or extrapolated data, timed container filling method, float method, -weir method.4]Determine the usable flow,with attention to minimum flow and possible development of a flow duration curve. Measure the total or gross head, =pressure method, -surveyor's equipment, =carpenter's level and stand. Determine the net head by subtracting friction and other losses from the gross head. Calculate the theoretical power available using Peh =TBE Calculate the useful power available by multi- plying theoretical power by the efficiency of each piece of machinery linked into the system between and including the water wheel or turbine and the unit giving out the useful power.oot APPENDIX B SOURCES OF INFORMATION Most state and federally funded research-project reports are distributed throughout Alaska and retained in depository libraries. Studies include reconnaissance and feasibility investigations which may contain specific information about potential hydroelectric sites.For instance,the Corps of Engineers has identified over 250 sites of which approximately 50 were looked at in more detail.Many of thesemaybebeyondthescopeofamicrohydrodeveloper,yet may stil} provide information suitable to early investigations. @ Alaska State Depository Libraries are listed below: Rasmuson Library,University of Alaska,Fairbanks University of Alaska,Anchorage,Library Alaska State Library,Juneau Anchorage Municipal Library Noel Wien Memorial Library,Fairbanks Alaska Resources Library,Anchorage,Federal Building Ketchikan Public Library Sheldon Jackson College Library,Sitka Northwest Community College,Nome A.Holmes Johnson Public Library,Kodfak Kenai Community Library University of Alaska,Juneau,Library The Alaska Power Authority and the Division of Community Develop- ment,Department of Community and Regional Affairs,also have librar- jes which are available to the public.The Power Authority library is not a general circulation type;resources cannot be checked out unless duplicates exist.The Energy Library at the Division of Community Development allows materials to be circulated. @ Alaska Power Authority 701 &.Tudor Road,2nd Floor Anchorage,Alaska 99503(907)561-7877 Hours:8:00 a.m.-4:30 p.m.,Monday thru Friday @ Energy Library Division of Community Development 949 E.36th Avenue,4th Floor Anchorage,Alaska 99503 Hours:10:00 a.m.-2:00 p.m.,Monday thru Friday APPENDIX B SOURCES OF INFORMATION Most state and federally funded research-project reports are distributed throughout Alaska and retained in depository libraries.Studies include reconnaissance and feasibility investigations which may contain specific information about potential hydroelectric sites.For instance,the Corps of Engineers has identified over 250 sites of which approximately 50 were looked at in more detail.Many of thesemaybebeyondthescopeofamicrohydrodeveloper,yet may still provide information suitable to early investigations. @ Alaska State Depository Libraries are listed below: Rasmuson Library,University of Alaska,Fairbanks University of Alaska,Anchorage,Library Alaska State Library,Juneau. Anchorage Municipal Library Noel Wien Memorial Library,Fairbanks Alaska Resources Library,Anchorage,Federal Building Ketchikan Public Library Sheldon Jackson College Library,Sitka Northwest Community College,Nome A.Holmes Johnson Public Library,Kodfak Kenai Community Library University of Alaska,Juneau,Library The Alaska Power Authority and the Division of Community Develop- ment,Department of Community and Regional Affairs,also have librar-jes which are available to the public.The Power Authority library is not a generat.circalation type;resources cannot be checked out unless duplicates-exist.-.The Energy Library at the Division of CommunityDevelopmagt:allows materials to be circulated. 'Peder Road,2nd FloorAnchorage,Alaska 99503(907)561-7877 Hours:8:00 a.m.-4:30 p.m.,Monday thru Friday @ Energy Library Division of Community Development 949 E.36th Avenue,4th Floor Anchorage,Alaska 99503 Hours:10:00 a.m.-2:00 p.m.,Monday thru Friday 77 |Recommended Resources” @ MICROHYDROPOWER HANDBOOK,VOL I &II Prepared by:E.G,&G.Idaho,Inc. P.O.Box 1625 Idaho Falls,ID 83415 Prepared for:U.S.Department of Energy,1983 Available from:National Technical Information Service 5285 Port Royal Road Sprinafield,VA 22161 j Phone:(703)487-4650 Price:Vol.I,428 pp,$32.50|Vol.II,408 pp,$31.00 | This two-volume handbook should be required reading for anyone iseriouslyconsideringasmallmicro-hydro installation.It containschaptersondesign,equipment,safety requirements,construction,installation,economic considerations,and a thorough discussion of Tegal,institutional,and environmental considerations.Supporting { documentation and examples are also included. @ HOW TO BUILD AND OPERATE YOUR OWN SMALL HYDROELECTRIC PLANT Prepared by:George ButlerPublisher:Tabs Book 1417,1982 Price:$11.95 A good story mostly of George Butler's construction of a hydro-electric power plant fn Vermont.George exhibits true yankee ingenu-ity in the bookes he scrounges parts and more importantly enlists theservicesofanelectricalengineertohetphimdesignthesystemcomprisedofapumpdrivinganinductiongenerator(metor).Includedareanumberofusefulcircuitdiagramsforcontrolandpowerwiring.of data is not available in similar books.The induction TI only work when connected into a system with a synchronouswhichwillcontrolthespeedandsupplyreactivepower.ItwiffFnotworkforanisolatedstand-alone system. "courtesy of Earle Ausmann,P.E.,and the National Center for Appropriate Technoloay @ HARNESSING WATER POWER FOR HOME ENERGY Prepared by:Dermot McGuigan Publisher:Garden Way Publishing Co.,1978Price:$6.75 A well written 100-page book which has a little of everything in it.It is well worth the price just for the pictures which include a number of typical installations.The book,however,suffers from lack of detail as to the design and construction of a small power plant, and should not be the only book bought on the subject. @ LOW-COST DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL WATER-POWER SITES Prepared by:H.W.Hamm Published by:VITA 80 S.Early Street Alexandria,VA 22304 (703)823-6966 Price:$5.75 This 43-page booklet gives detailed information for every step intheprocessofdevelopingsmall-scale hydro power sites.Descriptions are included of water wheels,a small 12-inch diameter crossflow turbine and the Pelton Wheel.Small earth dam construction is alsocovered. @ ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY Published by:Alternative Sources of Energy,Inc.-107 S.Central Avenue Milaca,MN 56353(612)983-6892 ASE is published bi-monthly and is directed toward the indepen-dent power production community.Issues are often exclusively devotedtosmallhydrodevelopmentincluding:financing,bid preparations,manufacturers references,and case studies.Subscriptions are main-tained at_the Energy Library,Division of Community Development,Anchora he Alaska Power Authority Library,and are likely to befounding?te:libraries. ace. 79 @ NATIONAL AFPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY ASSISTANCE SERVICE (NATAS) U.S.Cepartment of Energy P.O.Eox 2525 Butte.Montana 59702-2525 (800)428-2525 NATAS provides information and technical assistance on eneray related appropriate technologies.A toll free number is available for callers to contact Information Specialists who may refer you to in-house technical and financial specialists.More detailed written responses are often provided as follow-up.Most of NATAS technical assistance falls within the following service types: selection or composition of systems or components design assistance troubleshooting systems and components engineering analysis. In the area of microhydro development NATAS has provided assise tance in penstock sizing material,generator sizing,power and energycalculations,and financing.Their staff includes civil engineers familiar with design and construction. @ APPLICATION PROCEDURES FOR HYDROPOWER LICENSES,AMENDMENTS,EXEMPTIONS &PRELIMINARY PERMITS . Published by:Federal Energy Regulatory Commission 1120 Southwest 5th Avenue Suite 1340 Portland,Oregon 97204 This booklet is published in loose-leaf form in a three ringbindertoaccomodateupdating.All the information necessary to applyforalicenseerexemptionfsincluded,making it essentfal readingforhydroelectricpowerdevelopers...- |Bibliography (Please note that "small-scale"hydro references may likely pertain to Lower 48 standards, perhaps the size of Tyee or Terror Lake at 20MW installed capacity) 80 «AVOIDED COSTS AND UTILITY INTERCONNECTION Cost Estimating Guidebook for Interconnec- tions between Electric Utilities and Small Power Producers Qualifying Under PURPA.Oraft,Washington,OC,U.S. Department of Energy,1982. Celler,Howard S.,The Interconnection of Cogenerators and Small Power Producers to a Utility System:Equipment Costs. Self-Reliance Inc.,Washington,DC,1982. James,Jeffrey and Gilbert A.McCoy,Devel- oping Hydropower in Washington State:An Electricity Marketing Manual.Washington| State Energy Office,WAOENG-81-02/2, Olympia,WA1982. Patton,J.B.,Survey of Utility Cogeneration Interconnection Practices and Cost.U.S. Department of Energy,DOE/RA/29349-01, Washington,DC,1980. COST ESTIMATING Brown,H.M.,Simplified Methodology for Economic Screening of Potential Low-Head Smail Capacity Hydroelectric Sites. Electric Power Research Institute,Report EM-1679,Palo Alto,CA,1981. Building and Operating a Small-Scale Hydro- electric Power-Ptant.Prepared by Ott Water Engineersy;Continuing Education in Engineering,University Extension, University of California,Berkeley,1983. Simpliffed Methodology For Economic Analysis of Potential Low-Head Small-Capacity Hydroelectric Sites.Tudor Engineering Co.January 1981.Prepared for Electric Power Research Institute,3412 Hillview Avenue,Palo Alto,CA 94304,$9.75. U.S.Army Corps of Engineers,Hydropower Cost Estimating Manual.Portland,OR, North Pacific Division,U.S.Army Corps of Engineers,1979b. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS Hildebrand,S.C.,et.al.,Analysis of Environmental fssues Related to Small Scale Hydroelectric Development:Design Considerations for Passing Fish Upstream Around Dams.Oak Ridge National Labo- ratory,ORNL-1TM-7396, Jassby,Alan 0.,Environmental Effects of Hydroelectric Power Development. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, October 1976. Loar,J.M.,et.al.,Amalysis of Environ- mental issues Related to Small-Scale Hydroelectric Development 1,Dredging. Oak Ridge National Lab,Oak Ridge,TN, 1980, Loar,James M.and Michael J.Sale,Analy- sis of Environmental Issues Related to Small Scale Hydroelectric Development: Instream Flow Needs for Fishery Resour- ces.Oak Ridge National Laboratory,Oak Ridge,TN,ORNL/TM-7861,1981. Turbak,Susan C.,et.al.,Analysis of Environmental Issues Related to Small- Scale Hydroelectric Development:Fish Mortality Resulting from Turbine Pas- sage.Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ORNL-TM-7521,January 1981. FINANCING &ECONOMICS Brown,Peter W.,A Manual for Development of Small Scale Hydroelectric Projects by Public Entities.The Energy Law Insti- tute,Franklin Pierce Law Center,Cor- cord,NH,DOE/CE/08934-45,March 1981. Brown,Peter W.,The Financicg of Private Small Scale Hydroelectric Projects.The Energy Law Institute,Franklin Pierce Law Center,Concord,NH,DOE/CE/04934044, 1981, Goodwin,Lee M.,The Itmpact of Recent Federal Tax Legislation on the Renewable Energy Industry.The Renewable Energy Institute,November 4,1982. Immediato,C.S.,"The Hydro Money Game: Meeting the Challenge of Finance."Hydro Review,Vol.1,No.1,Spring 1982,pp. 12-1h, Proaction Institute,"Financing Hydropower Development.”Michigan State University, 206 Urban Planning Building,East Lansing,Michigan,48824. U.S.Department of Energy,"Financing of Private Small Scale Hydroetectric Proj- ects."National Technical Information Service,U.S.Dept.of Commerce 5285 Port Royal Road,Springfield,Virginte,22161. U.S.Department of Energy,"Pendemental Economic Issues in the Development of Small Scale Hydro.”January 30,1979 Report RA-23-216,00.0.00-20,Natfonal Technical Informatton Service,Spring- field,Virginia,22161, LICENSING AND PERMITTING - y of Permits.Book Publishing ;Westlake Avenue North, Alaska Df Company,- Seattle,' Federal Energy feguistory Commission, Application Procedures for Hydropower Licenses,Exemptions and Preliminary Permits.Washington,OC,1962. U.S.Office of Federal Register,Codes of Federal Regulations,Title 18,Conserva- tion of Power and Water Resources,Part 1 to 149,Part 149 to End. POWER PURCHASE CONTRACTS Loehr,William,Cuide to Negotiations between Small Power Producers and Utili- ties.Colorado Small Scale Hydro Office, State of Colorado,February 1982. Marker,Gordon,"Negotiation of Long Term Power Contracts."Hydro Review,Vol.1, No.1,Spring 1982,pp.5-15. Thaxter,Lipez,Stevens,Broder,and Micoleau,Key Provisions of a Sample Purchase Power Agreement.National Allfance for Hydroelectric Energy, Washington,DC. SITE ASSESSMENT U.S.Army Corps of Engineers,National Hydroelectric Power Resources Study: Regional Assessment.Western Systems Coordinating Coune?#?,WR 82-H-22, prepared by the North Pacific Ofvisfon, -Portland,OR,1981, U.S.Army Corps of Engineers,"Regional Inventory &Recor Study for Smal!Hydro- power Projects."Seven volumes on Alaska prepared by Ebasco Services,inc., October,1980. U.S.Department of Energy,"Pacific North- wast:Smet?Scale Hydroelectric Resource and Site Ranking Information -Alaska." prepsred by Center for Engineering, April,1981. Klingmen,Peter C.,"Assessing Stream Potential for Backyard Hydropower." September,1960.Water Resources Research institute,Oregon State Univer- sity,Corvallis,Oregon,97331. PROJECT DESIGN Alward,Ron,Sherry Efsenbart,and John Volkman,Micro-Hydro Power:Reviewing an Old Concept.Butte,MT,The National Center for Appropriate Technology,1979. Breslin,W.R.,Small Michell (Banki)Tur- bine:A Construction Manual.Vita,Inc., 1979,80 S.Early Street,Alexandria,VA 22304 Brown,Ruben S.and Alvin S.Goodman,Site Owners Manual for Small Scale Hydropower Development in New York State.Report No.79-3,Albany,NY,State Energy Re- search and Development Authority,1980. Durali,Mohammad,Design of Small Water Turbines for Farms and Small Communities. Prepared for the United States Agency for International Development,Massachusetts institute of Technology,Cambridge,MA, 1976. Eden,Leslie,"The Equipment File:Profiles of Hydroelectric Equipment Suppliers." Hydro Review,Vol.1,No.2 &4 and Vol. 11,No.2&4, Frontier Energy:Appropriate Technology {fn Alaska,1979-1984.Prepared by Alaska Department of Community &Regfonal Affairs for USDOE,1985, Gladwell,John Stuart,Small Hydro:Some Practical Planning and Design Considera- tions.Idaho Water Resources Research Institute,Moscow,Idaho,1980. Harm,H.W.,Low-Cost Development of Small Water-Power Sites.Vits,805.Early Street,Alexandria,VA,22304. Klfingeman,Peter -.and Creg Wheeler,Mi cro-Hydropowet®.Oregon Development Guide.Extenst@e Circular 1096,Oregon State University Extension,Corvallis, OR,1982. McCoy,Gilbert A.,Micro-Hydroelectric Generating Equipment:Directory of Water Turbine Manufacturers and Distributors. Washington State Energy Office,WAOENG- 82-31,August 1982. Mark,Vic.,Cloudburst Ii.Cloudburst Press, Ltd.,Maine Island,British Columbia, Canada,VON 2J0. McGuigan,Dermot,Harnessing Water Power for Home Energy Use.Gorden Way Publishing Co., School House Road,Pownal,VT,05261,1978. Merrill,Richard &Gage,Thomas,Energy Primer.Portola Institute,1978 (Out of Print). Moore,B.&Gladwell,J.S.,"Microhydro,A Bibliography.”Idaho Water Resources Research Institute,University of Idaho. Noyes,Robert,Small and Micro Hydroelectric Power Plants:Technology and Feasibility. Energy Technology Review No.60,Noyes Data Corporation,1980. , U.S.Department of Interior,Design of Smal} Dams.U.S.Government Printing Office, Superintendent of Documents,Washington, OC,20402. U.S.Department of Energy,Microhydropower Handbook,Vol.{|&JI!.EG&G,Idaho, P.0.Box 1625,Idaho Falls,83415,1983. U.S.Department of Energy,Manual for Devel- opment of Small Scale Hydroelectric Pro- jects by Public Entities.March 1981, National Technical Information Service, U.S.Department of Commerce,5285 Port Royal Road,Springfield,VA,22161. U.S.Department of Energy,Pumps-As-Turbines Experience Profile.Prepared by EC&G Idaho, Idaho Falls,10,1D0-10109. Walters,Richard N.and Carlos C.Bates, Selecting Hydraulfte Reaction Turbines. Engineering Monograph No.20,Bureau of Reclamation,Denver,CO,October 1976. Warnick,C.C.,Hydropower Engineering.Pren- tice Hall,Englewood Cliffs,NJ,1984. 82 83 STREAMFLOW 1NFORMATION Klingeman,Peter C.,et.al.,Streamflow Data Requirements to Assess Micro-Hydropower Potential for Smal! Rainfall:Regime Basins in Western Oregon.Water Resources Research institute,Oregon State University, Corvallis,OR,September 1982. "Alaska Index:Stream Flow &Water Quality Record to September 30,1983."Open File Report 85-332.U.S.Geological Survey. "Floed Characteristics of Alaskan Streams," R.D.Lamke.Water Resources Investigation 78-128,U.S.Ceological Survey. Warnick,C.C.,et.al.,Assessment of the Usefulness of Hydrologic Data for Hydro- power Fwasibitity Analysts.Ideho Water and Energy Resources Reeserch Institute, June,1962., MANUFACTURERS LITERATURE Small Hydroelectric Guide,Small Hydroelec- tric Systems and Equipment,5141 Wicker- sham,Acme,WA,98220. MicroHydro Turbines,James Leffel &Co.,426 Ease Street,Springfield,OH,45501. APPENDIX C HYDROPOWER EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS AND HARDWARE SUPPLIES' Allis-Chalmers Fluid Products Co.BSC Brown Boveri Corporation Hydro Turbine Division 1460 Livingston Avenue Box 712 North Brunswick,NJ 08902 a,b York,PA 17405 (717)792-3511 Birbsboro Corporation 100 Lindberg P12 #2 Almanor Machine Works Co.5160 Wily Post Road 413 Arbutus Drive Salt Lake City,UT 84116 Lake Almanor,CA 96137 (801)532-2520 a (916)596-3959 a Bouvier Hydropower,Inc.” Amtech 12 Bayard Lane 467 Oceanside St.,Islip Terrace Suffern,NY 10901 New York,NY 11752 (914)357-2189 (516)581-5262 a Canyon Industries Arbanas Industries 5346 Mosquito Lake Road 24 Hill Street Deming,WA 98224 Xenia,OH 45385 (206)592-5552 a (513)372-1884 a,b Cart CG.Srimmekamp &Co.,Inc. Associated Electric Co.,Inc.102 Hamilton Avenue 54 Second Street "Stamford,CT 06902 Chicopee,MA 01020 (203)325-4101 (413)781-1053 C.MacLeod Corporation Axel Johnson Engineering Corp.P.0.Box 286 666 Howard Street :Glenmore,PA 19343 San Francisco,CA 94105 (218)858-8133 (415)777-3800 Cornell Pump Co. Barber Hydraulic Turbine 2323 SE Harvestor Drive P.0.Box 340 :Portland,OR 97222 Port Colborne,Ontarto (503)653-0330 a CANADA L3K 5W1 (416)834-9303 1 An additional comprehensive directory of equipment manufacturers,developers and turn-key opera- tors {s contained in the perfodical,"Alternative Sources of Energy"July/August 1985,ASE issue #74, Key to Annotations:a -likely sources of mfcrohydro turbines b -penstock supplier Dominion Bridge Sulzer,Inc. P.O.Box 280,Station A Montreal,Quebec CANADA (514)634-3551 Eagle River Hydro P.O.Box 1113 Bellingham,WA 98227 (206)592-5148 Energy Research &Applications 1820 14th Street Santa Monica,CA 90404 (213)452-4905 Energy Systems &Design P.O.Box 1557 Sussex,New Brunswick CANADA EOE 1 PO (506)833-5748 a Essex Development Associates 110 Tremont Street Boston,MA 02109 (617)&51-1103 Essex Turbine Co. Kettle Cove IndustrialPark Magnolia,MA 01930 (617)525-3423 a Fairbanks Mill Contracting. North Danville Village , RFD 2 St.Johnsbury,VT 05819 (802)748-8094 Flygt Corporatten 129 Glover Avenue Norwalk,CT 06856 (203)846-2051 Fugi Electric Corporation of America 727 W.7th,#235 Los Angeles,CA 90017 (213)622-4490 a F.W.E.Stapenhorst,Inc. 283 Labrosse Avenue Pointe Claire,Quebec CANADA (514)695-8230 Golt Energy Systems 73 Water Street North,Unit 502 Cambridge,Ontario CANADA NIR 7G6 (519)623-1390 Cilkes Pumps,Inc. P.0.Box 528 Seabrook,TX 77586 (713)474-3016 a Han-A Corporation 921 W.6th Avenue,Suite 190 Anchorage,AK 99501 (907)272-1181 Hayward Tyler Pump Co. P.O.Box 492 80 Industrial Parkway Burlington,VT 05402 (802)863-2351 Hitachi America,Ltd. 950 Elm Avenue San Bruno,CA 94066 (415)872-1902 a HobbyKraft Box 71 Deje 660 92 SWEDEN Hydro-Generation,Inc. 101 Casa Buena Drive,Suite F Corte Madera,CA 94925 (415)926-4534 Hydro-Tech Systems,Inc. P.O.Box 82 Chattaroy,WA 99003 (509)238-6810 a Hydrolec North America,Inc. 925 Leroy-Somer Blvd. Grandby,Quebec CANADA J2G 8E2 (514)378-0151 a Hydro Watt Systems,Inc. 146 Siglun Road Coos Bay,OR 97420 (503)267-3559 a Hydro West Group,f[nc. 1200 112th Street,NE Suite 102A Bellevue,WA 98004 (206)453-1106 b Hydro West of California,Inc. P.O.Box 765 Alamo,CA 94507 (415)820-8326 Independent Power Company 20092 Oak Tree Road N.San Juan,CA 95960 (916)292-3754 a Ingersoll-Rand P.0.Box 486 Phillipsburg,NJ 08865 (201)859-7000 James Leffel &Co. 426 East Street Springfield,OH 4&5501 (513)323-6431 Korea Hydro-Power Development Co.,Ltd. Room 307 Hanyung Building 130-9 Seosomun-Dong.Chung-Ku, Seoul,KOREA Kvaerner-Moss,Inc. 800 Third Avenue New York,NY 10022 (212)752-7310 Layne &Bowler,Inc. P.0.Box 8097 Memphis,TN 38108 (901)278-3800 a McKay Water Power,Inc. P.O.Box 221 West Lebanon,NH 03784 (603)298-5122 a Micro Hydro,Inc. P.O.Box 1016 Idaho Falis,I'D 83401 (208)529-1611 NEEDS,Inc.. 71 North Pleasant Street Amherst,MA 01002 (413)256-0465 a,b New England Energy Development Systems, Ine. 109 Main Street Amherst,MA 01002 (413)256-8468 New Found Power Co.,Inc. P.0.Box 576 Hope Valley,RI 02832 (401)539-2336 a Neyrpic Hydro Power,Inc. 969 High Ridge Road Box 3834 Stamford,CT 06905 (203)322-3887 Northwest Energy Systems P.O.Box 925 Malone,WA 98559 (206)482-3966 a Northwest Water Power Systems P.O.Box 19183 Portland,OR 97219 (S03)288-1297 86 Obermeyer Hyd.Turbines Ltd. 10 Front Street Collinsville,CT 06022 (203)693-4292 a,b Ossberger Turbines,Inc. 5709 South Laburnum Avenue Richmond,VA 23231 (804)226-9180 Alaska Sales Representative: Stenor of Alaska,tne. 203 W.15th Anchorage,AK 99501 (907)279-6942 a Oriental Engine &Supply Company 251 High Street Palo Alto,CA 94301 (41S)325-0925 a,b Page Hydro Power Systems 228 Melrose Court towa City,1A 52240 (319)354-9506 Phillip C.Ellis R.0.7,Box 125 Reading,PA 19606 (215)779-2135 Schnetder Engine Co. Rt.1,Box 81 Justin,TX 87248 (817)648-2293 Small Hydro East Star Route 24@. Bethel,ME _ (207)826-3200 @» Small Hydroelectric Systems and Equipment 5141 Wickersham Acme,WA 98220 (206)595-2312 3 Sunny Brook Hydro P.O.Box 425 Lost Nation Road Lancaster,NH 03584 (603)788-4777 a Voest-Alpine International Corp. Lincoln Building 60 E.42nd Street New York,NY 10165 (212)661-1060 Waterwheel Erectors Ltd. P.O,Box 246 Weeland ONT CANADA (416)735-5512 a Worthington Division of McCraw-Edison 5310 Tarrytown Pike Tarrytown,MO 21787 (301)756-2602 ” HYDROELECTRIC CONTROL SYSTEMS Applied Power Technology Co. P.0.Box 666 Fernandina Beach,FL (617)547-7020 Barbour Stockwell Co. 296 Third Street Cambridge,MA 02142 Basler Electric Company P.O.Box 269 Highland,!L 62289 (618)654-2341 Beckwith Electric Co.,Inc. 11811 62nd Street,North Largo,FL 33543 (813)535-3808 Carling Turbine Blower Co. Carlson Bidg.,&Nebraska Street P.0.Box 88 Worcester,MA 01613 (617)752-2896 Digitek,Inc. P.0.Box 468 Kenmore,WA 98028 (206)485-6571 Fist Devices,Ine. 101 Packard Road Stow,MA 01775 (617)897-5091 Cloval Technology Corp. R.0.,3,Box 3155 Shelburne,VT 05482 (802)985-2912 KGM Machine &Tool Co.,Inc. 805 Henderson Bivd. Folcroft,PA 19032 (215)586-7430 McGraw-Edison Co, Service Group,Supply Operations 333-T Rt.46 Fairfield,NJ PACS tndustries,Inc. 61 Steamboat Road Great Neck,NY 11022 (516)829-9060 Satin American Corp, 40 Oliver Terrace P.O.Box 619 Shelton,CT 06484 (203)929-6363 Siemens-Allis,Inc. P.O.Box 2168 Milwaukee,WI 53201 (414)&75-2759 Tech Development,Inc. 6801 Poe Avenue Dayton,OH 45414 Voest-Alpine Int.Corp. Lincoin Bullding 60 E.42nd Street New York,NY 10165 (212)661-1060 Wegner Machinery Corp. 35-43 Eleventh Street Long Island City,NY 11106 (212)278-8406 88 3.I am interested in supplying my own electrical needs.I want to be 89 SAMPLE REQUEST FORMAT FOR HYDROPOWER EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS (DATE) GENTLEMEN: I am interested in installing a microhydropower system.The followingsitespecificationsaresuppliedforyourevaluation.Please review the specifications and answer any appropriate questions concerning your equipment. My Name:Address: Phone No.() Project Name: I.REASON FOR DEVELOPMENT (Check One) | 1.I am interested in supplying my own electrical needs.I do not plan to intertie with a utility.Therefore,I will require a synchronous generator. 2.I am interested in supplying my own electrical needs.When my needs are less than the energy produced,I would consider selling to a utility.However,I want to be able to generate power independent of a utility.I therefore require a synchronous generator and speed control equipment. able to sell excess power to a utility.An induction generator is acceptable since I do not care to generate power independent of theutility. 4,I am interested in generating as much power as possible for the dollar fayested.However,I want a synchronous generator so that Icangengyatepoweriftheutilityserviceisinterrupted. 5.I am interested in generating as much electrical power as possibleforthedollarinvested.I am not interested in generating indeperdent of the utility.ee=i|* Courtesy of USDOE II.TYPE CF SQURCE AND AMOUNT OF HEAD (Check One) 1.The site is a run of the stream or river site and can have a pool- to-pool head from to feet. 2.The site is an existing dam and has a constant/variable pool-to-pool head of to feet. 3.The site is a canal drop/industrial waste discharge and has a pool-to-pool head of feet. III.AMOUNT OF FLOW (Check One) 1.The flow values are based on the attached flow duration curve. 2.The flow value is based on a minimum stream flow of cfs. This is because my objective is to supply my energy needs as much of the year as I can. 3.The flow is available months out of the year and is fairly constant at cfs. 4.The flow values are based on monthly averages in cfs: Jan.May Sept. Feb.Jun.Oct. Mar.Jul.Nov. Apr.Aug.Dec. 5.Other:See V-9,Additional Information IV.PERSOM ROWER NEEDS (for independent systems) Ac *the daily load use table is attached.The daily peak load is estimated ta be kW.Major electrical equipment is listed below. The voltage I need is ,and is single/three phase. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION 1.Site location and stream name Name of local utility Distance to nearest substation is miles. The quality of the water is usually clear/murky/silt Jaden/muddy. Site elevation is feet. Annual average temperature variation is from to °F, A sketch of the site is/is not included. Existing structures or equipment that should be used,if possible, include The proposed diameter and length of the penstockare (leave blank if not known):inches in diameter,feet in length.. ” Additional information to be considered APPENDIX D AGENCY DIRECTORY 92 FEDERAL AGENCIES @ Federal Energy RegulatoryCommission(FERC) 1120 Southwest 5th Avenue Suite 1340 Portland,Oregon 97204(503)294-5840 '@ Federal Energy RegulatoryCommission(FERC) 825 N.Capital Street Washington,D.C.20426(202)727-1830 Attention:Regulatory Branch, NPACO-R P.0.Box 898 Anchorage,Alaska 99506-0898(907)753-2712 @ U.S.Environmental ProtectionAgency 701 C Street,Box 19 Anchorage,Alaska 99513(907)271-5083 me@U.S.Department @ Agriculture Cooperative Extensfon Service 2221 East Northern Lights Suite 240 Anchorage,Alaska 99502(907)279-5582 Cooperative Extension Service 1514 S.Cushman Room 303 Fairbanks,Alaska 99701 (907)452-1530 @ Alaska District Corps of Engineers Cooperative Extension Service P.O.Box 109 Juneau,Alaska 99801 (907)586-7102 Soil Conservation Service 201 E.9th Avenue,Suite 300 Anchorage,Alaska 99501-3687 (907)261-2426 Forest Service: Forest SupervisorChugachNational Forest | 201 E.9th Avenue Anchorage,Alaska 99501(907)261-2500 Forest Supervisor Chatham Area Tongass National Forest P.0.Box 1980 Sitka,Alaska 99835 (907)747-6671 Forest Supervisor Stikine Area Tongass National Forest P.0.Box 309 Petersburg,Alaska 99833(907)772-3841 Forest Supervisor Ketchikan Area Tongass National Forest Federal Building Ketchikan,Alaska 99901 (907)225-3101 @ National Weather Service National Climatic Data Center Federal Building Asheville,NC 28801-2696 (707)258-2850 @ U.S.Department.of the Interior @ Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation Bureau of Land Management Anchorage District Office 4700 E.72 Avenue Anchorage,Alaska 99507(907)267-1200 District Manager Fairbanks District Office 1541 Gaffney Road Fairbanks,Alaska 99703 (907)356-2025 National Parks Service Regional Director Alaska Regional Office 2525 Gambell,Room 107 Anchorage,Alaska 99503(907)261-2688 © U.S.Geological Survey Water Resources Division 4230 University Drive Anchorage,Alaska 99508-4664(907)271-4138 Bureau of Reclamation P.0.Box 2553 316 N.26th Billings,Montana 59103 STATE AGENCIES @ Alaska Department of Commerce andEconomic§avelopment Alaska Powdi”AuthorityP.0.Box 196869 Anchorage,Alaska 99519-0869(907)561-7877 Permit Information and Referral Center 437 E Street,Suite 200 Anchorage,Alaska 99501(907)279-0254 Northern Region Permit Information P.O.Box 1601 Fairbanks,Alaska 99707 (907)452-2340 Southeast Region Permit Information P.0.Box 240 Juneau,Alaska 99803 (907)465-2670 @ Alaska Department of Fish and Game Regional Habitat Protection Supervisor Southeastern Regional Office 230 South Franklin Street Juneau,Alaska 99801 (907)465-4107 Southcentral Regional Office 333 Raspberry Road Anchorage,Alaska 99501(907)344-0541 Central Regional Office 1300 College RoadFairbanks,Alaska 99701 (907)452-1531 @ Alaska Department of Natural Resources Division of Land and Water Management Southeastern District Office 400 Willoughby Center, 4th Floor P.O.Box MA,Juneau 99811 (907)465-3400 Haines Area Office P.0.Box 263 Haines,Alaska 99827 (907)766-2120 Ketchikan Area Office P.O.Box 7438 Ketchikan,Alaska 99901 (907)225-4181 Northcentral District Office 4420 Airport Way Fairbanks,Alaska 99701 (907)479-2243 Delta Area Office P.O.Box 1149 Delta Junction,Alaska 99737 (907)895-4226 Southcentral District Office 3601 C Street, P.O.Box 7-005 Anchorage,Alaska 99503(907)349-4524 Mat-Su Area Office P.0.Box 328 Big Lake,Alaska 99688(907)892-6027 Kenai Peninsula Area Office P.0.Box 1130 Soldotna,Alaska 99669 (907)262-4124 94 Copper River Area Office P.O.Box 185 Glennallen,Alaska 99588 (907)822-5535 @ Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities Right-of-Way and Land Acquisition Agent P.O.Box 196900 Aviation Building Anchorage,Alaska 99519-690C (907)266-1621 Right-of-Way and'Land Acquisition Agent 1201 Peger Road Fairbanks,Alaska 99701 (907)452-1911 Right-of-Way and Land Acquisition Agent Valdez See Fairbanks Right-of-Way and Land Acquisition Agent Nome See Fairbanks Right-of-Way and Land Acquisition Agent P.O.Box Z Juneau,Alaska 99811 (907)465-3900 e@ Office of the Governor Office of Management and BudgetDivisionofGovernmental Coordination Juneau Office P.O.Box AM Juneau,Alaska 99811 (907)465-3562 95 Southcentral Regional Office 2600 Denali Street,Suite 700 Anchorage,Alaska 99503 (907)274-1581 Northern Regional Office 675 7th Avenue,Station H Fairbanks,Alaska 99701 (907)456-3084 @ University of Alaska Arctic Environmental Information & Data Center State Climatologist or Office of Program Development 707 A Street Anchorage,Alaska 99501(907)279-4523 "atheASSOCIATIONS e Independent Energy Producers | 1225 Eighth Street,Suite 285 Sacremento,CA 95814 e National Hydropower Association 1516 King Street Alexandria,VA 22314 e Northwest Small Hydroelectric Association P.O.Box 7528 Bend,OR 97708 96 APPENDIX E LEXICON APA APUC AVEC CFR cfs DEC DCRA occs DNR DOE DOT EIS FAA FCC FERC kW kWh MW NEPA NOC OMB PURPA QF REA R/W USBR USC USDOE USFS USCS Alaska Power Authority,State Department of Commerce &Economic Development Alaska Public Utilities Commissfon Alaska Village Electric Cooperative Code of Federal Regulations Cubic feet per second Department of Environmental Conservation,Alaska State Department of Community and Regional Affairs,Alaska State Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys,Alaska State DNR Department of National Resources,Alaska State Department of Energy,Federal Department of Transportation,Alaska State Environmental Impact Statement Federal Aviation Administration (U.S.Dept.of Transportation) Federal Communications Commiss{fon Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (U.S.Dept.of Energy,formerly Federal Power Commission Kilowatt Kilowatt hour Megawatt (equals 1,000 kilowatts) National Environmental Policy Act Notice of Construction Office of Management &Budget,Alaska State Office of the Governor Public Uttlity Regulatory Policies Act,Federal Qualifying FacilityRuralElectrification Administration(U.S.Dept.of Agriculture) Right-of-Way U.S.Bureau of Reclamation (U.S.Dept.of Interior) United,States Code U.S.-of EnergyUniteditatesForestService (U.S.Dept.of Agriculture)U.S.Gidlogical Survey (U.S.Dept.of Interior) Amortization Anadromous Fish Average Load Avoided Cost efs Capacity Capital Costs Collection Point Critical Streamflow Debt Service Oemand Diversion Energy Feasibility Study *.= -yeFederalEnergy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Firm Power Generation Point GLOSSARY The process of paying off a debt with periodic equal payments. Fish,such as salmon,which ascend rivers from the sea at certain seasons to spawn. The hypothetical constant load over a specified time period that would pro- duce the same energy as the actual load would produce for the same period. The amount of money which a utility saves when it uses electricity produced by a small producer rather than generating the electricity itself. Cubic feet per second; minute). a measure of waterflow (icfs =450 gallons per The maximum power output or load for which a turbine-generator,station,or system fs rated. Development costs during project planning,design,and construction. The upstream location where water is diverted into the penstock. The amount of streamflow available for hydroelectric power generation during the most adverse streamflow period. Principal and interest payments on the debt used to finance the project. See Load. See collection point. The potential for performing work.The electrical energy term generally used fs kilowatt-hours and represents power (kilowatts)operating for some time pertod (hours). An investigation performed to formulate a hydropower project and definitely assess its desirability for implementation. An agency in the U.S.Department of Energy which licenses non-federal hydro- power projects and regulates interstate transfer of electric energy. Formerly the Federal Power Administration. In marketing the energy from a hydroelectric project,the seller cannot assume delivery of any more power than ¢s continuously available in minimal or critical water years.This power,of which delivery can be assumed even under worst-case circumstance,is called firm power.- The downstream spot where water moves through the turbine and electricity is generated. Generator Cigawatt (CW) Head,Cross Hydropower Plant Impulse Turbine Induction Generator Installed Capacity Kilowatt (kW) Ki lowatt-Hour (kWh) Load Load Curve Load Factor Megawatt (MW) Megawatt-hours (Mw) Nomograph Peak Demand Peak Load A machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Cne million kilowatts. The difference {fn elevation between the headwater surface above and the tailwater surface below a hydroelectric power plant. An electric power plant in which the turbine/generators are driven by falling water, Units which use the velocity of the water to move the runner.Discharge is at atmospheric pressure so that the water falls out of the turbine housing. Most widely used in the microhydro range of applications. An induction motor used as a generator by operating {t at speeds faster than it would operate as a motor. The total capacities shown on the nameplates of the generating units in a hydropower plant. One thousand Watts. The amount of electrical energy used to satisfy a one kilowatt demand over a period of one hour. The amount of power needed to be delivered at a given point on an electric system,or demand for power. A curve showing power (kilowatts)suppifed,plotted against time of occur- rence,and illustrating the varying magnitude of the load during the period covered, The ratio of the actual average load to the peak or maximum load occurring during a designated time. One thousand kilowatts. the thousand kilowatt-hours. * A set of scales for the variables in a problem arranged so that a straight line connecting the known values will provide intersections on other scales and solve unknown values. Peak demand is the maximum demand in kilowatts for a given period.For example,the annual peak demand is the maximum demand tn kilowatts that occurs within a years the daily peak demand is the maximum demand fn kilo- watts that occurs within a given day. The maximum load {n a stated period of time. 98 99 Penstock Plant Factor Pondage Power Power Factor Pumped Storage Riparian Habitat Reaction Turbine Reconnaissance Spinning Reserve Streamflow Synchronous Generator System,electrté Tailrace Term Transmission Turbine The pipe that water moves through between the collection and generation points. Ratio of the average load to a plant's installed capacity expressed as an annual percentage. The amount of water stored behind a hydroelectric dam of relatively small storage capacity and used for daily or weekly regulation of the flow of a river. The rate of doing work.Electric power refers to the generation or use of electric energy,usually measured in kilowatts. The percentage ratio of the amount of power,measured in kilowatts,used by a consuming electric facility to the apparent power measured in kflovolt- amperes. An arrangement whereby electric power is generated during peak load periods by using water previously pumped into a storage reservoir during off-peak periods, Habitat found on or near stream or river banks. Units with runners directly in the water stream with power developed by water flowing over the blades.Pressure rather than velocity drives the runner. A preliminary study designed to ascertain whether a feasibility study is warranted, Generating units operating at no load or at partial load with excess capacity readily available to support additional load. The movement of water ina stream or river. A generstor capable of operating in a stand-alone system providing 60 cycle power,It provides its own excitation current through either a rectifier or an external DC generator or battery system. The physically connected generation,transmission,distribution system,and other facilities operated as an integral unit. Channel of discharged water from the turbine draft tube to the river or stream, The duration of a loan,usually measured in years. The act or process of transporting electric energy in bulk. A hydraulic motor.The part of a generating unit which is spun by the force of water or steam to drive an electric generator.The turbine usually cor- sists of a series of curved vanes or blades on a central spindle. Turbine/Generator Turbine Efficiency Watt Wheeling A rotary-type unit consisting of a turbine and an electric generator. The ratio between the actual power output of the turbine and the theoretical power output for a "perfect"turbine.Efficiency can refer to the turbine by itself,or to the plant as a whole,including the generator and any gear box, clutch or similar unit.In this report,efficiency refers to the power production of the plant as a whole. The rate of energy transfer equivalent to one ampere under a pressure of one volt. Transportation of electricity by a utility over its lines for another utili- ty,including the delivery to another system of like quantities but not necessarily the same energy. 100 APPENDIX F CONVERSION TABLES Volume U.S.Cubic Cubic Unit Liters Gallons Feet Meters Acre-Feet 1 Liter =1 0.264 0.035 0.001 8.11x10°7 1U.S.Gallon =3.785 1 0.134 0.00379 3.07x10°° 1 Cubic Foot (62.4 Ibs.water)=28.317 7.48 1 0.0283 2.30x10°5 1 Cubic Meter =1,000 264 35.315 1 8.11x1074 1 Acre-Foot =1,233,500 325.851 43,560 1,233.5 1 1 U.S.Gallon =231 cubic inches =0.83 impenai Gallons. 1 Liter =1,000 cubic centimeters =1.06 quarts =1,000 grams of water. Rate of Flow Unit gem cts mgd cum/sec 1U.S.Gallon per Minute (gpm)=1 0.00223 0.00144 6.31x10°5 1 Cubic Foot per Second (cfs)=449 1 0.646 0.0283 1 Million U.S.Gallons per day (mgd)=694 1.55 1 0.044 1 Cubie Meter per Second (cu m/sec)=1§,800 35.3 22.8 1 1U.S.Gatton per Minute for 1 Year =1.614 acre-feet. 1 Cubic Foot per Second =1.96 acre-feet per day =724 acre-feet per year. 1 Acre =43,580 square feet (209 x 209 feet)=0.406 hectare. 1 Hectare =10,000 square meters =2.5 acres (approximatety). Energy Unit j ft-lb BTU Keal hp-he KWH 1 Joule =1 0.7376 ”9.481x10°¢2.3860x10°*3.725n10°7? 2.778x10°' 1-Foot-pound =1.366 1 1.285x 10°?3.239x10°*5.061x10°? 3.766x10°' 1BTU =1,088 777.9 1 0.252 3.929x10°*=2.930x10°4 1 Kilocatorie =4,186 3,067 3.968 1 1.859x10°?--1.163x 10°? 1 Horsepower-hour =2.686x 10°1.980x10*2,546 641.4 1 0.7457 1 Kilowatt-hour =.3.6210 2.665x10°3,413 860.1 1.341 1 1 KWH is generated by 0.96 acre-feet of water falling 1 foot (at 100%efficiency). 1 joule ©1 watt-second. Power (Energy rate of flow) Unit BTU tr ft-1®/sec hp Kw 1 BTU/hour =1 0.2161 3.9292 10°*2.930x 10° 1 Foot-pound/second =4.628 1 1.818x10°3 1.356 10°¢ 1 Horsepower =2,545 §50 1 0.7457 1 Kilowett s 3.413 737.6 1.341 1 1 KW is generated by 11 8 cfs of water falling 1 foot (at 100%efficiency). 1 Watt =1 soule per second.